Module-4

Introduction to Batteries:
A battery is an electrochemical device that stores and converts chemical energy into electrical
energy, providing a portable and convenient source of power for a wide range of applications.
Batteries consist of one or more electrochemical cells, each containing an anode (negative
electrode), a cathode (positive electrode), and an electrolyte. These components work together
to enable the flow of electrons, creating an electric current that can power devices.

Classification of batteries:
1. Primary Batteries (Non-rechargeable)

These batteries are designed for single use and cannot be recharged after their energy is
depleted. They are ideal for applications where recharging is not feasible.

 Zinc-Carbon Battery:
o Low cost, commonly used in low-drain devices (e.g., remote controls,
flashlights).
 Alkaline Battery:
o Higher energy density, widely used in household devices (e.g., toys, clocks).
 Lithium Battery (Primary):
o Long shelf life, used in high-drain devices (e.g., cameras, watches).
 Silver-Oxide Battery:
o High energy density, used in small electronics like hearing aids and watches.
 Mercury Battery (obsolete due to toxicity concerns):
o Previously used in medical devices and watches.

2. Secondary Batteries (Rechargeable)

These batteries are designed to be recharged multiple times by applying electrical energy to
restore their charge. They are used in applications where frequent recharging is practical.

 Lead-Acid Battery:
o Commonly used in vehicles (e.g., cars, trucks, UPS systems).
 Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) Battery:
o Durable and reliable, used in power tools, emergency lighting, and some
electronics.
 Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) Battery:
o Higher capacity than Ni-Cd, used in digital cameras, laptops, and hybrid
vehicles.
 Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) Battery:
o High energy density, widely used in smartphones, laptops, and electric vehicles.
 Lithium Polymer (Li-Po) Battery:
o Flexible form factor, used in mobile devices and lightweight electronics.
 Sodium-Sulfur (Na-S) Battery:
o High temperature, used for large-scale energy storage systems (e.g., grid
storage).

3. Reserve Batteries (Standby Batteries)

These batteries remain inactive until activated, typically by the addition of an electrolyte or by
other mechanisms. They are used for long-term storage and instant readiness.

 Water-Activated Battery:
o Activated when immersed in water, used in military or survival equipment.
 Thermal Battery:
o Activated by heat, used in aerospace, military, and missile systems.
 Gas-Activated Battery:
o Uses a gas (e.g., hydrogen) to activate, employed in specialized military
applications.
 Electrolyte-Activated Battery:
o Stores electrolyte separately and only becomes functional when mixed with the
active material, used in long-term storage devices such as emergency power
systems.

Each of these battery types serves different applications depending on their rechargeability,
energy density, and specific use cases.

Classification of Vanadium-Based Redox Flow Batteries (VRFB)

1. Based on Components: Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries (VRFBs) are primarily composed
of the following components:

 Electrolyte:
o The key feature of VRFBs is their use of a vanadium electrolyte, which allows
for the oxidation and reduction of vanadium ions in different oxidation states.
The electrolyte is split into two solutions: the anolyte (negative half-cell)
containing V2+/V3+V^{2+}/V^{3+}V2+/V3+ and the catholyte (positive half-
cell) containing V4+/V5+V^{4+}/V^{5+}V4+/V5+.
 Electrodes:
o Graphite felt or carbon-based electrodes are commonly used to facilitate the
electrochemical reactions that take place at the positive and negative sides.
 Membrane:
o A proton exchange membrane (PEM) or ion-selective membrane separates the
two electrolyte solutions while allowing protons to pass through to maintain
charge balance.
 Tanks and Pumps:
o VRFBs store their electrolytes in external tanks, and the electrolyte is pumped
through the electrochemical cell during operation, making it scalable depending
on the tank size.
 Power Stack:
o This is where the electrochemical reactions occur, comprising the electrodes,
membrane, and flow channels.

2. Based on Construction: VRFBs are constructed with external electrolyte storage and a
central power cell, allowing for flexibility in system design and scalability:

 Modular Construction:
o VRFB systems are modular, allowing independent scaling of power (via the
number of cells in the stack) and energy (via the volume of electrolyte stored in
tanks). This makes them highly customizable based on the application.
 Bipolar Plates:
o Bipolar plates are used in VRFB stacks to provide electrical connection between
cells and to direct the flow of electrolytes.
  Flow Management:
o Pumps and flow channels are designed to circulate the electrolyte efficiently
between the tanks and the cell stack to optimize performance and minimize
resistance.

3. Based on Working Mechanism: Vanadium redox flow batteries operate through redox
reactions, where vanadium ions in different oxidation states undergo reversible electron transfer
reactions:

 Charging Process:
o During charging, an external power source applies current, causing vanadium
ions in the positive electrolyte to be oxidized from V4+V^{4+}V4+ to
V5+V^{5+}V5+, while in the negative electrolyte, V3+V^{3+}V3+ is reduced
to V2+V^{2+}V2+. Protons pass through the membrane to balance the charge,
and electrical energy is stored in the form of chemical energy.
 Discharging Process:
o During discharging, the process reverses. V5+V^{5+}V5+ is reduced to
V4+V^{4+}V4+ in the positive electrolyte, and V2+V^{2+}V2+ is oxidized to
V3+V^{3+}V3+ in the negative electrolyte. The flow of electrons from the
negative side to the positive side through an external circuit generates electrical
power.

4. Based on Applications:

 Energy Storage for Renewable Energy:

o VRFBs are ideal for large-scale energy storage, particularly for renewable
energy sources such as solar and wind power, where intermittent generation
requires efficient and scalable storage solutions.
 Grid Stabilization:
o These batteries are used to stabilize electricity grids by providing load leveling,
frequency regulation, and peak shaving, ensuring reliable and consistent power
delivery.
 Off-Grid and Remote Power Systems:
o VRFBs can store energy for remote or off-grid locations where stable power
sources are unavailable. They are particularly useful in areas with renewable
energy systems that need energy storage for nighttime or low-generation
periods.
 Backup Power Systems:
o VRFBs serve as backup power for critical infrastructure such as hospitals, data
centers, and telecommunications networks, where continuous power supply is
essential.
 Electric Vehicle Charging Stations:
o Their scalability and ability to handle large energy demands make VRFBs a
promising candidate for providing energy storage in electric vehicle (EV)
charging infrastructure.

Construction, Working, and Applications of Vanadium based Redox flow

batteries:

Redox Flow Batteries (RFBs) are a type of electrochemical energy storage system that relies
on the oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions of two soluble chemical species to store and release
electrical energy. Unlike conventional batteries, RFBs store energy in liquid electrolyte
solutions held in external tanks and pump these solutions through a reactor (or cell stack) to
generate power.Bing Videos

How Redox Flow Batteries Work

1. Electrolyte Solutions:
o The energy in RFBs is stored in two liquid electrolytes, one containing the
oxidized form of a redox-active species and the other containing the reduced
form. These electrolytes are stored in external tanks.
2. Flow of Electrolytes:
o During operation, the two electrolyte solutions are pumped into the
electrochemical cell, where they are separated by an ion-selective membrane.
The membrane allows ions to pass between the two electrolytes but prevents the
mixing of the two solutions.
3. Oxidation and Reduction Reactions:
o In the cell, redox reactions occur at the electrodes. One species is oxidized (loses
electrons) at the anode, while the other is reduced (gains electrons) at the
cathode, generating an electric current that can be used to power external
devices.
4. Charging and Discharging:
o Discharging: The redox reactions release stored energy in the form of
electricity.
o Charging: The process is reversed by applying an external electrical current,
which reverts the electrolytes to their original oxidation states.

Key Components of Redox Flow Batteries

1. Electrochemical Cell: The core of the battery where the redox reactions occur. It
consists of electrodes (usually made of carbon-based materials) and a membrane that
separates the two electrolyte solutions.
2. Electrolyte Tanks: External storage tanks that hold the liquid electrolytes.
3. Pumps: Systems that circulate the electrolytes between the tanks and the
electrochemical cell.
 4. Membrane: A selective barrier that allows the transfer of ions while keeping the
electrolytes physically separated.

Types of Redox Flow Batteries

1. Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries (VRFB):

o The most commercially developed RFB system.
o Both the positive and negative electrolytes contain vanadium in different
oxidation states (V²⁺/V³⁺ in the negative and V⁴⁺/V⁵⁺ in the positive).
o Advantages: High efficiency, long lifespan, and no cross-contamination of
species (since both sides use vanadium).
2. Iron-Chromium Flow Batteries:
o Uses iron and chromium species in the electrolyte solutions.
o Offers cost advantages due to the availability of these metals but may suffer from
lower efficiency compared to vanadium systems.
3. Zinc-Bromine Flow Batteries:
o The positive electrolyte contains bromine, while the negative side contains zinc.
o These are often used in off-grid and industrial applications but have challenges
with bromine handling and system complexity.
4. All-Vanadium Flow Batteries:
o A subtype of VRFB, with all vanadium species in different oxidation states,
ensuring higher cycle stability and minimizing cross-contamination.

Advantages of Redox Flow Batteries

1. Scalability:
o The energy capacity of RFBs can be increased simply by enlarging the
electrolyte storage tanks, making them ideal for large-scale energy storage
applications (such as renewable energy integration and grid stabilization).
2. Long Lifespan:
o RFBs can last for tens of thousands of charge-discharge cycles with minimal
degradation, offering long service life and durability.
3. Independent Power and Energy Capacity:
o The power output (dependent on the size of the electrochemical cell) and the
energy capacity (dependent on the volume of electrolyte) are independent of
each other, providing design flexibility.
4. Rapid Response:
o Redox flow batteries can quickly switch between charging and discharging,
making them suitable for applications that require fast energy response times.
5. Minimal Heat Generation:
o Since RFBs operate at near-ambient temperatures, there is very little heat
generation, reducing the need for complex cooling systems.

Limitations of Redox Flow Batteries

1. Lower Energy Density:

o Compared to lithium-ion and other solid-state batteries, RFBs have lower energy
densities, making them less suitable for applications where space or weight is a
concern, such as in electric vehicles.
2. System Complexity:
o The need for pumps, tanks, and other fluid-handling systems adds complexity to
the overall battery system, potentially increasing maintenance and cost.
3. High Initial Cost:
 o While the operating costs of RFBs can be relatively low, the initial cost of setup,
especially for large-scale applications, can be high due to the requirement of
pumps, tanks, and membranes.
4. Efficiency Losses:
o Pumping the electrolytes through the system and energy losses in the redox
reactions can result in lower round-trip efficiency compared to other types of
batteries.

Applications of Redox Flow Batteries

1. Grid Energy Storage:

o Ideal for storing energy generated from intermittent renewable sources like solar
and wind. The stored energy can be released back to the grid when demand is
high or generation is low.
2. Backup Power:
o RFBs can provide backup power for critical infrastructure such as hospitals, data
centers, and remote installations.
3. Microgrids:
o RFBs are well-suited for microgrid applications, providing a stable energy
supply to localized grids independent of the main power grid.
4. Load Balancing:
o They can be used for peak shaving and load leveling, helping to manage
electricity demand and reduce stress on the power grid during high-demand
periods.

Construction, Working, and Applications of Lithium-Ion Batteries

1. Construction of Lithium-Ion Batteries:

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries consist of several key components:

 Cathode (Positive Electrode):

o The cathode is typically made from lithium metal oxides, such as lithium cobalt oxide
(LiCoO₂), lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO₄), or lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide
(NMC). The choice of material influences the battery's energy density, safety, and life
cycle.
 Anode (Negative Electrode):
o The anode is usually composed of graphite, which stores lithium ions during the
charging process. Some modern Li-ion batteries may use silicon or other materials to
enhance performance.
 Electrolyte:
o The electrolyte is a liquid solution (often containing lithium salts like lithium
hexafluorophosphate (LiPF₆)) in an organic solvent. It allows the movement of lithium
ions between the cathode and anode during charging and discharging. Solid electrolytes
are also being researched for solid-state Li-ion batteries.
 Separator:
o A porous polymeric membrane (often made of polyethylene or polypropylene) that
separates the anode from the cathode while allowing lithium ions to pass through. It
prevents short circuits by physically keeping the electrodes apart.
 Current Collectors:
o Positive Current Collector: Made of aluminum, connected to the cathode.
o Negative Current Collector: Made of copper, connected to the anode. These collectors
conduct the flow of electrons through the external circuit during charging and
discharging.
  Casing:
o The battery is encased in a protective shell, often made of aluminum or steel, to ensure
mechanical stability and safety.

2. Working of Lithium-Ion Batteries:

Lithium-ion batteries operate through the movement of lithium ions between the anode and
cathode during the charge and discharge cycles.

Charging Process:

 During charging, an external electrical source (charger) applies a voltage to the battery.
 Lithium ions (Li+Li^+Li+) move from the cathode to the anode through the electrolyte.
 Electrons flow externally through the circuit from the cathode to the anode to maintain electrical
neutrality.
 The lithium ions are intercalated (stored) between the layers of graphite in the anode.

Discharging Process:

 During discharging, the process is reversed. Lithium ions move from the anode back to the
cathode through the electrolyte.
 Electrons flow externally from the anode to the cathode, providing electrical power to the
connected device.
 The movement of ions and electrons generates the electric current required to power electronic
devices.

The flow of lithium ions during both processes is highly reversible, which is what enables Li-
ion batteries to be recharged multiple times.
3. Applications of Lithium-Ion Batteries:

Li-ion batteries are widely used across various industries due to their high energy density, long
life cycle, and relatively low weight. Key applications include:

1. Consumer Electronics:

 Smartphones, Laptops, Tablets: Li-ion batteries are the preferred power source for portable
electronics due to their compact size, high energy density, and recharge ability.
 Wearables: Devices like smartwatches and fitness trackers use Li-ion batteries for their small
size and extended battery life.

2. Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs):

 Electric Cars and Buses: Li-ion batteries provide high energy storage and power output,
making them ideal for EVs. Tesla, Nissan, and many other car manufacturers use them in their
vehicles.
 E-Bikes and Scooters: Lightweight and rechargeable, Li-ion batteries power small electric
vehicles for urban transportation.

3. Energy Storage Systems (ESS):

 Grid Storage: Li-ion batteries are used in large-scale energy storage systems to store renewable
energy (e.g., solar, wind) for grid stability and backup power during peak demand or outages.
 Residential and Commercial Backup Power: Home energy storage solutions, like Tesla’s
Powerwall, use Li-ion batteries to store energy for backup or off-grid use.

4. Medical Devices:

 Implantable Devices: Li-ion batteries power devices like pacemakers, hearing aids, and
portable medical equipment due to their long life and reliability.
 Portable Medical Equipment: Devices such as portable ventilators and defibrillators often use
Li-ion batteries for their high energy density and portability.


5. Aerospace and Defense:

 Satellites: Li-ion batteries are used in space applications due to their lightweight and long cycle
life.
  Drones: Both commercial and military drones rely on Li-ion batteries for extended flight times
and high energy output.

6. Power Tools and Industrial Equipment:

 Cordless Power Tools: Li-ion batteries provide high power for drills, saws, and other hand-
held tools used in construction and manufacturing.
 Robotics and Automation: Autonomous machines, robots, and industrial automation systems
use Li-ion batteries to provide reliable and long-lasting power.

7. Marine Applications:

 Electric Boats and Submarines: Li-ion batteries are increasingly being used in marine
transport and underwater vehicles due to their energy efficiency and high power density.
 Battery Management System (BMS)

➡ What is BMS?

A Battery Management System (BMS) is an electronic system that manages, monitors, and protects
battery packs, ensuring safe and efficient operation. It is critical in lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries due
to their sensitivity to overcharge, deep discharge, temperature changes, and short circuits.

➡ Functions of BMS:

 Monitors voltage, current, and temperature of each cell.

 Balances cells to maintain uniform charge levels (cell balancing).
 Protects against overcharge, over-discharge, overheating, and short circuits.
 Calculates State of Charge (SOC) and State of Health (SOH).
 Communicates with external systems (e.g., EV control units).
 ⚠ Li-ion Battery Hazards

➡ Key Hazards:

 Thermal Runaway: Rapid, uncontrollable rise in temperature leading to fires or explosions.

 Fire Risk: If punctured, overcharged, or exposed to high temperatures.
 Toxicity: Leaks can release harmful chemicals (e.g., lithium salts, organic solvents).
 Reactivity with Water: Lithium reacts violently with water, releasing hydrogen gas.
 Environmental Hazard: Improper disposal leads to heavy metal contamination.

🔄 Electrochemical Recovery of Lithium from Spent Batteries

📚 Introduction:

As lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) reach the end of their life, recovering lithium becomes critical for
resource conservation, environmental protection, and economic reasons. Traditional recovery
methods (like pyrometallurgy) are energy-intensive and polluting, whereas electrochemical methods
offer a greener, more energy-efficient alternative.

⚙️ Electrochemical Recovery Process Overview

🔋 Advantages of Electrochemical Recovery

 Lower energy consumption compared to high-temperature methods.
 Selective recovery of lithium without heavy contamination.
 Environmentally friendly, avoiding toxic gases or waste.
 High purity lithium salts can be obtained.
 Scalable and adaptable to industrial processes.

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are widely used in electronic devices, electric vehicles, and
renewable energy storage systems. Over time, the performance of these batteries deteriorates,
leading to waste and environmental concerns. The recovery of lithium from spent LIBs is
crucial for reducing environmental impact and ensuring the sustainable supply of lithium.
Various methods for lithium recovery include mechanical, chemical, and electrochemical
processes. Electrochemical recovery is gaining attention due to its selectivity, efficiency, and
potential for direct lithium extraction from battery waste. Electrochemical methods utilize
electric current to facilitate the extraction and recovery of lithium ions from spent batteries.
Discharge and disassemble batteries to separate the electrodes and electrolyte. The cathode and
anode materials (typically NMC, LiCoO₂, LiFePO₄, graphite, etc.) are then isolated. The
electrolyte can be an aqueous or non-aqueous solution containing lithium salts (e.g., LiCl,
Li₂SO₄, LiNO₃). If the battery electrodes are in solid form, they are subjected to leaching with
acidic or basic solutions to dissolve lithium and other metals. The optimized potential is 2.5 V,
where the maximum number of Lithium can have separated/ leached from the spent battery
electrodes/electrolytes etc., and finally it is deposited on the surface of the cathode material.
The deposited Lithium on the electrode species can be separated manually.
At Anode: Oxidation takes place, Li Li+ + e- (oxidized on the surface of anode)
At Cathode: Reduction takes place, Li+ + e- 2.5 V Li (deposited on the cathode surface)

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of Dis assembly of spent Li ion battery

References: Yu, L., Bai, Y. and Belharouak, I., 2024. Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries via
Electrochemical Recovery: A Mini-Review. Batteries, 10(10), p.337.

Electrochemical Cell Setup

An electrochemical cell is set up where the leachate containing lithium ions is placed in an
electrolyte. A suitable electrode material such as carbon and platinum are used as the anode
and cathode. A potential difference is applied across the electrodes, leading to the reduction of
lithium ions at the cathode. During electrolysis, lithium ions are reduced and deposited at the
cathode, while other metals may be oxidized at the anode. Lithium recovery can be selective,
ensuring the efficient separation from other metals such as cobalt, nickel, or manganese. The
deposited lithium can be recovered in its pure form, typically as lithium carbonate (Li₂CO₃) or
lithium hydroxide (LiOH), depending on the electrolyte used and the reduction conditions.
Further purification steps may be needed to achieve battery-grade lithium.
Electrochemical Methods for Lithium Recovery
Lithium ion selective electrodes can be used for the high efficiency. Lithium is reduced at the
cathode, forming a solid lithium deposit, which can be collected and purified. These electrodes
selectively interact with lithium ions, facilitating their transfer to the cathode for recovery.
Advantages of Electrochemical Recovery
1. Electrochemical methods can selectively recover lithium from spent batteries,
minimizing the loss of valuable metals like cobalt or nickel.
2. The electrochemical process can be energy-efficient if optimized with appropriate
current densities, voltages, and electrode materials.
3. Unlike traditional methods (e.g., thermal or hydrometallurgical processes),
electrochemical recovery generates fewer toxic by-products and has lower
environmental impact.
4. The process can be adapted for large-scale recovery operations, offering a sustainable
solution for lithium recycling.
 📦 Best Storage and Handling Practices for Li-ion Batteries

➡ Storage Guidelines:

 Store batteries at 20–25°C in a cool, dry place.

 Keep partially charged (~40–60% SOC) during long-term storage.
 Avoid exposure to direct sunlight or freezing temperatures.
 Isolate defective or damaged batteries from good ones.
 Use fireproof containers for large battery packs.

➡ Handling Guidelines:

 Always use original chargers and authorized equipment.

 Avoid puncturing, dropping, or crushing batteries.
 Inspect batteries regularly for swelling, leaks, or deformation.
 Ensure personal protective equipment (PPE) (gloves, goggles) during large battery
handling.


♻️ Safe Disposal of Li-ion Batteries

➡ Disposal Methods:

 Recycling Centers:
o Send used batteries to certified recycling facilities (e.g., e-waste centers).
 Battery Collection Programs:
o Many manufacturers and retailers offer take-back programs.
 Regulated Disposal:
o Follow local regulations (Hazardous Waste Rules) for battery disposal.

➡ Precautions:

 Do not throw in household trash.

 Insulate terminals (with electrical tape) before disposal to prevent short circuits.
 Separate damaged batteries and label them properly.
 🔋 Advanced Battery Technologies for E-Mobility

1. Introduction
E-mobility (electric mobility) relies on efficient and high-performance batteries to power electric
vehicles (EVs). Advanced battery technologies aim to overcome challenges like energy density,
charging time, cost, and safety.

2. Key Advanced Battery Technologies

a. Lithium-Ion Batteries (Li-ion)

 Most widely used in EVs today.

 High energy density, lightweight, good cycle life.
 Limitation: thermal runaway, resource scarcity (Li, Co).

b. Solid-State Batteries (SSBs)

 Use solid electrolytes instead of liquid.

 Advantages: Improved safety, higher energy density, longer lifespan.
 Limitation: Still in R&D and expensive to scale.

c. Lithium-Sulfur (Li-S) Batteries

 Higher theoretical energy density than Li-ion.

 Sulfur is abundant and cheap.
 Challenges: Low cycle life due to polysulfide shuttling.

d. Sodium-Ion Batteries

 Cost-effective alternative to Li-ion using abundant sodium.

 Lower energy density but suitable for short-range EVs and grid storage.

e. Zinc-Air and Metal-Air Batteries

 Very high energy density.

 Lightweight and cost-effective.
 Challenges: Rechargeability and electrolyte stability.

3. Battery Innovations Supporting E-Mobility

 Fast charging and ultra-fast charge protocols.
 Battery swapping technology to reduce wait times.
 Second-life battery use for grid storage after EV life cycle.
 Thermal management systems to prevent overheating.
 📡 IoT-Based Battery Monitoring System for Electric Vehicles

1. Purpose
To ensure real-time monitoring of battery health, performance, safety, and efficiency in electric
vehicles using IoT (Internet of Things).

2. Core Components
a. Sensors

 Measure temperature, voltage, current, and State of Charge (SOC).

 Monitor State of Health (SOH) over time.

b. Battery Management System (BMS)

 Interfaces with IoT to collect, process, and transmit battery data.

 Balances cells, detects faults, and protects from overcharging/discharging.

c. IoT Modules

 Communication units (e.g., GSM, Wi-Fi, NB-IoT) send data to the cloud.
 Enables remote tracking and diagnostics.

d. Cloud-Based Analytics

 Stores and analyzes large volumes of battery data.

 Uses AI/ML to predict failures and optimize performance.

e. Mobile/Web Interface

 Displays real-time battery status for drivers and fleet operators.

 Alerts users of faults, degradation, or unsafe conditions.

3. Benefits of IoT-Based Battery Monitoring

 Real-time monitoring enhances safety and reliability.
 Predictive maintenance reduces downtime and cost.
 Improved battery lifespan through early fault detection.
 Fleet-level management for logistics and public transport systems.
 🔋 Introduction to Next-Generation Sodium-Ion Batteries
As the demand for sustainable and cost-effective energy storage grows, sodium-ion batteries (SIBs)
have emerged as a promising alternative to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Sodium, being abundant,
inexpensive, and widely distributed, addresses the resource and cost limitations of lithium,
especially for grid-scale and low-cost applications.

⚙️ Key Features of Sodium-Ion Batteries:

 Use sodium (Na⁺) ions instead of lithium (Li⁺) as charge carriers.

 Operate on similar intercalation/deintercalation principles as LIBs.
 Typically use hard carbon anodes and Na-based layered oxide or polyanionic cathodes.
 Can be developed with aqueous or non-aqueous electrolytes.

🔍 Advantages Over Lithium-Ion Batteries:

 Lower material cost (Na is ~1,000× more abundant than Li).

 Better safety due to higher thermal and chemical stability.
 Improved low-temperature performance in some chemistries.
 More environmentally friendly with easier raw material sourcing.

🌍 Applications of Sodium-Ion Batteries

1. Grid Energy Storage
o Ideal for renewable energy integration (solar, wind).
o Provide cost-effective large-scale energy storage.
o Suitable for peak load shifting and backup power systems.
2. Electric Two- and Three-Wheelers
o Emerging solution for low-speed EVs and short-range transportation, particularly
in developing regions.
3. Stationary Power Systems
o Used in UPS (uninterruptible power supplies) and telecom towers, where cost and
longevity outweigh energy density needs.
4. Consumer Electronics (Emerging)
o Targeted for low-to-medium energy density devices, such as remote sensors, power
banks, or emergency lighting.
5. Military and Remote Area Power
o For low-maintenance, rugged energy storage in remote or harsh environments.