Overview Of Nervous System Structure and its Functions

■ The (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord

■ The (PNS) consists of (SNS) & (ANS)
■ The somatic nervous system (SNS) consists of all the spinal and cranial nerves to and from
the sensory organs and the muscles, joints, and skin. The SNS produces movement and transmits
incoming sensory information to the CNS, including vision, hearing, pain, temperature, touch,
and the position and movement of body parts.
■ The autonomic nervous system (ANS) balances the body’s internal organs to “rest and
digest” through the parasympathetic (calming) nerves or to “fight and flee” or engage in vigorous
activity through the sympathetic (arousing) nerves.
The brain is divided into two hemispheres, each with specialized functions:

● Left Hemisphere: Responsible for language (speaking, writing, reading), logical

reasoning, problem-solving, math, and detail-oriented tasks.
● Right Hemisphere: Involved in creativity, emotions, visual-spatial tasks (like
recognizing faces or interpreting maps), and holistic, big-picture thinking.

Hemispheric Control: Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body. This is called
contralateral control:

● The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body (e.g., right arm, right leg).
● The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body.

Impact of Brain Damage: If damage occurs to the left hemisphere (e.g., due to a stroke or
injury), it can affect:

● Right-side motor function: Paralysis or weakness on the right side of the body.
● Language abilities: Problems with speech, writing, or comprehension (aphasia).

Similarly, damage to the right hemisphere may lead to:

● Left-side motor function issues: Paralysis or weakness on the left side.

● Emotional and spatial difficulties: Trouble interpreting emotions or understanding
spatial relationships.
Support and Protection of the Brain and Spinal Cord

The brain and spinal cord, which make up the central nervous system (CNS), are extremely
important and delicate. They need strong protection from injury and infection. There are four
main ways they are supported and protected:

1. Bone Encasement
● Skull and Vertebrae: The brain is protected by the skull, a thick, hard bone that shields
it from external impact. The spinal cord, which extends down the back, is encased in a
series of interlocking bones called vertebrae. Together, these bones form a protective
cage around the CNS.

● Difference with PNS: The peripheral nervous system (PNS), which connects the CNS
to the rest of the body, does not have this bone protection. However, unlike the CNS, the
PNS has the ability to regenerate after an injury by growing new axons and dendrites
(nerve fibers). The CNS has a much more limited ability to repair itself after damage.

2. Meninges (Protective Membranes)

Inside the bony encasements of the skull and vertebrae, the CNS is wrapped in three layers of
protective membranes called the meninges:

● Dura Mater: The outermost layer is called the dura mater (Latin for "hard mother").
It’s a tough, thick layer that acts like a protective shield, holding the brain and spinal
cord in a loose sack inside the bones.
● Arachnoid Mater: The middle layer, called the arachnoid membrane (Greek for
"spider-like"), is a delicate, thin sheet that looks a bit like a spider's web. It follows the
curves and folds of the brain.
● Pia Mater: The innermost layer is the pia mater (Latin for "soft mother"). It is a thin but
strong layer that clings tightly to the surface of the brain and spinal cord.

SPINAL MENINGES

CRANIAL MENINGES
3. VENTRICULAR SYSTEM
The ventricular system of the brain is a network of interconnected cavities, or ventricles, filled
with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). It plays a crucial role in protecting the brain, maintaining
homeostasis, and providing nutrients. The ventricular system consists of two lateral ventricles,
the third ventricle, and the fourth ventricle.

Parts of the Ventricular System:

1. Lateral Ventricles (First & Second)
Location: They are located in each cerebral hemisphere (left and right), beneath the
cortex.
Function: These ventricles produce and store the majority of the CSF, which will be
circulated throughout the brain and spinal cord.

2. Third Ventricle
Location: It is situated at the center of the brain, between the two halves of the thalamus
 Function: The third ventricle collects CSF from the lateral ventricles via interventricular
foramina and directs it towards the fourth ventricle through a narrow channel called the
cerebral aqueduct.
3. Cerebral Aqueduct
Location: It runs through the midbrain, connecting the third ventricle with the fourth
ventricle.
Function: The cerebral aqueduct ensures the smooth flow of CSF from the third to the
fourth ventricle.
4. Fourth Ventricle
Location: It lies between the cerebellum and the brainstem.
Function: The fourth ventricle channels CSF into the subarachnoid space around the
brain and spinal cord. This fluid is then distributed to protect and nourish the entire
central nervous system.

Cerebrospin
al Fluid (CSF)

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless liquid that surrounds and cushions the brain and
spinal cord. It plays several vital roles in maintaining the health and function of the central
nervous system (CNS). CSF is primarily produced in the choroid plexus, a specialized tissue
found in the ventricles (cavities) of the brain, and it circulates through the brain's ventricles and
the subarachnoid space, which covers both the brain and spinal cord.The CSF contains glucose,
proteins, lipids, and electrolytes, providing essential CNS nutrition

Functions of CSF:
 1. Protection: CSF acts as a shock absorber, protecting the brain and spinal cord from
impact or injury. It provides a cushioning effect that prevents damage from sudden
movements.
2. Buoyancy: The brain is suspended in CSF, which reduces its effective weight. This
buoyancy helps to relieve pressure on the brainstem and other delicate structures at the
base of the brain.
3. Nutrient Transport and Waste Removal: CSF plays a critical role in delivering
nutrients to the brain and spinal cord, while also removing waste products. It facilitates
the exchange of substances between the blood and the CNS.
4. Chemical Stability: By maintaining a consistent chemical environment, CSF helps
regulate the pH balance and the concentration of important ions (Na+, Ka+, Ca2-, Cl-) in
the CNS, ensuring proper neural functioning.
5. Circulation: CSF continuously flows through the ventricular system and subarachnoid
space, circulating nutrients and signaling molecules throughout the CNS.

Flow and Reabsorption:

CSF is produced in the lateral ventricles and flows through the third and fourth ventricles before
entering the subarachnoid space. It is then reabsorbed into the bloodstream via arachnoid villi,
maintaining a constant balance of fluid. Overall, cerebrospinal fluid is essential for the
protection, nourishment, and overall stability of the brain and spinal cord, allowing them to
function effectively.

Ventricular System Diseases

Hydrocephalus and ventriculitis are two conditions that prevent the ventricular system from
functioning normally. Hydrocephalus results from the excess accumulation of cerebrospinal
fluid in the brain. The excess fluid causes the ventricles to widen. This fluid accumulation puts
pressure on the brain. Cerebrospinal fluid can accumulate in the ventricles if the ventricles
become blocked or if connecting passages, such as the cerebral aqueduct, become narrow.
Ventriculitis is inflammation of the brain ventricles that typically results from an infection.
The infection can be caused by a number of different bacteria and viruses. Ventriculitis is most
commonly seen in individuals who have had invasive brain surgery.

4. Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)

● Selective Barrier: The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a protective filter that prevents
harmful substances in the bloodstream from entering the brain. The walls of the tiny
blood vessels (capillaries) in the brain are made of cells that are tightly packed together,
forming a barrier.
 ● What it Blocks: The BBB blocks many chemicals, toxins, and pathogens from getting
into the brain’s delicate tissues, while still allowing essential nutrients like oxygen and
glucose to pass through. This is important because the brain is very sensitive to changes
in its chemical environment.

Blood Supply to the Brain

The brain receives its blood supply from four main arteries:

● Two internal carotid arteries and

● Two vertebral arteries.

These arteries travel up the neck and enter the skull at the base of the brain, where they form a
network.

Cerebral Arteries and Their Distribution

Once inside the skull, the main arteries branch into smaller ones that supply blood to different
parts of the brain. There are three major cerebral arteries:

1. Anterior Cerebral Artery (ACA): Supplies blood to the medial (middle) and dorsal
(top) parts of the cortex.
 2. Middle Cerebral Artery (MCA): Supplies blood to the lateral (side) surfaces of the
cortex.
3. Posterior Cerebral Artery (PCA): Supplies blood to the ventral (bottom) and
posterior (back) parts of the cortex.

Effects of Blockages (Strokes)

When a blood clot blocks an artery, it can cause a stroke. The symptoms and extent of damage
depend on:

● Location: A larger clot near the base will block more blood flow, affecting a larger area
of the brain.
● Size of Clot: Smaller clots affect more specific, smaller regions.

In some cases, arteries can compensate for a blockage by redirecting blood through connections
with other arteries.

Venous Blood Flow

Once blood has been used by the brain, it returns to the heart through veins, classified as
external and internal cerebral and cerebellar veins. Unlike arteries, the veins follow their own
separate pathways to drain used blood.

Case Study: Blood Clot Leading to Stroke

Patient: R.S., a 62-year-old male

Medical History: High blood pressure and smoking history

Incident:
R.S. experienced sudden weakness in his right arm and leg along with slurred speech while
having breakfast. His family rushed him to the hospital.

Diagnosis:
A brain scan revealed a blood clot blocking the left Middle Cerebral Artery (MCA), which
supplies blood to the left side of the brain responsible for movement and speech.

Symptoms Explained:

● Right-Sided Weakness (Hemiparesis): The clot restricts blood flow to the motor areas
on the left side of the brain, which control movement on the right side of the body.
● Speech Impairment (Aphasia): The left MCA also affects language centers (Broca’s
area), causing slurred or difficult speech.

Gray, White, and Reticular Matter

Gray and white matter are two different regions of the central nervous system. In the brain, gray
matter refers to the darker, outer portion, while white matter describes the lighter, inner section
underneath.The reticular matter is a mottled, gray and white, netlike tissue which is also present
in the brain. In the spinal cord, this order is reversed: The white matter is on the outside, and the
gray matter sits within.

1. Gray Matter:

● Appearance: Gray-brown color

● Composition: Contains neuronal cell bodies (the main parts of nerve cells) and
capillaries (small blood vessels).
● Function: Neuronal cell bodies in gray matter are where information processing happens.
This is where signals are received and interpreted.

2. White Matter:

● Appearance: White color

● Composition: Mainly made up of axons (the long fibers that carry messages between
neurons) covered in myelin (a fatty insulating layer made by glial cells).
● Function: White matter acts as the communication network that connects different
parts of the brain. The axons transmit signals between different areas.

3. Reticular Matter:

● Appearance: Mottled, gray and white, or netlike

● Composition: A mix of cell bodies (like in gray matter) and axons (like in white matter).
● Function: Because it contains both cell bodies and axons, reticular matter serves as a
transition area that connects different brain regions.
Structure and Function of a Neuron

A neuron is the basic functional unit of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting
information throughout the body. It has three main parts:

1. Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus and organelles. It is responsible for maintaining
the neuron's health and processing incoming signals.

2. Dendrites: These are branch-like structures that receive signals from other neurons and
transmit them toward the cell body. Dendrites act as the input region of the neuron.
3. Axon: A long, slender projection that carries electrical signals (nerve impulses) away
from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands. The axon is sometimes covered
with a fatty layer called the myelin sheath, which speeds up signal transmission.

At the end of the axon are axon terminals, which release neurotransmitters to communicate
with other neurons across a gap called the synapse.

Function:

Neurons transmit information through electrical impulses (action potentials) and chemical
signals (neurotransmitters). They process and convey sensory information, coordinate motor
activity, and facilitate complex brain functions like thinking and memory.

In short, neurons serve as the building blocks of the nervous system, allowing for communication
and regulation of bodily functions.
Spinal Cord Structure and Spinal Nerves

The spinal cord is a vital part of the central nervous system (CNS), extending from the
brainstem (medulla oblongata) to the lower back. It serves as the communication link between
the brain and the rest of the body. The spinal cord is encased within the vertebral column,
protected by layers of meninges and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which cushion it from external
impacts and provide nourishment. Its primary role is to transmit signals between the brain and
the body while also handling reflex actions independently.

Spinal Cord Structure

The spinal cord is made up of gray matter and white matter, each serving distinct purposes.
Gray matter is found at the core of the spinal cord and has an "H" or butterfly shape. It consists
mainly of neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and interneurons. It is divided into three horns:
dorsal horns, which receive sensory information from the body; ventral horns, which send
motor signals to muscles; and lateral horns, which are involved in autonomic functions in the
thoracic region.

Surrounding the gray matter is white matter, composed of myelinated axons that create
pathways for communication between different regions of the nervous system. White matter is
organized into ascending tracts that carry sensory information to the brain and descending
tracts that relay motor commands from the brain to the body.
Spinal Cord Segments

The spinal cord is divided into 31 segments, which give rise to spinal nerves. These segments
are categorized into five regions: cervical (8 pairs), thoracic (12 pairs), lumbar (5 pairs), sacral
(5 pairs), and coccygeal (1 pair). Each segment contributes to a pair of spinal nerves that exit the
spinal cord through small openings in the vertebrae.
Spinal Nerves and Roots

Each of the 31 pairs of spinal nerves contains both sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent)
fibers, making them mixed nerves. Spinal nerves are connected to the spinal cord through two
main roots: the dorsal root, which carries sensory information to the spinal cord, and the ventral
root, which transmits motor commands to muscles. The dorsal root features a dorsal root
ganglion, where the cell bodies of sensory neurons are located.The dorsal root ganglion (DRG),
transmits sensory information from the body to the spinal cord.
Spinal Cord Enlargements

The spinal cord has two regions where it becomes wider, known as enlargements. These
enlargements occur because these areas need to accommodate a larger number of nerve fibers to
control the limbs.

1. Cervical Enlargement (C5 to T1):

Location: This enlargement is found in the cervical (neck) region of the spinal cord, roughly
between the 5th cervical vertebra (C5) and the 1st thoracic vertebra (T1).

Purpose: The cervical enlargement contains more nerve fibers because it innervates (supplies
nerves to) the upper limbs (arms and hands). These nerve fibers need to be larger and more
numerous in order to control the complex movements of the arms and hands.

Function: The nerves from this area control the muscles of the shoulders, arms, forearms, and
hands, enabling precise and coordinated movements.
2. Lumbar Enlargement (L1 to S2):

Location: This enlargement occurs in the lower part of the spinal cord, from about the 1st
lumbar vertebra (L1) to the 2nd sacral vertebra (S2).

Purpose: The lumbar enlargement contains more nerve fibers because it innervates the lower
limbs (legs and feet). As with the cervical enlargement, the nerves in this region need to be large
and numerous to manage the movement and sensation of the legs and feet.

Function: The nerves from this enlargement control the muscles in the hips, thighs, knees,
calves, and feet, allowing for walking, running, and other leg movements.

NOTE:

The reason for these enlargements is that the areas of the body that require finer motor control
(such as the arms and legs) need more nerve fibers. These fibers are responsible for sending
signals from the brain to the muscles and carrying sensory information back to the brain. The
larger the body part that needs to be controlled (like arms and legs), the more neurons are needed
to communicate with those areas, thus requiring larger sections of the spinal cord to
accommodate them.

Cauda Equina
Below the spinal cord’s termination at the level of the L1-L2 vertebrae, there is a bundle of
nerve fibers called the cauda equina. This structure resembles a horse’s tail and extends
downwards to innervate the lower limbs and pelvic organs. These nerves continue past the end
of the spinal cord to supply various regions of the lower body. It provides sensation and
movement to the legs, bladder, anus, and perineum.

CAUDA EQUINA SYNDROME

Cauda equina syndrome occurs when the nerve roots in the lumbar spine are compressed, cutting
off sensation and movement. Nerve roots that control the function of the bladder and bowel are
especially vulnerable to damage.

Causes: Cauda equina syndrome may be caused by a herniated disk, tumor, infection, fracture,
or narrowing of the spinal canal.
A herniated disc, also known as a slipped or prolapsed disc, occurs when the soft center of a
spinal disc pushes through its tougher outer ring. This can happen when the disc's outer fibers are
damaged, allowing the inner material to rupture out of its normal space.

Symptoms

1. Bladder and/or bowel dysfunction, causing you to retain urine or be unable to hold it.
2. Severe or progressive problems in the lower extremities, including loss of or altered
sensation between the legs, over the buttocks, the inner thighs and back of the legs
(saddle area), and feet/heels.

Meninges Covering the Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is protected by three layers of meninges. The outermost layer is the dura mater,
a tough and durable membrane. Beneath it is the arachnoid mater, which is web-like and filled
with CSF. The innermost layer is the pia mater, a delicate membrane that adheres closely to the
spinal cord, providing additional protection and support.

Blood Supply
The spinal cord is supplied by branches of the vertebral arteries and segmental spinal arteries.
These blood vessels ensure that the spinal cord receives the oxygen and nutrients it needs for
proper function, while waste products are removed through venous drainage.

FUNCTIONS OF SPINAL CORD

Functions of the Spinal Cord

The spinal cord plays a crucial role as the main communication pathway between the brain
and the rest of the body, allowing for the integration of sensory input and motor output. Its
functions can be broken down into three key areas: sensory transmission, motor control, and
reflex actions.

1. Sensory Transmission (Ascending Tracts):

○ The spinal cord is responsible for transmitting sensory information from various
parts of the body to the brain. This is done through ascending tracts, which are
bundles of nerve fibers that carry sensory signals such as pain, temperature, touch,
and proprioception (the sense of body position) from the body to the brain.
○ These sensory inputs are detected by sensory receptors in the skin, muscles, and
organs. The information then travels through the spinal nerves to the spinal cord
and is relayed upwards via the tracts (e.g., the dorsal columns or the
spinothalamic tract) to reach the thalamus and eventually the cortex of the
brain for processing.
○ This allows us to perceive sensations like feeling the warmth of a cup, the
pressure of a chair, or the sharpness of a pinprick.
2. Motor Control (Descending Tracts):
○ The spinal cord also carries motor commands from the brain to the muscles.
These commands travel through descending tracts, which are bundles of nerve
fibers that send signals from the brain down to the spinal cord and then out to the
muscles, instructing them to contract and produce movement.
○ For example, the corticospinal tract is the primary pathway that carries voluntary
movement signals from the motor cortex of the brain to the muscles, enabling
activities such as walking, picking up objects, or even speaking.
○ These signals control not only voluntary movements (like moving your arm to
grab a pen) but also more complex tasks like maintaining balance and posture.
3. Reflex Actions:
○ One of the most important roles of the spinal cord is its involvement in reflex
actions, which are quick, automatic responses to stimuli that bypass the brain for
faster reaction. Reflexes are mediated by circuits in the spinal cord itself, allowing
for nearly instantaneous responses.
○ For instance, if you touch something hot, the sensory receptors in your skin detect
the pain and send this signal to the spinal cord. The spinal cord then immediately
sends a motor command to your muscles to pull your hand away, all before the
pain sensation even reaches your brain.
○ Reflex actions are protective in nature and can be categorized as somatic (e.g.,
pulling away from a hot surface) or autonomic (e.g., adjusting the heart rate or
breathing rate). These reflexes involve sensory neurons, interneurons or relay
neurons (in the spinal cord), and motor neurons, and they allow for rapid
responses without needing the brain’s direct involvement.
BRAIN
WHAT IS THE BRAIN?

The brain is a complex organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision,
breathing, temperature, hunger and every process that regulates our body. Together, the brain
and spinal cord that extends from it make up the central nervous system, or CNS.

WHAT IS BRAIN MADE OF?

Weighing about 3 pounds in the average adult, the brain is about 60% fat. The remaining 40% is
a combination of water, protein, carbohydrates and salts. The brain itself is not a muscle. It
contains blood vessels and nerves, including neurons and glial cells.

HOW DOES THE BRAIN WORKS?

The brain sends and receives chemical and electrical signals throughout the body. Different
signals control different processes, and your brain interprets each. Some make you feel tired, for
example, while others make you feel pain.

Some messages are kept within the brain, while others are relayed through the spine and across
the body’s vast network of nerves to distant extremities. To do this, the central nervous system
relies on billions of neurons (nerve cells).

DIVISIONS OF THE BRAIN AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

While there are a few different ways to divide the brain, the developmental division roughly
organizes the brain into three general regions: forebrain (also known as the prosencephalon),
midbrain (mesencephalon), and hindbrain (rhombencephalon).

● The forebrain is home to sensory processing, endocrine structures, and higher reasoning.
● The midbrain plays a role in motor movement and audio/visual processing.
● The hindbrain is involved with autonomic functions such as respiratory rhythms and
sleep.

FOREBRAIN (PROSENCEPHALON)

The forebrain is a mammal’s brain’s largest and most obvious part. It is responsible for a wide
range of higher cognitive functions, sensory processing, voluntary movement, and emotional
regulation. It includes various structures that work together to manage everything from thinking
and memory to controlling our emotions and regulating our bodily functions.

The Forebrain is divided into two major parts:

1. Telencephalon "Telos" (Greek: τέλος) means "end" or "far." (includes the cerebrum and
related structures)
 2. Diencephalon "Dia" (Greek: διά) means "between" or "through." (includes the
thalamus and hypothalamus)

1. Telencephalon:

The telencephalon forms the bulk of the forebrain and is where many of the brain's complex
functions occur. It contains the cerebrum, which is responsible for higher cognitive functions,
and other important structures that help with memory, emotions, and voluntary movements.

A. CEREBRUM

The cerebrum (front of brain) comprises gray matter (the cerebral cortex) and white
matter at its center. The largest part of the brain, the cerebrum initiates and coordinates
movement and regulates temperature. Other areas of the cerebrum enable speech,
judgment, thinking and reasoning, problem-solving, emotions and learning. Other
functions relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses.

CEREBRAL CORTEX

The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain, and it’s called “cortex” because the word
means “bark” in Latin, like the bark on a tree. This layer is responsible for many of the brain’s
higher functions, such as thinking, decision-making, and controlling movements. It is a thin,
wrinkled layer that covers the entire cerebrum.

Important Features:

1. Wrinkled Surface (Gyri and Sulci):

○ The surface of the cerebral cortex has many folds and ridges. The ridges are
called gyri, and the grooves between them are called sulci. This wrinkling
increases the surface area of the brain, allowing more neurons to fit inside the
skull.

2. Two Halves (Hemispheres):

○ The cortex is split into two halves, called the left hemisphere and the right
hemisphere.
 ○ These two halves are connected by a deep groove called the interhemispheric
fissure (also called the medial longitudinal fissure), which runs from the front of
the brain to the back.

3. Contralateral Control:
○ The right hemisphere of the brain controls the left side of the body, and the left
hemisphere controls the right side of the body. This means that if you move
your left hand, the signals are coming from the right side of your brain, and vice
versa.

In simpler terms, think of the cerebral cortex as the brain’s thinking cap—the outermost part
that does a lot of complex work, like making decisions, sensing the world, and controlling
your movements.

BRAIN LOBES

The brain's cerebral cortex is divided into four main lobes, each responsible for different
functions:

1. Frontal Lobe:
○ Function: Decision-making, problem-solving, voluntary movement, and emotions.
2. Parietal Lobe:
○ Function: Processes sensory information like touch, temperature, and pain.
3. Temporal Lobe:
○ Function: Hearing, language comprehension, and memory.
4. Occipital Lobe:
○ Function: Vision and visual processing.
B. LIMBIC SYSTEM
The limbic system is a set of brain structures located deep within the forebrain that plays a
central role in regulating emotions, memory, and behavior. As a part of the forebrain, the
limbic system is also involved in learning, motivation, and the regulation of the body's
autonomic functions (such as heart rate and blood pressure). The structures in the limbic
system are interconnected and work together to integrate emotional responses with higher
cognitive functions.

Important Structures Of Limbic System:

1. Amygdala:

● The amygdala is an almond-shaped structure located deep in the temporal lobe.

● Function: It is responsible for processing emotions such as fear, anger, and pleasure. The
amygdala also helps store emotional memories, particularly those related to fear or
trauma.
● Role in the Forebrain: It triggers the "fight or flight" response in stressful situations and
links emotions to memories.
The research conducted by Heinrich Kluver and Paul Bucy in the 1930s is a foundational study
in understanding the role of the amygdala in fear and emotional processing.

Research:

1. Objective: Kluver and Bucy aimed to investigate the effects of specific brain lesions on
emotional behavior in rhesus monkeys.
2. Method: They performed bilateral removal (surgical ablation) of the amygdalae in these
monkeys, which are brain structures known to be involved in processing emotions,
particularly fear.
3. Observations:
○ After the amygdalae were removed, the monkeys exhibited significant changes in
behavior.
○ They displayed dramatically reduced fear responses, showing a lack of typical
fear reactions to stimuli that would normally elicit fear, such as loud noises or
threatening situations.
4. Conclusion: The study concluded that the amygdala plays a crucial role in processing
fear and other emotional responses. The removal of the amygdala disrupted the monkeys'
ability to perceive and react to fearful stimuli, indicating that this brain region is essential
for emotional regulation.

2. Hippocampus:

● The hippocampus is located near the amygdala, deep within the temporal lobe.
 ● Function: The hippocampus is crucial for forming new memories and converting short-
term memories into long-term ones. It also helps with spatial navigation.
● Role in the Forebrain: It integrates memory with sensory and emotional experiences,
allowing us to remember where we were and how we felt in particular situations.

Henry Gustave Molaison, commonly known as H.M., underwent surgery in 1953 to remove
two-thirds of his hippocampi to treat severe epilepsy.

Key Effects of the Surgery:

1. Anterograde Amnesia: H.M. could not form new memories after the surgery, meaning
he couldn't remember things that happened after the procedure.
2. Graded Retrograde Amnesia: He also had trouble recalling events that occurred shortly
before the surgery, although he retained some older memories.

3. Cingulate Gyrus
The cingulate gyrus is a part of the brain that helps connect emotions, thoughts, and actions. It
is part of the limbic system, which is responsible for regulating emotions, memory, and
behavior. Think of it as a bridge that helps you process feelings, focus your attention, and decide
how to act based on those feelings.

Location:

● The cingulate gyrus is located above the corpus callosum, a thick bundle of nerve fibers
that connects the two sides of the brain.
● It stretches from the front to the back of the brain on the inner, medial side of each
hemisphere, just above the limbic system.

The cingulate gyrus has a variety of important roles:

1. Emotion Processing: It helps you understand and react to your emotions, such as feeling
happy, sad, or angry.
2. Pain and Emotional Responses: It processes the emotional aspect of pain, meaning it’s
involved in how we feel about the pain rather than just the sensation of pain.
 3. Decision-Making: It helps you make decisions, especially when there are conflicts or
when you have to choose between different options.
4. Attention and Focus: The cingulate gyrus helps you focus your attention and block out
distractions.
5. Memory: It is involved in emotional memory, helping you remember things that have a
strong emotional impact.

The cingulate gyrus is divided into two main regions, each with slightly different functions:

1. Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC):

○ Located towards the front of the brain.
○ Involved in emotion regulation, decision-making, and controlling impulses.
○ Helps you stay focused, especially during challenging or emotional situations.
2. Posterior Cingulate Cortex (PCC):
○ Located towards the back.
○ Plays a role in memory and self-reflection, helping you think about yourself and
recall past emotional events.

4. Basal Ganglia

The basal ganglia are a group of nuclei (clusters of neurons) located deep within the brain,
involved in regulating motor movements, learning and habits. These structures work together to
ensure movements are smooth and purposeful, and they also play a role in cognition and
emotional responses.

Location

● The basal ganglia are found in the center of the brain, beneath the cerebral cortex,
surrounding the thalamus. Their central position allows them to act as a hub for
coordinating signals related to movement and other functions.

Functions of the Basal Ganglia

The basal ganglia play several important roles in the brain:

1. Motor Control:
○ The basal ganglia help regulate voluntary movements, ensuring they are smooth
and coordinated. Without them, movements would be jerky or uncontrolled.
2. Movement Initiation and Termination:
○ They help initiate movements when needed and stop them at the appropriate time,
playing a crucial role in starting or stopping actions, like walking or picking up an
object.
 3. Motor Learning:
○ Involved in learning new movements, such as learning how to ride a bike or play
a musical instrument. This learning happens through practice and repetition,
allowing movements to become automatic over time.
4. Habit Formation:
○ The basal ganglia help with developing automatic routines or habits, like
brushing your teeth or tying your shoes.
5. Cognitive and Emotional Processing:
○ Besides movement, the basal ganglia also contribute to cognitive functions, like
decision-making, and emotional responses, like reward-seeking behaviors.

Parts of the Basal Ganglia

The basal ganglia are made up of several interconnected structures, each playing a specific role:

1. Striatum:
○ The striatum is the largest part of the basal ganglia and is divided into two
regions:
■ Caudate Nucleus
■ Putamen
○ The striatum serves as the main input area of the basal ganglia. It receives
signals from the cerebral cortex (the outer layer of the brain) about motor plans
and movements. The striatum is important for starting and controlling
movements.
○ Caudate Nucleus:
■ Involved in planning movement and helps regulate movements that are
goal-directed (like reaching for a glass of water). It also plays a role in
learning and memory.

○ Putamen:
■ Mainly responsible for regulating movements and coordinating motor
skills. It ensures that when you perform movements, like walking or
running, they are smooth and coordinated.
2. Globus Pallidus:
○ The globus pallidus is located next to the putamen and has two parts:
■ Globus Pallidus Interna (GPi): Sends inhibitory (slowing) signals to
motor areas to regulate voluntary movements.
■ Globus Pallidus Externa (GPe): Interacts with the subthalamic nucleus
to fine-tune motor activity.
○ The globus pallidus functions as a regulator of movement, ensuring that
movements are controlled and not too strong or too weak. It’s like a brake system
that prevents excessive or unwanted movements.

3. Subthalamic Nucleus:
 ○ The subthalamic nucleus is located just below the thalamus and helps regulate
movement by sending excitatory (activating) signals. It interacts with the globus
pallidus to ensure that movement signals are balanced and precise.
○ It plays a key role in stopping unwanted movements and ensuring motor control
is finely tuned.

4. Nucleus Accumbens:

○ The nucleus accumbens is involved in the reward and pleasure system. Though
sometimes grouped with the limbic system (which manages emotions), it has
strong connections to the basal ganglia.
○ This part links motivation and reward to movement, like when you repeat
behaviors that give you pleasure, such as eating food you enjoy. It also plays a
role in habit formation and addiction.

Basal Ganglia in Action

● When you want to move your hand to pick up a cup, the cortex sends a signal to the
striatum. The striatum processes the information, and the globus pallidus helps regulate
and fine-tune the movement so that it’s smooth. If the movement is going too fast or too
slow, the subthalamic nucleus helps adjust it.
● At the same time, if you’ve picked up this cup before and have developed a habit, the
nucleus accumbens may trigger a feeling of satisfaction, reinforcing the behavior as a
positive experience.
C. Corpus Callosum

The corpus callosum is a large bundle of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the
brain—left and right. This structure is essential for communication between both sides, allowing
the two hemispheres to share information and coordinate actions.

Location

● The corpus callosum is located deep within the brain, beneath the cerebral cortex. It
stretches across the middle of the brain, running from the frontal lobe at the front to the
occipital lobe at the back. It forms a bridge between the left and right hemispheres,
connecting them.

Function

The main function of the corpus callosum is to facilitate communication between the two
hemispheres of the brain. Here's how it works:

1. Information Transfer: It lets each hemisphere share information with the other. For
example, if you touch something with your left hand, the corpus callosum sends this info
to the language-processing left hemisphere to help describe it.
2. Coordination: It helps the body move in sync, like coordinating left and right leg
movements while walking.
3. Cognitive Integration: It combines complex tasks, like reading, where recognizing
words (right hemisphere) and understanding meaning (left hemisphere) work together.
2. Diencephalon

Diencephalon means "between the brain," referring to its location between the telencephalon
(the cerebral hemispheres) and the midbrain (mesencephalon).

The diencephalon is a small but crucial region of the brain located just above the brainstem and
beneath the cerebrum. It is part of the forebrain and acts as a vital relay center, processing and
transmitting information between different parts of the brain and the body.

Parts Of Diencephalon

1. Thalamus

The thalamus is a critical structure located deep within the brain, just above the
brainstem and part of the diencephalon (along with the hypothalamus). It plays a vital
role as a relay station for sensory and motor signals, as well as being involved in the
regulation of consciousness, sleep, and alertness.

Functions of the Thalamus:

 1. Sensory Relay Station:
○ The thalamus acts as a hub where sensory information from different parts of the
body is received, processed, and then relayed to the appropriate regions of the
cerebral cortex.
○ It processes inputs from almost all senses, such as:
■ Vision: Signals from the retina are transmitted to the occipital lobe
through the lateral geniculate nucleus.
■ Hearing: Auditory signals pass through the medial geniculate nucleus on
their way to the temporal lobe.
■ Touch and Proprioception: Sensory information from the body (like
touch, pain, and pressure) is relayed via the ventral posterior nucleus to the
parietal lobe.
○ The only exception is smell (olfaction), which bypasses the thalamus and goes
directly to the olfactory cortex.

2. Motor Control: It helps coordinate movement by relaying information from the basal ganglia
and cerebellum to the motor cortex.

3. Consciousness and Sleep: The thalamus regulates wakefulness and sleep cycles, helping keep
the brain alert during the day and blocking sensory input to aid in sleep.

4. Emotion and Cognition: Connected to the limbic system, the thalamus plays a role in
emotional responses, memory, and learning.

2. Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is a small but critically important part of the brain located just below the
thalamus and above the pituitary gland, near the center of the brain. Despite its size, the
hypothalamus plays a vital role in maintaining the body's internal balance, or homeostasis, by
controlling several key functions.

Location

● The hypothalamus is found at the base of the brain, within the diencephalon.
● It sits just above the pituitary gland, to which it is directly connected.
FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHALAMUS

The hypothalamus is the body’s control center for essential functions, coordinating both the
nervous and endocrine systems:

1. Body Temperature: Monitors and maintains normal temperature by triggering sweating

when hot or shivering when cold.
2. Hunger and Thirst: Senses nutrient and water levels, signaling when you need food or
water to keep energy and hydration balanced.
3. Sleep-Wake Cycle: Regulates sleep by responding to light cues, helping you feel alert in
the day and sleepy at night.
4. Endocrine Control: Directs the pituitary gland, which controls many hormones affecting
growth, metabolism, and stress responses.
5. Emotions and Behavior: Involved in emotional responses like stress and survival
reactions (fight-or-flight) and influences sexual and reproductive behaviors.
6. Autonomic Nervous System: Manages automatic functions like heart rate, digestion, and
blood pressure, balancing responses for different situations.
7. Water Balance: Monitors water in the blood and can control urine production to keep
fluid levels stable.

Hypothalamus in Action: Everyday Examples

● Temperature Regulation: When you have a fever, the hypothalamus increases your
body temperature to help fight off infection.
 ● Hunger Signals: When you haven’t eaten for a while, your hypothalamus sends hunger
signals to encourage you to eat.
● Stress Response: When you're in a stressful situation, the hypothalamus triggers the
release of adrenaline and other stress hormones to prepare your body to respond.

2. MIDBRAIN
The midbrain, or mesencephalon, is a small but essential part of the brain located just above the
brainstem. The midbrain is positioned between the forebrain (upper brain regions) and the
hindbrain (lower brainstem areas).

It plays a vital role in movement, vision, hearing, and some automatic functions like reflexes.

Location and Anatomy:

● Located centrally in the brain, right above the pons (another brainstem structure).
● The midbrain connects the forebrain and hindbrain, serving as a pathway for signals
traveling through the brain.

The midbrain surrounds the cerebral aqueduct and consists of two major parts: tectum and
tegmentum.
Tectum: Located in the dorsal (back) part of the midbrain.

● It includes two main structures called the superior colliculus and the inferior colliculus.
○ Superior Colliculus: Plays a role in visual processing and eye movements.
○ Inferior Colliculus: Involved in auditory processing, helping the brain
understand sound cues.

Tegmentum: Located in the central and ventral (front) part of the midbrain.

● It includes structures that help with motor control and alertness.

● Key parts include:
○ Substantia Nigra: Produces dopamine, a neurotransmitter important for
controlling movement and reward-seeking behaviors. Dopamine loss in this area
leads to Parkinson’s disease.
○ Red Nucleus: Involved in motor coordination; it helps control limb movements
and some aspects of posture.
○ Periaqueductal Gray (PAG): Plays a role in pain modulation and defensive
behaviors. It helps control pain perception by releasing endorphins.

Functions of the Midbrain:

 ● Motor Control: The substantia nigra and red nucleus help regulate and fine-tune
voluntary movements.
● Sensory Processing: The superior and inferior colliculi are involved in processing visual
and auditory information, allowing quick responses to visual and auditory stimuli.
● Pain and Defensive Responses: The PAG modulates pain, helping the body manage
stress and avoid harm.
● Alertness and Arousal: Parts of the tegmentum are involved in maintaining alertness,
influencing sleep-wake cycles and attention.

HINDRAIN
1. Metencephalon

● Components: Includes the pons and the cerebellum.

Cerebellum (or “Little Brain”):

● Structure: The cerebellum has two hemispheres and looks like a smaller version of the
cerebrum (main brain). It is covered by the cerebellar cortex and contains deep
cerebellar nuclei.
● Connections: Each hemisphere is connected to the pons through bundles of axons called
the cerebellar peduncles (these are like “little feet” that connect it to the brainstem).
● Function:
○ It helps with balance, coordination, and smooth movement.
 ○ Receives input from senses (visual, auditory, vestibular for balance, and
somatosensory for touch and movement).
○ It also receives information about muscle movements directed by the brain,
allowing it to adjust and coordinate movements smoothly.
● Damage Effects: Damage to the cerebellum can lead to jerky, uncoordinated
movements and even difficulty standing or walking.

Pons:

● A structure that connects different parts of the brain, specifically linking the
cerebellum to the brainstem and forebrain.
● Plays a role in sleep, breathing, and relaying information between the
cerebellum and the rest of the brain.

2. Myelencephalon

● Main Structure: The medulla oblongata (often just called the medulla).

Medulla:

● Location: It’s the lowest part of the brainstem and connects to the spinal cord.
● Function: Contains parts of the reticular formation that manage essential life
functions like:
○ Cardiovascular regulation (heart rate and blood pressure).
○ Breathing (respiration control).
 ○ Muscle Tone: Controls the tone of skeletal muscles to maintain posture and
basic movements.

The reticular formation is a network of interconnected neurons running

through the core of the brainstem, from the midbrain down through the
hindbrain (including the pons and medulla) and into the spinal cord. It plays
a key role in regulating alertness, arousal, and sleep-wake cycles, as well
as controlling basic autonomic functions like heart rate and breathing

● Importance: The medulla is essential for survival. Damage to it can be life-

threatening because it regulates these vital automatic functions.

LOBES, ITS FUNCTIONS AND DYSFUNCTIONS

Frontal Lobe

● Location: At the front of the brain, just behind your forehead.

● Functions:
○ Planning and Decision-Making: The frontal lobe helps you plan ahead,
make decisions, and solve problems. It’s the brain’s “command center” for
controlling actions.
○ Movement: The motor cortex in the frontal lobe controls voluntary
movements (like walking or picking up something).
○ Emotions and Personality: The frontal lobe influences emotions,
behaviors, and your personality. It helps you control impulses and
emotions.
○ Language: It houses Broca’s area (mainly on the left side), which is
responsible for producing speech.
● Dysfunction:
○ Personality Changes: Damage to the frontal lobe can make a person act
impulsively, or they may have trouble controlling their emotions.
○ Movement Problems: Damage may cause weakness or difficulty moving
parts of the body (like one side after a stroke).
○ Speech Problems: If Broca’s area is damaged, people might struggle to
form words or speak clearly (called Broca's aphasia).

2. Parietal Lobe
 ● Location: Behind the frontal lobe, near the top and back of the head.
● Functions:
○ Sensory Processing: The somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe
processes sensations like touch, pain, temperature, and pressure. It tells you
what you’re feeling (e.g., if something is hot or cold).
○ Spatial Awareness: Helps you understand where your body is in space.
This allows you to move around without bumping into things.
○ Perception of Size and Shape: Helps you recognize the size, shape, and
texture of objects.
● Dysfunction:
○ Sensory Deficits: Damage may cause problems like numbness or not
feeling things properly.
○ Astereognosis (from the Greek stereo, meaning “solid”), which is the
inability to recognize the nature of an object by touch.
○ Spatial Neglect: If one side of the parietal lobe is damaged, a person may
ignore one side of their body or environment (common with right side
damage).
○ Coordination Problems: Difficulty with tasks that need coordination (like
buttoning a shirt) or knowing where your body parts are.

3. Temporal Lobe

● Location: Located on the sides of the brain, around your ears.

● Functions:
○ Hearing: The auditory cortex in the temporal lobe processes sound
information. It helps you recognize and understand sounds, like speech and
music.
○ Memory: The hippocampus in the temporal lobe helps you form and store
memories.
○ Language Comprehension: The Wernicke’s area in the left temporal lobe
helps you understand spoken and written language.
● Dysfunction:
○ Hearing Loss: Damage can affect your ability to hear properly or
understand sounds.
○ Memory Problems: Damage to the hippocampus can lead to memory loss,
or a person may have trouble making new memories.
○ Language Issues: Damage to Wernicke’s area can cause Wernicke's
aphasia, where a person speaks fluently but the words don’t make sense, or
they may struggle to understand language.

4. Occipital Lobe

● Location: At the back of the brain.

 ● Functions:
○ Vision Processing: The visual cortex in the occipital lobe is responsible
for processing visual information from the eyes. It helps you see shapes,
colors, movement, and depth.
● Dysfunction:
○ Vision Problems: Damage to the occipital lobe can cause blindness or
partial vision loss in different parts of the visual field.
○ Visual Agnosia: People may see objects clearly but not be able to
recognize what they are.
○ Hallucinations: In some cases, damage can cause people to see things that
aren’t really there (visual hallucinations).

Summary:

● Frontal Lobe: Controls planning, movement, emotions, and speech. Damage

affects personality, movement, and speech.
● Parietal Lobe: Processes sensory information and helps with spatial awareness.
Damage leads to coordination problems and sensory issues.
● Temporal Lobe: Handles hearing, memory, and language comprehension.
Damage affects hearing, memory, and understanding language.
● Occipital Lobe: Processes visual information. Damage causes vision problems
and difficulty recognizing objects.