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2.5 Time Varying Fields
Table of Contents:
Electromagnetic Induction .......................................................................................................... 2
Faraday’s Law .......................................................................................................................... 2
Electromotive Force ................................................................................................................ 2
E = ∫E·dr ................................................................................................................................... 2
Integral and Differential Forms of Faraday’s Law ................................................................... 3
Mutual and Self Inductance .................................................................................................... 3
Transformers ........................................................................................................................... 4
Energy in a Static Magnetic Field ............................................................................................ 5
Maxwell’s Displacement Current ............................................................................................ 5
Maxwell’s Equations ............................................................................................................... 5
Electromagnetic Field Energy Density .................................................................................... 6
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Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s Law
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that a time-varying magnetic flux through a
circuit induces an electromotive force (EMF) in the circuit. The induced EMF is equal to the
negative rate of change of the magnetic flux:
𝑑𝛷𝐵
ℰ=−
𝑑𝑡
Where 𝛷𝐵 is the magnetic flux through the circuit:
⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑆
𝛷𝐵 = ∫𝐵
𝑆
The negative sign in Faraday’s law is a manifestation of Lenz’s law, which states that the
induced current flows in a direction such that it opposes the change in magnetic flux that
produced it.
Electromotive Force
Electromotive force (EMF) is the energy per unit charge that is converted from non-electrical
forms into electrical energy. In the context of electromagnetic induction, EMF is the work done
per unit charge to move charges against the electric field induced by the changing magnetic
flux.
The EMF around a closed loop is:
ℰ = ∮𝐸⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙
𝐶
Where 𝐸⃗ is the electric field and 𝐶 is the closed loop.
E = ∫E·dr
The line integral ∫𝐶 𝐸⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑟 represents the work done per unit charge by the electric field along a
path 𝐶. When the path is closed, this integral gives the EMF:
ℰ = ∮𝐸⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑟
𝐶
For a time-varying magnetic field, this EMF is related to the rate of change of magnetic flux by
Faraday’s law.
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Integral and Differential Forms of Faraday’s Law
Integral Form
The integral form of Faraday’s law is:
𝑑
∮𝐸⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = − ∫𝐵 ⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑆
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑆
Where 𝐶 is a closed loop and 𝑆 is any surface bounded by 𝐶.
Differential Form
Using Stokes’ theorem, the integral form can be converted to the differential form:
⃗
𝜕𝐵
𝛻 × 𝐸⃗ = −
𝜕𝑡
This equation is one of Maxwell’s equations and shows that a time-varying magnetic field
induces a non-conservative electric field.
Mutual and Self Inductance
Mutual Inductance
Mutual inductance 𝑀 characterizes the coupling between two circuits. When the current 𝐼1 in
circuit 1 changes, it induces an EMF in circuit 2:
𝑑𝐼1
ℰ2 = −𝑀
𝑑𝑡
Similarly, a changing current in circuit 2 induces an EMF in circuit 1:
𝑑𝐼2
ℰ1 = −𝑀
𝑑𝑡
The mutual inductance is defined as:
𝛷21 𝛷12
𝑀= =
𝐼1 𝐼2
Where 𝛷21 is the magnetic flux through circuit 2 due to current 𝐼1 in circuit 1, and vice versa.
For two circuits with 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 turns:
𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑀 = 𝜇0 √
2𝜋 𝑑
Where 𝑟1 and 𝑟2 are the radii of the circuits and 𝑑 is the distance between them (assuming 𝑑 ≫
𝑟1 , 𝑟2).
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Self Inductance
Self inductance 𝐿 characterizes the EMF induced in a circuit due to changes in its own current:
𝑑𝐼
ℰ = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡
The self inductance is defined as:
𝛷
𝐿=
𝐼
Where 𝛷 is the magnetic flux through the circuit due to its own current 𝐼.
For a solenoid with 𝑁 turns, length 𝑙, cross-sectional area 𝐴, and filled with a material of
relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 :
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑁 2 𝐴
𝐿=
𝑙
For a toroid with 𝑁 turns, inner radius 𝑎, outer radius 𝑏, and height ℎ:
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑁 2 ℎ 𝑏
𝐿= ln ( )
2𝜋 𝑎
Transformers
A transformer is a device that uses electromagnetic induction to transfer electrical energy
between two or more circuits. It consists of two or more coils wound around a common core.
The primary coil, connected to an AC source, creates a time-varying magnetic flux in the core.
This flux induces an EMF in the secondary coil according to Faraday’s law.
For an ideal transformer with 𝑁𝑝 primary turns and 𝑁𝑠 secondary turns:
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
=
𝑉𝑝 𝑁𝑝
𝐼𝑠 𝑁𝑝
=
𝐼𝑝 𝑁𝑠
Where 𝑉𝑝 and 𝑉𝑠 are the primary and secondary voltages, and 𝐼𝑝 and 𝐼𝑠 are the primary and
secondary currents.
The power is conserved in an ideal transformer:
𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠
Real transformers have losses due to: 1. Copper losses (I²R heating in the windings) 2.
Hysteresis losses in the core 3. Eddy current losses in the core 4. Flux leakage (not all flux links
both coils)
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Energy in a Static Magnetic Field
The energy stored in a magnetic field is:
1
𝑈 = ∫𝐵 ⃗ ⋅𝐻
⃗ 𝑑𝑉
2 𝑉
⃗ = 𝜇𝐻
For a linear material with 𝐵 ⃗:
1 𝜇
𝑈= ∫ 𝐵 2 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝐻 2 𝑑𝑉
2𝜇 𝑉 2 𝑉
For a circuit with inductance 𝐿 carrying current 𝐼:
1 2
𝑈= 𝐿𝐼
2
This energy is stored in the magnetic field created by the current.
Maxwell’s Displacement Current
In his equations, Maxwell introduced the concept of displacement current to ensure the
consistency of Ampere’s law with the continuity equation for electric charge. The displacement
current density is:
𝜕𝐸⃗
𝐽𝐷 = 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡
The total current density is then:
𝜕𝐸⃗
𝐽𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐽 + 𝐽𝐷 = 𝐽 + 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡
This modification to Ampere’s law ensures that the divergence of the current density is
consistent with the rate of change of charge density, as required by the continuity equation.
Maxwell’s Equations
Maxwell’s equations are a set of four partial differential equations that describe how electric
and magnetic fields are generated and altered by each other and by charges and currents:
1. Gauss’s Law for Electricity:
𝜌
𝛻 ⋅ 𝐸⃗ =
𝜖0
2. Integral form:
𝑄𝑒𝑛𝑐
∮𝐸⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑆 =
𝑆 𝜖0
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3. Gauss’s Law for Magnetism:
⃗ =0
𝛻⋅𝐵
4. Integral form:
⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑆 = 0
∮𝐵
𝑆
5. Faraday’s Law of Induction:
⃗
𝜕𝐵
𝛻 × 𝐸⃗ = −
𝜕𝑡
6. Integral form:
𝑑
∮𝐸⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = − ∫𝐵 ⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑆
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑆
7. Ampere’s Law with Maxwell’s Addition:
𝜕𝐸⃗
⃗ = 𝜇0 𝐽 + 𝜇0 𝜖 0
𝛻×𝐵
𝜕𝑡
8. Integral form:
𝑑
⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 + 𝜇0 𝜖0
∮𝐵 ∫𝐸⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑆
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑆
These equations, along with the Lorentz force law, form the foundation of classical
electromagnetism.
Electromagnetic Field Energy Density
The energy density in an electromagnetic field is the sum of the electric and magnetic field
energy densities:
1 1 2
𝑢 = 𝑢𝐸 + 𝑢𝐵 = 𝜖0 𝐸 2 + 𝐵
2 2𝜇0
For a material medium with permittivity 𝜖 and permeability 𝜇:
1 1 2
𝑢 = 𝜖𝐸 2 + 𝐵
2 2𝜇
The total energy in a region of space is:
1 1 2
𝑈 = ∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ ( 𝜖0 𝐸 2 + 𝐵 ) 𝑑𝑉
𝑉 𝑉 2 2𝜇0
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