Nationalism in

Europe (1789-1848)
 1.Nation-state: The region in which the majority of its citizens, and
not only its rulers,came to develop a sense of common identity and
shared history or descent.

2. Plebiscite: A direct vote which gave power to the people of a

region to accept or reject a proposal.

3. Absolutist: A government or system of rule without restraints on

the power exercised.

4. Utopian: An imaginary ideal society which principally doesn’t

exist.

5. Suffrage: The right to vote.

6. Conservatism: A political philosophy that stressed the

importance of tradition, established institutions and customs, and
preferred gradual development to quick change.

7. Feminist: Awareness of women’s rights and interests based on the

belief of the social,political and economic equality of genders.

8. Ethnic: The people of different identities living together sharing

common racial, tribal, orcultural origin or background.

9. Allegory: Expression of idea or thought through a person or a thing.

10. British nation: This amalgamation of different identities comprised of

English, Welsh,Scot or Irish lived in the British Isles.

TIMELINE:

●​ 1776: The American Declaration of Independence.

●​ 1789: The French Revolution occurred.
●​ 1797: Napoleon invaded Italy; Napoleonic wars began.
●​ 1814: The First Treaty of Paris: established a lenient peace with
France.
●​ 1814-1815: Fall of Napoleon; the Vienna Peace Settlement; Napoleon
escaped from Elba, gathered a new army, but was defeated at
Waterloo.
●​ 1821: Greek struggle for independence began.

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 ●​ 1832: Greece gained independence from the Ottoman Empire.
●​ 1831: Giuseppe Mazzini established Young Italy.
●​ 1859-1861: The unification of Italy.
●​ 1849-1878: The reign of Victor Emmanuel-II of Piedmont-Sardinia.
●​ 1852: Camillo Cavour became the premier of Sardinia-Piedmont.
●​ 1859: Piedmont and France defeated Austria; Piedmont annexed
Lombardy.
●​ 1861: The Kingdom of Italy was announced; Victor Emmanuel-II of
Piedmont- Sardinia became king of Italy.
●​ 1870: After France declared war on Prussia, Italy annexed Rome.
●​ 1866-1871: The unification of Germany.
●​ 1861-1888: Reign of King William-I of Prussia.
●​ 1867: Prussia created the North German Confederation.
●​ 1870-1871: Franco-Prussian War.
●​ 1871: The German Empire was formed; Germany annexed Alsace and
Lorraine.
●​ 1848: The Revolutions of 1848.
●​ 1905: Slav nationalism gathered force in the Habsburg and Ottoman
Empires.

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE IDEA

OF THE NATION
The French Revolution is regarded as one of the most important
events in history. It not only gave a huge setback to monarchy but
also gave the first clear expression to the idea of ‘nationalism’. The
French Revolution led to the transfer of sovereignty from monarchy
to the French citizens. The Constitution in France came into
existence and citizens were awarded with the rights of liberty and
equality.

The French revolutionaries introduced various measures and practices to

create a sense of collective identity amongst the French people. These
were:

●​ The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) was

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 introduced.
●​ he Estates General was renamed the ‘National Assembly’. Its
members were elected by active citizens (citizens who paid taxes to
the government).
●​ The new French flag replaced the former royal standard. Nation now
became supreme.
●​ Hymns were composed and oaths were taken on the name of the
nation. It was regarded as a ‘fatherland’.
●​ The administrative system was centralised, and uniform laws were
formulated for all citizens.
●​ A uniform system of weights and measures was adopted, and
internal custom duties and dues were abolished.
●​ The French language was made the common language of the
people residing in France.
●​ The revolutionaries declared that their next motive is to help other
people of Europe to become nations.

The French Revolution impacted the middle class including professionals

and students in several countries such as Switzerland, Holland, Italy and
Belgium. They also wanted to throw off the monarchies in their countries
and become nations

NAPOLEON – BEGINNER OF FRENCH

REVOLUTION

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The rise of Napoleon marked the rise of monarchy in France. However,
Napoleon implemented some revolutionary ideas and principles in France.
He did this by taking the following steps:

●​ He introduced the Civil Code of 1804, also known as the Napoleonic

Code. This Code instituted the principle of equality of all people
before the law, right to property was established and all privileges
enjoyed by the people of high birth and class were abolished.
●​ This Code was also promulgated to other parts of Europe which
were controlled by France.
●​ In many European countries such as Switzerland, Germany, Dutch
Republic and Italy, he simplified the administrative machinery,
ended the feudal system and liberated the peasants from serfdom.
●​ In towns, restrictions imposed on guilds were removed, and
transport and communication systems were improved.
Businessmen, small industrialists and traders began to realise
the importance and advantages of a uniform system of laws.

French armies were welcomed in many places such as Holland,

Switzerland, Brussels, Mainz, Milan and Warsaw but soon they turned

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hostile towards them as the French armies were oppressing them. There
were some other reasons also behind their dislike of French army.

The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

●​ Moreover, there were people who spoke

different languages.
●​ EASTERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE
were under autocratic monarchies within the
territories of which lived diverse people.
●​ GERMANY, ITALY, and
SWITZERLAND were divided into
KINGDOMS, DUCHIES, and
CANTONS. They were ruled by different
rulers. EASTERN AND CENTRAL

EUROPE was under autocratic kingdoms

within the territories of which lived diverse
people.

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 ●​ These people had nothing in common. They
did not share any COLLECTIVE

IDENTITY or a common culture. All of them

had different languages and were from
different ethnic groups.

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For example, the HABSBURG MONARCHY that
had its rule over AUSTRIA- HUNGARY was
composed of different regions and people.It
included Alpine regions- Tyrol, Austria,
Sudetenland and Bohemia.

●​ In these areas, the aristocrats were

German-speaking whereas it also included
Lombardy and Venetia where people spoke

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 Italian.
●​ On the other hand in Hungary half of the
population spoke Magyar while the other half
spoke a variety of dialects.
●​ In Galicia the aristocrats spoke Polish. Even
the peasants that lived in these areas were
from different ethnic groups.
●​ For example,there were Bohemians and
Slovaks in the north, Slovenes in Carniola,
Croats in the south, Roumans to the east in
Transylvania.

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So, now we can easily understand that there was
nothing common among these groups. The only
common thing was that they had loyalty to the
common emperor.

Therefore the question here arises is as to how

the idea of nationalism arose in these parts
then?

For that we have to first understand how the

society at these places was divided and what
were the issues faced by the common people.

SETTING UP OF JACOBIN CLUBS

Soon the news about French revolution spread to

various cities of Europe, students and other
members of educated middle classes began
setting up Jacobin clubs. Jacobins were those
revolutionaries who aimed to establish a republic
in their country by ending the King’s rule. The

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activities and campaigns of these clubs allowed
the French armies to move into Holland, Belgium,
Switzerland and much of Italy in the 1790s.

The Aristocracy and the New middle class

​The aristocrats were the rich class that was

a dominating class in Europe. The members
of this society had a common way of life.
​They were the owners of estates in the
villages and also big houses. They spoke
French and their families most of the time
had matrimonial alliances.

However, this group was small in number. The

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 major population is comprised of peasants.

​The western part of the land was farmed by

tenants and small owners whereas the Eastern
part and the land in central Europe was
cultivated by serfs.

During this time period the Western parts and

Central Europe experienced industrial growth.
There was growth of many towns and a group of
commercial classes emerged on the scene.

So during the nineteenth century new social groups

came into being.

They were a working class population and middle

classes made up of industrialists, businessmen and
professionals.

The idea of nationalism grew stronger among these

were the educated, liberal middle-class groups.

Till now we have discussed that people in different

parts of Europe wanted to have Liberal nationalism
in their countries.

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Here the question arises as to what exactly do we
mean by Liberal Nationalism?

What did Liberal Nationalism

stand for?

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During the early nineteenth century, the idea of
Nationalism and Liberalism were closely related
to the Europeans.

The word ‘liberalism’ is derived from the Latin

word ‘liber’, which means free. In Europe the new
middle class saw liberalism as freedom for the
individual and equality of all before the law.

They all stressed for the government elected by

the people.

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 ●​ Since French Revolution took place, the term
liberalism has taken shape into a new
meaning, the end of autocracy and clerical
privileges.
●​ It also meant the framing of constitution and

formation of government through parliament.

●​ Nineteenth-century liberals also laid stress
upon the right to property.
●​ Though people were granted equality before
the law, still the right to vote or suffrage was
not granted equally to all citizens.

Even in France when French revolution took

place and people were granted the right of
equality before the law, the right to vote was not
given to everyone.

Only the men with property had the right to vote.

Men without property and women were excluded

from this. It was only for a short period under
Jacobins that all adult men with or without
property enjoyed right to vote.

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 Napoleonic Era (1799-1815)

●​ The expansion of Napoleon’s empire had a

significant impact on various European
regions, contributing to both positive and
negative aspects of nationalism. When
Napoleon came into power and he
introduced Napoleonic code in 1804, the right
of suffrage was limited back to few members
of society.
●​ Under this code women were taken as minor
as they were subject to the authority of
fathers and husbands.So, they had no right
to vote. This led to various movements by
women and non-propertied men demanded
equal political rights.
●​ According to the business point of view,
liberalism meant freedom of markets and
abolition of various types of taxes on the
movement of goods and capital.
●​ The freedom of markets and abolition of
state-imposed restrictions was a huge
demand made by the new middle classes.

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 ●​ To understand this, we should take the
example of German-speaking regions in the
first half of the nineteenth century.
●​ There were about 39 princely states in this
region during the first half of the nineteenth
century.
●​ Each state had its own currency and weights
and measures. If a trader was traveling
from Hamburg to Nuremberg in 1833 to
sell his goods, he had to pay a customs
duty of 5 percent at 11 custom
barriers.
●​ Duties were levied according to the weight or
measurement of the goods. Each region had
different standards of weights and measures,
So, it took a lot of time to calculate the duty.

For Example, the cloth was measured in Elle

which was different in each region. At Frankfurt
the tax was charged less as the Elle there was
less whereas the tax charged at Nuremberg was
more because the Elle there was more as
compared to other regions.

All this led to the demand for the creation of

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unified economic territory by the various
business classes. So, that there could be smooth
movement of goods, people and capital from one
region to another.

●​ This demand results in the formation of a

customs union or zollverein. The demand for
Zollverein was first made by Prussia.

Later on German states also joined Prussia with

the same demand. The customs union abolished
the tariff barriers and reduced the number of
currencies from thirty to two.

●​ Railways were developed that harnessed

economic interested to national unification.
●​ The economic nationalism too strengthened
the nationalist sentiments during that time.
●​ While so many changes were taking place in
Europe, one more thing happened there that
made governments work towards the
philosophy of conservatism.
●​ Conservatism is a political view that favors
free enterprise, private ownership and
socially conservative ideas.

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What was that incident that brought the
philosophy of conservatism?
1.​Napoleon Bonaparte who had earlier
acquired major parts of Europe was defeated
in the Battle of waterloo in 1815. The battle
was fought between Napoleon and the forces
of Britain and Prussia.
2.​So when Napoleon was defeated, European
governments decided to establish
conservative form of government. The
conservatives believed that established
traditional institutions of state and society
such as the monarchy, the Church, social
hierarchies etc should be maintained as they
were.

Most of the conservatives believed that

modernization can strengthen traditional
institutions like monarchy. They had a view that
following changes can strengthen the autocratic
monarchies of Europe:

●​ Modern army
●​ Efficient bureaucracy
●​ Dynamic economy

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 ●​ Abolition of feudalism and serfdom

Congress of Vienna
(1814-1815):

The Congress of Vienna aimed to reorganize

Europe after the Napoleonic Wars, but it also
sparked nationalist movements as it rearranged
territories without considering the aspirations of
local populations.

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So, with this point of view, representatives of the
European powers such as Britain, Russia, Prussia
and Austria met in Vienna in 1815. This came to
be known as the Congress of Vienna. These were
those powers who had collectively defeated
Napoleon and they met at Vienna to draw up a
settlement for Europe.
The congress was hosted by the Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich. The
delegates drew up the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 which reversed most of the
changes that came in Europe during the Napoleonic wars (1799-1815).

Following were the important decisions taken by the Congress of Vienna:

1.​ Bourbon dynasty was restored to power; Louis XVIII was made the
Monarch of France.
2.​ France lost the territories it had acquired under Napoleon
3.​ A series of states were set up on the boundaries of France to
prevent French expansion in future.
4.​ Thus with the new arrangement some territorial changes were seen
such as the kingdom of the Netherlands, which included Belgium,
was set up in the north and Genoa was added to Piedmont in the
south.
5.​ Prussia which was given important new territories on its western
frontiers, while Austria was given northern Italy. On the other hand
the German confederation of 39 states that had been set up by
Napoleon was left untouched.
6.​ In the east, Russia was given part of Poland and Prussia was given a
part of Saxony.

The main aim behind this arrangement was to restore the

monarchies that had been taken over by Napoleon and create
conservative form of rulership in Europe.

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 ●​ The conservative rule formed in 1815 was oppressive. They were
highly intolerant towards criticism and disagreement.
●​ They started curbing down the activities against them.
●​ Even censorship laws were imposed on newspapers, books,
plays and songs that favored the idea of liberty and freedom
associated with the French Revolution.
●​ But all this could not stop various liberal activists from
criticizing the new conservative rule and they started seeking
for freedom of the press.

So, now we know that the conservatives had once again established the
rule of monarchs in Europe but………………

●​ did it stop the revolutionaries from demanding liberty and

nationalism?
●​ How did these revolutionaries work for their right of liberty?

THE REVOLUTIONARIES

1.​ After 1815, the fear of repression from the ruling conservative
class drove the liberal nationalists underground. They start
forming up secret societies in different European states.
2.​ The main aim of these societies was to spread the idea of
liberty and nationalism.
3.​ They were against the monarchical form of rulership that was
the result of the Vienna congress. Many of them were aimed to
create nation-states and made it an important part of their
freedom struggle.
4.​ Giuseppe Mazzini was one of these revolutionaries who was a
member of one of these secret societies. He was born in Genoa
in 1807.
5.​ He became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. At

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 the age of 24 he was sent into exile for attempting a revolution
in Liguria in the year 1831.

GIUSEPPE MAZZINI

●​ Later on Mazzini founded two more underground societies namely

Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne. The members
of this society were the like-minded young men from Poland, France,
Italy and the German states. Mazzini didn’t want Italy to be a
patchwork of small states and kingdoms.
●​ So, he made it his aim to unify Italy. For this he starts setting up
secret societies in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland.
●​ Mazzini’s non-stop opposition towards monarchy and his vision of

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 bringing democratic republics was a reason of fear among many
conservatives.

Metternich once had described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our
social order’.

So, now we know that revolutionaries had started their own attempts to
get rid of the conservative rule. But what happened next?

Next came the period of the Revolution in which various revolutionaries

fought for their rights and tried to free themselves from the clutches of
the conservatives.

THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS: 1830-1848

●​ Revolutionary Movements : 1830-1848

Various revolutionary movements and uprisings occurred across Europe

during the 1830s and 1848, expressing nationalist aspirations in different
regions.During this period, Europe witnessed great tension and unrest.
On one side conservatives were trying to become more powerful and on
the other side the revolutionaries were attempting hard to bring
liberalism and nationalism in Europe.

​ The Age Of Revolution

Revolutionaries who were mainly educated middle-class elites such as

professors, school teachers, clerks and members of commercial middle
classes started revolutionary activities in many regions of Europe such as
the Italian and German states, the provinces of the Ottoman Empire,
Ireland and Poland.

The first such incident took place in France in July 1830. The liberal

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revolutionaries overthrew the Bourbon Kings and at its place a
constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe as its head was established.

The July revolution led to an uprising in Brussels which resulted in the

separation of Belgium from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands

A major event that served for inculcating the nationalist feelings among
the educated elite across Europe was the Greek war of independence.

Greece was under the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century. Ottoman
Empire was formed at the end of the 13th century by Oghuz Turkish tribal
leader Osman.

●​ The independence struggle of Greece began in 1821

●​ The period between 1830–1848 is symbolised with the age of

revolutions. Revolution started in several regions of Europe such as
the Italian and German states, the provinces of theOttoman Empire,
Ireland and Poland.

●​ The first upheaval took place in France in July 1830.

●​ The Bourbon kings were now overthrown by liberal revolutionaries.

Louis Philippe was made a constitutional monarch.

●​ Belgium got separated from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.

The Greek war of independence started in 1821.

Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent

nation.

The Romantic Imagination and National Feeling

The notion of Nationalism did not come because of wars and territorial
expansion only, Culture also played a significant role in creating
awareness about the importance of nationalism.

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Various artists and poets took help of their poems, stories and music to
express and shape nationalist feelings.

This cultural movement carried by the poets, writers and artists came to
be known as Romanticism.

Romantic artists and poets were the criticizers of reason and Science.

To inculcate a sense of a shared collective heritage and common cultural

past they tried tried to focus on emotions, intuitions and mystical feelings.

Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) who was a German Philosopher and

Romantic favored that true German culture was to be discovered among
the common people.

He said that the true spirit of the nation can be popularized through folk
songs, folk dances and folk poetry.

So he stressed on the collection of these forms of folk culture as it was

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essential for nation-building.

1.​ The emphasis on vernacular language and the collection of various

folktales, folk poems etc served two purposes at a time. One was
recovering an ancient national spirit and another was to create
awareness about nationalism among the illiterate countrymen.

This proved to be suitable in the case of Poland. Poland was partitioned at

the end of the eighteenth century by Russia, Prussia, and Austria.

2.​ Though it didn’t remain as independent a territory artists such as

Karol kurpinski were able to to+9 national feelings alive in the hearts
of the common people through their artwork.
○​ Karol used to celebrate the national struggle through his
operas and music.
○​ This results in the formation of folk dances like polonaise and
mazurka into nationalist symbols.

3.​ One such attempt of collecting folk tales was done by the Grimm
brothers who had collected various folk tales by traveling to various
places.
○​ Grimm brothers who were active participants in the movement
for freedom of press saw French domination as a threat to
German culture.
○​ They believed that the folktales collected by them can serve for
the creation of German national identity.

Not only poems and stories played a crucial role in developing the
national sentiments among the people but language also played a greater
part in it.

​When Russia occupied Poland it forcefully imposed the Russian

Language in schools and churches.
​The Polish language was stopped. So, in 1831 an armed
rebellion against Russian rule took place which was however
crushed by the Russian rule.
​Following this many people, for example, the clergy in Poland

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 began to use the Polish language as their weapon of
resistance against the Russians. Polish began to be used for
all the Church gatherings.
●​ This resulted in the imprisonment of a large number of priests and
bishops. Some of them were sent to Siberia by the Russian
authorities for not using the Russian language to preach.

So, the use of the Polish language was seen as a part of the revolutionary
struggle against Russian dominance.

Though the 1830s is recalled as the year of revolutionary attempts in

Europe it is also recalled for the hardships and the hunger that struck
Europe.

HUNGER, HARDSHIP, AND POPULAR REVOLT

The 1830s were years of great economic hardship in Europe. The first half of
thenineteenth century saw an enormous increase in population all over Europe
which gaverise to unemployment.

Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live inovercrowded

slums.Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from
imports of cheapmachine-made goods from England, where industrialisation was
more advanced than on the continent.

This was especially so in textile production, which was carried out mainly in
homes or small workshops and was only partly mechanised.

In those regions of Europe where the aristocracy still enjoyed power, peasants

struggled under the burden of feudal dues and obligations.

The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in
town and country.

Food shortages and widespread unemployment brought the population of Paris

out on the roads.As a result of all these developments, barricades were erected
and Louis Philippe was forced to flee. A National Assembly proclaimed a
republic, granted suffrage to all adult males above 21, and guaranteed the right to

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work.

WEAVERS IN SILESIA Cotton weaving was the most widespread occupation. Still
the economic conditions of the workers were miserable. There were very less
jobs and they were underpaid. In hope of a positive change, on 4 June, 1845, a
large crowd of weavers revolted against their contractor demanding higher
wages. But they were treated harshly and forcefully sent back homes.

THE MAKING OF GERMANY AND ITALY

In the year 1848, a revolution led by the liberals (educated

middle classes) also took place. They made demands for
constitutionalism with national unification.

UNIFICATION OF GERMANY

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Nationalist feelings were widespread among middle-class
Germans, who in 1848 tried to unite the different regions of the
German confederation into a nation-state governed by an
elected parliament.

1.​ Prussia took on the leadership of the movement for national

unification. its Chief minister, Otto von Bismarck (followed
the policy of Blood and Iron), was the architect of this
process carried out with the help of the Prussian army and
bureaucracy.
2.​ Three wars over seven years - with Austria, Denmark and

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 France - ended in Prussian victory and completed the
process of unification. In January 1871, the Prussian king,
Willaim I was proclaimed German Emperor in a ceremony
held at Versaillies. On 18 January 1871, an assembly
gathered in the unheated Hall of mirrors in the Palace of
Versaillies to proclaim the new German Empire headed by
Kaiser William I of Prussia.

The new state placed a strong emphasis on modernising the

currency, banking, legal and judicial systems in Germany.

UNIFICATION OF ITALY

Like Germany, Italy, too had a long history of political

fragmentation. Italians were scattered over several dynastic
states as well as the multi-national Habsburg Empire.

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Like Germany, Italy, too had a long history of political
fragmentation. Italians were scattered

over several dynastic states as well as the multi-national

Habsburg Empire. During the middle of the nineteenth century,
Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one,
Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house. The
unification process was led by three revolutionaries—Giuseppe
Mazzini, Count Camillo de Cavour and Giuseppe Garibaldi.

Giuseppe Mazzini during the 1830s sought to put together a

coherent programme for a unitary Italian Republic. He
organised a new political society called Young Italy.

The failure of revolutionary uprisings both in 1831 and 1848

meant that the responsibility now fell on Sardinia-Piedmont
under its ruler King Victor Emmanuel II to unify the Italian
states through war.

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Count de Cavour now led the movement to unify the regions of
Italy. Through a tactful diplomatic alliance with France
engineered by Cavour, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in
defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.

NATIONALISM IN BRITAIN,

1.​ The history of nationalism in Britain was different from the

rest of Europe. Before the eighteenth century there was no
British nation. The people of different identities comprised
of English, Welsh, Scot or Irish lived in the British Isles.
2.​ The Act of Union of 1707 between England and Scotland
resulted in the formation of the
3.​ ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’. This led to the
demolition of Scotland’s distinctive culture and political
institutions. Ireland was forcibly included into the United
Kingdom in 1801.
4.​ This amalgamation led to the growth of a new, powerful
nation—‘British nation’. The symbols of the new
Britain—the British Flag (Union Jack), the national anthem
(God Save Our Noble King), the English language—were
actively promoted and the older nations survived only as
subordinate partners in this union.

Nationalist tensions emerged in the Balkans states.

The Balkans consisted of regions of modern day Romania,

Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-
Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia and Montenegro and their
inhabitants were broadly known as Slavs. A large part of

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 the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire.
When the Ottoman Empire collapsed, it initiated
nationalism in the Balkans states.

Gradually, its European subject-nationalities broke away from

its control and declared independence.

In the race of expanding their territories and imposing their

supremacy on each other, Slavic nationalities quickly got into
severe clashes and the Balkan area became an area of intense
conflict. It also became the scene of big power rivalry. This
finally led to a series of wars in the region which culminated
into the first world war that took place in 1914.

Important questions upcoming exam

1.​ How did Lord Byron contribute to the Greek war of

Independence ?

Lord Byron, an English poet, organised funds for the Greek

struggle against the Ottoman Empire and also
participated in the war.

2.​ What is Romanticism?

Romanticism refers to cultural movement that sought to

develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment through
emotions, folk songs, poetry and dances.

3.​ What is meant by das volk?

34 By-SAURAV SIR - THE RISE OF EUROPEAN NATIONALISM

 Das volk is a German word meaning common people.

4.​ Where was the Frankfurt Parliament convened?

The Frankfurt Parliament was convened at the Church of

St Paul.

5.​ Why did the middle class lose its support after the failure
of the Frankfurt Parliament?

The middle class lost its support after the failure of the
Frankfurt Parliament because they resisted the demands
of the workers and the artisans.

6.​ Who were referred as ‘Junkers’ in Prussia?

Junkers, in Prussia, the large land owning class.

7.​ Which state led the unification of Germany?

Prussia led the unification of Germany.

8.​ Who holds the credit of unifying Germany?

Otto von Bismarck holds the credit of unifying Germany.

9.​ Who was proclaimed the German Emperor in a ceremony

held at Versailles in January 1871?

Kaiser William I was proclaimed as the emperor of

Germany after its unification in 1871.

10.​Who headed Sardinia-Piedmont?

King Victor Emmanuel II headed Sardinia-Piedmont.

11.What was the result of the Act of Union (1707)?

The Act of Union 1707 resulted in the formation of United

Kingdom of Great Britain with the incorporation of

35 By-SAURAV SIR - THE RISE OF EUROPEAN NATIONALISM

 Scotland.

11.​Which Italian patriot organised a group of soldiers known

as ‘Red Shirts’?

Giuseppe Garibaldi, an Italian patriot, organised a group

of soldiers known as Red Shirts.

12.​What was Germania?

It was an allegory of Germany.

13.​Who were the Slavs?

The inhabitants of the regions under the Ottoman Empire

like modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece,
Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia
and Montenegro were called the Slavs.

14.​What made the Balkan area explosive?

The spread of romantic nationalism and disintegration of

Ottoman Empire made the Balkan area very explosive.

15.​What do you mean by nationalism?

Devotion, love, and patriotic feelings for one’s own nation

is called nationalism. It is a feeling of political
consciousness and unity among the people of a state.

16.​Duke metternich was the Chancellor of which country?

Duke Metternich was the Chancellor of Austria.

17.​What decisions were taken at the Congress of Vienna?

In France, the Bourbon dynasty was restored to power with

a number of states set up on its boundaries. Prussia was
given important new territories, Austria got control of

36 By-SAURAV SIR - THE RISE OF EUROPEAN NATIONALISM

 northern Italy and Russia was given part of Poland.

18.​Why 1830s were the years of great economic hardship in

Europe?

1830s were the years of great economic hardship in Europe

because of increase in population, unemployment,
migration, price rise, stiff competition in the market and
bad condition of peasants.

19.​What was the allegory of France called?

Allegory of France was called Marianne.

37 By-SAURAV SIR - THE RISE OF EUROPEAN NATIONALISM