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Exploring the Variety of Random
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morality, but of man. The majesty of morality is by no means
prejudiced by man's line of conduct. Kant could therefore declare
that "it is most reprehensible to derive either the origin or any
restriction of the laws telling me what I should do, from that which is
done by others."
It is the essence of all deep religions, especially of Christianity, that a
new life is created in man by a revelation of the Divine by means of
a direct union of the soul with God. This new life is held to be
superior to the complexity of existing conditions, and is sure to
triumph, because it is founded in God. A source of life is thus
opened up, which imparts new activity to the life hitherto stagnant.
Man regains courage and confidence, because he feels himself
sustained by divine strength and love. No contradiction in the world
of external realities is now able to weaken man's inner certainty. A
powerful impulse towards work and creative activity will be born of
the gladness within him. This explains the unquestioning confidence
and joyous energy manifested by all the leaders of religious life; the
consciousness of their deliverance from dire distress filled them with
unbounded gratitude, which sought expression in unremitting work
for their fellow-men. Luther says: "From faith flow love and joy in
the Lord, and from love a free and joyous spirit of voluntary service
of our neighbour, quite irrespective of gratitude or ingratitude, praise
or blame, gain or loss."
Further development of life by means of religion is sure to stamp
morality with characteristic features. The consciousness of
deliverance by a higher power will arouse not only gratitude, but
humility and childlike confidence. If everything man has is but a gift,
then he will see, in his highest achievement, less his own work than
that of God. Gentleness and toleration will gain ground; arrogance
and harshness will disappear; all decisive action will have an inner
rather than an outer significance. The value of an action depends on
loyalty to principle, and not on the greatness of what is achieved.
This is shown by Jesus in the parable of the talents.
But this accentuation of softer elements and inner values by no
means paralyses activity. For the new life must be energetically
developed and bravely asserted against an alien, not to say a
hostile, world. Man finds a great task, first of all in his own soul, but
then in the whole of his life with other men. We may here apply a
principle of the Reformation, which has thus been expressed: "The
word of God comes to change and renew the world, whenever it
comes." There is one thing on which a philosophy of the spiritual life
must emphatically insist: this return to religion must not be confined
to the individual, but must embrace all the conditions of human life.
Only thus can the whole of man be won. This can only be done by
creating a specific religious sphere of life, a specific religious
community. Many of us may wish the Church to be, in certain
respects, different to what it is; but that should not make us ignore
the necessity of a religious community. It is indispensable, if we are
to establish the new life in the human sphere, and bring it within the
reach of the individual; it is indispensable, if the struggle is to be
maintained by great entities, and is not to degenerate into small
skirmishes. At the present time, when the state is engrossed by
economic and other constantly changing problems of the day, we
need a community which attaches paramount importance to the
inner problems of humanity and which directs our life towards
eternal aims and values.
In this union with religion, morality will be inclined to see more
gloom than light in the life around us. For morality will then judge by
higher standards, and will emphasise the insufficiency of human
achievement, the unsatisfactory character of the present situation.
But morality cannot lead to despondency, once it is emancipated
from the world of immediate environment, and has gained a new
world. Morality will then see, in the world of strife and antithesis,
only a special kind of reality, and not the whole of reality; it will
recognise in this world only one act of a great drama, and not the
whole drama.
Much that is dark thus remains unexplained. To speak with Goethe,
we "walk among mysteries." Even if we cannot enlighten what is
dark, the new beginnings established in us will save us from
becoming cowed and despondent. We are certain that great things
are being accomplished in us and through us,—that a higher power
is present within us throughout the struggles of our life. At the same
time, we feel sure that our inner renewal is not mechanical, but
requires our own decision and action, thus making us co-operate in
the movement of the universe, and giving to our activity a
significance for the whole. That must and that can be sufficient for
us. We can agree with Luther, when he thus characterises human
life: "It is not yet done and accomplished, but it is in working order
and in full swing; it is not the end, but the way. All does not yet glow
and shine, but all is being burnished."
We know that so close a connection between morality and religion is
often contested nowadays. But we believe that religious morality can
only be attacked by those who have too low an estimate of morality
or too high an estimate of the actual condition of humanity. If
morality is but a means of tolerable order in the social community of
life, and is only looked upon as a controlling force, then it can
dispense with religion. But this means a lowering of the moral
requirement, the fulfilment of which brings but little gain or profit. It
is possible, on the other hand, to value morality more highly, but to
over-estimate man, as experience shows him to be. He is looked on
as a good and noble being, easily won for the highest aims. Were
this a true conception of man, then morality could attain its ends by
its own strength alone. But we are clearly shown that this is not the
case, both by the conviction of all great religious and philosophical
teachers, and by the general impression of human life. At all times,
the pessimists—and not the optimists—were held to have the best
knowledge of human nature. We need only consider more closely
the delineation of human life left us by the so-called optimistic
philosophers (like Aristotle and Leibnitz), in order to see that even
they found in it much that was dark and gloomy.
If we maintain a high conception of the moral task and an impartial
conception of the actual condition of human life, there remains but
one dilemma: either complete hopelessness and inner collapse of
life, or the acquisition of further cohesions, such as that offered by
an alliance with religion. But religion must then mean more than a
sum of doctrines and institutions. It must influence the whole soul.
It must not only cling to the past, but must, above all, be a power in
the living present. It must not only be a source of comfort to
individuals, but must raise the whole of mankind to a higher and
purer level. In all these aspects, religion is both action and life, not
mere thinking about the world, or subjective emotion. A connection
of morality with religion thus understood, can be only a source of
profit—not of loss—to morality, which will thus be strengthened in its
bearing on external reality, and will experience a great deepening of
its inner life.
 VI
The Present Status of Morality

VI
THE PRESENT STATUS OF MORALITY
We must now consider, in conclusion, the position of Morality in our
day. Let us see what profit and loss accrues to morality from the
present, and what its prospects are for the future. There can be no
doubt about the fact that great changes are being effected—changes
not only in the world of thought, but in the whole range of life and
work. These changes at first result in manifold losses to morality.
The pillars which used to support it began to totter, or gave way
altogether; new ones arose, but are as yet too weak to offer an
adequate substitute for what is lost. We cannot therefore look upon
the present status of morality as a satisfactory one.
The weakening of religious conviction and practice is unfavourable to
morality. Imperfect as the influence of religion often was on mankind
at large, and excessive as was the importance attached to the idea
of reward and punishment, men yet recognised a power superior to
all human action and all arbitrary human decision. This power was to
be an object of reverence; and life was raised above the care for
purely material possessions. It was also a gain for moral culture, that
religion established the inner solidarity of man, and facilitated
mutual understanding. Thus it is a loss for morality, that religion no
longer maintains its former ruling position.
The general condition of our intellectual life is unfavourable to
morality, inasmuch as this intellectual life lacks a uniform aim which
could unite scattered aspirations, strengthen every single
undertaking, and counteract, as a whole, the interests of mere
individuals. These interests at all times made themselves felt, and
life was always in danger of being dominated by petty human
considerations. But the difference between period and period
depends on whether or not this danger is counteracted and man is
raised above himself by some high aim. In our day, such
counteraction is lacking. Where have we an aim embracing the
whole man, which is common to us all and binds us together to
inner communion? Every party and faction preaches some ideal of its
own, the attainment of which will, it believes, unite men, making
them good and happy. But these individual aims are very different in
character; they are a cause of mutual hindrance, and they divide
mankind in that which should be a means of union.
Another disadvantage for inner culture is the rapid pace of life, as
compared to former times. While we are hastening from moment to
moment, we have neither repose nor leisure for the culture of our
inner man, for the development of a character, a personality. We are
more and more in danger of being absorbed by the whirlpool of life,
and robbed of all possibility of self-conscious action. Other perils also
beset us. In our thirst for achievement and success, our moral
judgment is often repressed; the accentuation of the battle of life
can even make us indifferent to the moral quality of the ways and
means employed by us. All this necessarily weakens morality, and
makes it appear unimportant and shadowy.
To these dangers arising from the general conduct of life, we must
add others, which originate in the modern development of work in
the community. In former times, the conditions of life were at once
narrower and less subject to change. Social environment exercised a
stricter and more exclusive control over the individual, holding him
within the bounds of law and custom. This influence was often only
an external one; correct behaviour was frequently mistaken for
moral integrity. This gave rise to much unreality and pharisaical
hypocrisy. Still, a certain result was attained in the direction of moral
culture; certain restraints were acknowledged, which cannot, without
impunity, be dispensed with. Restraints play an important part in the
life of the soul, as well as in that of the body. Modern freedom of
action makes the individual depend on himself alone, and we must
be very optimistic to believe him able to completely withstand,
unaided, all the temptations of life.
We cannot omit one characteristic modern development: the change
of men's mutual relation from a personal to an impersonal one. We
have but to think of the difference between the cordial community of
life established by the old arts and crafts, and the cool, almost
hostile manner in which, in our great labour complexes, "employers"
and "employees" nowadays associate. There is no longer the
slightest personal relation or personal sympathy between them.

If we survey all these losses, the balance of the day will hardly
appear to be in favour of morality. But we must not forget that the
present age has also supplied morality with new and valuable
impulses. This is above all the case with labour—the modern form of
work to which we have just alluded. There is a strong moral element
in the ever increasing formation and organisation of great labour
complexes, not only in the factory, but also in science, state
organisation, education, and so forth. The individual is thereby
obliged to work in close union with others, and in accordance with
objective requirements. He must adapt his own activity to the
general character of the work; and yet he must do his own part
conscientiously, so that the mass of separate achievements may
blend harmoniously and ensure the steady progress of the whole.
This requires such loyalty, self-control, and sacrifice of personal taste
and opinion, that a strong moral effect is undeniable. In this respect,
man now learns more implicit obedience than at any former period.
Another moral element in modern labour is the concentration of
man's whole strength on his work, to the exclusion of all inert
repose.
If the impersonal element predominates in work, the social side of
modern life offers, on the other hand, more direct union and more
reciprocal action between man and man. This was, at first, mainly
theoretical. It was pointed out how much one man depends on his
fellow-men. People realised that the individual develops with other
individuals and as part of the community, with which his aspirations
are indissolubly connected, even when he imagines he is striking out
a path for himself. But such theories could only have so much
influence, because they were in harmony with the realities of life.
Modern life, with its technical developments, brought individuals into
close touch and created new opportunities of mutual intercourse,
uniting men both in success and in failure. Thus grew up the
consciousness of human solidarity, the recognition of men's
interdependence, the idea of mutual obligation. The result is a
wealth of humane activity, which penetrates into all the ramifications
of life, attacking and seeking to eradicate all forms of want and
misery, instead of merely helping to relieve individual cases. We
encounter the earnest endeavour to impart material and spiritual
possessions, as far as possible, to all men; to help and strengthen
the less favoured section of humanity; to further the interests of
aspiring spirits. These efforts are but various aspects of one great
duty, which we feel we cannot ignore; we can no longer look upon
them as works of mercy, which it is a virtue to perform. This is at the
root of the social idea. And this social idea is, in our day, the
greatest bond of union between human beings; not only does it stir
individuals, but it also exercises a strong influence on law, education,
and so forth. In this respect our time has a right to claim undoubted
superiority over all former times.
These moral achievements of the present, valuable as they are, yet
have their inner limitations. Nearly all movement here proceeds
outward, and is directed towards distinct single achievements, while
the culture and welfare of the inner man are mostly treated as of
secondary importance. Zeal for surface ends leads to the neglect of
the central values of life. Yet all outer achievement only means real
gain for us, if it promotes the growth of the whole man, of his soul,
of his personality, making him nobler, greater, and happier. If there is
no development and strengthening of the centre of life, achievement
on the surface is apt to result in grave complications, and all that is
great in the present may thereby be driven into the wrong channels.
Another danger grows out of the ever increasing tendency to
organise work. Owing to the necessity of specialising and
differentiating, the amount of work is restricted which the individual
can comprehend and master. He is tempted to concentrate his
interest on his own little province, to be indifferent to everything
outside it, and to lose all consciousness of a leading idea and of a
great whole. He thus falls a prey to the narrow conceit of the
specialist, and finally pushes aside as worthless accessories all
matters of general interest, all the questions and sorrows of
humanity at large.
By furthering a spirit of pity for human want and misery, without
giving to life an inner value and a higher aim, we are in danger of
becoming sentimental and of producing inner languor in spite of all
outer activity. We are often more anxious to procure for man a
comfortable and pleasant life, than to promote inner growth; and
our care for the weak, which is quite justified, leads us to take such
weak individuals as a criterion and to lower life to their level.
Modern life often lacks the necessary hardness and vigour; in our
care for the rights of individuals, we are inclined to neglect the rights
and requirements of the whole and also of the spiritual life. So we
are in danger of losing that which according to Goethe, "No one
brings with him into the world, yet which is all important if a man is
to become a man in every respect: reverence."
If we review the whole and consider the balance of moral profit and
loss in our day, the result cannot be a favourable one. No full
substitute is offered for what is lost. We have gained in breadth, but
we have lost in depth and strength. Above all, morality is in danger
of losing its former ruling position, and of having a subordinate one
assigned to it. It can therefore no longer call forth reverence, or be
treated as an independent aim and ideal. We realise at once the
gravity of this loss.
But this unfavourable aspect only holds good, if we consider the
present time as something complete and incapable of further
development. If, on the contrary, we seek to grasp all that is
struggling into life, all the requirements of our time that yet await
fulfilment: then the situation is quite different and far more
favourable. What mainly told against morality was the prevalent
over-estimation of everything pertaining to the visible life which
surrounds us in nature and in human society. The invisible realms of
religion and the ideal have, as we have seen, often grown dim and
shadowy. Many of our contemporaries deny them altogether, and
look to the visible world for full satisfaction of all man's wants, even
of his spiritual and intellectual requirements. This could only appear
possible because, in reality, the invisible world of spiritual values
continued to influence even those who denied it, and because it
supplemented and completed the achievements of the visible world.
It is, however, characteristic of our time, that the old fusion is no
longer possible, and the irreconcilable antithesis between these two
conceptions of life stands out in bold relief. With increasing zeal, the
movement in favour of the visible world—that is to say, Naturalism—
tries to eradicate everything appertaining to the invisible world, and
to fashion the whole of life in accordance with its own principles.
Naturalism tolerates no rival, and declares war to the death to
Idealism.
We now see the truth of Bacon's words: "Veritas potius emergit ex
errore quam ex confusione" (Truth can more easily emerge from
error than from confusion). For if we accept naturalism as the only
valid conception of life, and develop it consistently in all its bearings,
we cannot but see its incapacity to embrace the whole of life. The
apparent victory of naturalism thus contains the germ of a defeat,
the beginning of a great reaction. What becomes of man and of
human life, if the visible world means to him the only form of reality?
He is then but part of nature—dark and soulless nature. The vast
expansion and range of nature overwhelms him with the
consciousness of his own insignificance, while, at the same time,
nature is absolutely indifferent to his wishes and aspirations. What
he makes of himself and his life has not the very slightest
significance for this world of nature. All aspiration which transcends
his natural instinct of self-preservation must appear to be mere folly.
Such ideals as personality and character are but held to be illusions.
If man turns away from the outer world and takes refuge in his own
sphere, in the social life among his fellows, naturalism there shows
him a mere juxtaposition, but no inner community which could offer
new aims or develop new values. What remains is only a number of
individuals inhabiting the same little corner of the universe. Each of
these individuals strives to gain recognition of his own merits, and to
assert himself, to the detriment of others. Much sordidness and
hypocrisy become rampant, and it is impossible to counteract them
within so narrow a range, or to hope for the growing up of a nobler
and purer race of men. The individual remains bound to the
condition of society, which also determines his own nature; he
appears to be but a product of the social environment. Having no
deeper source of life within himself, how should he be able to escape
from the trammels of society, to rise above it or oppose it? Society
and environment thus become the destiny of man; and there is no
scope for freedom, for initiative, for independent action.
If we survey and appreciate all this with unbiassed minds, this life
must appear empty and meaningless and scarcely worth living. At
the same time, we shall discern a development of mankind far
transcending these narrow limits, as indeed has already been
pointed out in this our study of morality. The degradation of life
effected by naturalism might be endured in feeble and senile periods
conscious of no great tasks, but not in our time, which teems with
stupendous tasks it is earnestly striving to carry out. These great
tasks and problems can only be grappled with, if we are fully
conscious of concentrated energy and increased spiritual power.
Modern life has developed in various and opposite directions. Its
expansion is greater than its concentration, and this threatens it with
disintegration. There is an increasing and imperative need of more
unity and cohesion, of some universal and harmonious character of
the whole. How should this be attained without a vigorous
deepening of life, without the development of invisible values? We
observe, in our day, the encounter of an older and a newer age, of a
conception of life hallowed by the traditions of history, and a new
one that is struggling into existence; there is a sharp conflict
between the past and the present. We cannot but admit in the old
an imperishable germ of truth, and in the new, an inalienable right
to impress and influence us. We must prove and sift, separate and
unite. But how were any progress in this direction possible, could we
not find a superior point of view, such as can be offered only by a
world of thought, not by the visible life? This problem gains vastly in
significance by extending to the social life of all humanity. We see
here a struggle between an older, more aristocratic form of society,
and a newer, more democratic one. This struggle engenders violent
passions, especially in the province of economics. We are here
placed before a grave question: shall we be able to impart the
benefits of civilisation to all men alike, and thus broaden every
individual soul, without injury to its inner depths?
These are problems which do not originate in ourselves, but which
are forced upon us by the movement of history. Their very necessity
bids us hope for progression, in spite of all impediments. The power
which has imposed these problems on us will enable us to solve
them. But we shall also need to put forth our uttermost strength,
and to quicken all our latent spiritual forces; we must grasp our life
as a whole, must acknowledge its high aims with all our heart and
soul, and must find our real self in these ideals. Only thus can we
gain the sense of inner necessity which alone can lead us onward.
In this manner, our aspiration becomes closely linked to morality. Let
us see wherein we have already recognised the quintessence of
morality. Life and aspiration are detached from the little Ego, and
take root in a spiritual world in which we find our own essential
being, so that while working for this spiritual world, we are at the
same time working for our own depth and spiritual self-preservation.
Such a change and reaction, such identification with the movement
of the spiritual life, means only that our aspiration has gained a
moral character. This moral character brings us, at all points, into
touch with our time. By means of our own aspiration, we can now
grasp, unite, and deepen all the goodwill, genuine feeling, and
untiring activity of our day, which was hitherto inadequate only
because it lacked inner unity and quickening spiritual power.
We can thus face the future with courage and confidence. Humanity
has by no means exhausted its vital power; it is full of new
possibilities which demand realisation; and therefore we may expect
an inner progression of life and a rejuvenation of morality.
What is true of mankind in general, is especially true of America.
The multitude of grave problems cannot discourage a nation which
feels in itself so much youthful vigour, that it will not submit to a
dark fate, but is able and ready to mould its own fate, and to aspire
to yet greater heights than it has hitherto attained. But to achieve
this, moral force is as necessary as unshaken confidence in the
power of the spirit. We believe in a bright future for this great
country. We believe also in the development in America of such
moral strength as will successfully overcome all conflicts and lead to
splendid results, for the benefit not only of the American nation, but
of all mankind.

THE END
 ADVERTISEMENTS

Works by

Dr. Rudolf Eucken

Professor of Philosophy, University of Jena
In 1908, Dr. Eucken was awarded the Nobel Prize for
literature. His books have been translated into many
languages and their influence is widespread.
Through his sustained and heroic appeal to what is most
spiritual in man, Eucken has ennobled the significance and
the mission of philosophy. He aims at developing, not a
new category, but a new culture, and holds that it is the
privilege of philosophy, by penetrating to what is most
inward in human nature, to bring a religious inspiration to
bear upon the problems of the world of human labor.
Eucken's philosophy is a philosophy of life. It is a
philosophy of reality as well. It treats of the sources of
man's strength, and the meaning and purpose of his
spiritual endeavor. And can there be anything more real
than the activity of a life that has consciously realized the
true sources of its power and the goal of its ultimate
aspirations?
 New York G. P. Putnam's Sons London

Works by Dr. Rudolf Eucken

In the Crown Theological Library Series

The Life of the Spirit

An Introduction to Philosophy
Translated by F. L. Pogson, M.A.
12º, $1.50 net. By mail, $1.65
Second Edition. With Introductory Note by Author
"Germany has again given us a great constructive
philosopher, whose influence has gone out through all the
thinking world.... No one can read these powerful pages
without understanding that a strong thinker has arisen
among us, and without enlargement and deepening of his
own thought."—Congregationalist.
"With Bergson of France, he is the most influential personal
factor in arming contemporary thinkers for the fray against
materialism and irreligion."—Christian Science Monitor.
 Knowledge and Life
12º.
"No one is having more influence upon the spiritual life and
religious thought of Europe, at the present time, than Prof.
Rudolf Eucken. His books ... are making a deep impress
upon thinking people."—Christian Work.

Religion and Life

16º. Frontispiece. 50 cts. net. By mail, 60 cts.
"The work is able, as may naturally be expected of Prof.
Eucken. But it is more. The author is very much in earnest
and he is anxious for men to see the great need of religion
in their lives. In this book we have the best of his mind and
heart."—Boston Transcript.
"The philosophy of Eucken shares with that of Bergson the
keenest living interest of thoughtful men of all classes at
the present day.... Eucken has endeavored in this book to
put his constructive system into the clearest and most
elaborate form."—Continent.

New York G. P. Putnam's Sons London

 Works by Dr. Rudolf Eucken

In the Theological Translations Series

The Truth of Religion

Translated by W. Tudor Jones, Ph.D.
Second English Edition. Translated from the Third and
Revised German Edition with a special Preface
by the Author
8º. $3.50 net. By mail, $3.75
"When a book of really original thought appears it
constitutes an epoch in literature. Such a new era is
introduced by this work. The ideas of Prof. Eucken are
startling, and revolutionary in some respects, but are at the
same time inspiring and reassuring to all the essential
features of Christianity as the true, the supreme and the
final religion."—Watchman.

Contest for the Spiritual Life

8º.
"In Professor Eucken, we have the philosopher as preacher.
He not only handles life, he would spread, enrich, and
fortify it, and he is a great force for the restoration of
idealism in his own land. He is a preacher equipped with
philosophy and an inspired lecturer on the spiritual life and
its integration in the Whole."—The Nation.

An Interpretation
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12º. With Portrait. $1.50 net. By mail, $1.65
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importance in the individual life, the society and the religion
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 An Introduction to
Metaphysics
By Henri Bergson
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Collège de France
Translated by T. E. Hulme
Authorized Edition, Revised by the Author, with
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well qualified for his task by the careful study that he has
made of the whole series of my writings. I have examined
his translation with care and am able to say that it renders
with remarkable accuracy the thought and the conclusions
presented in my volume."
Henri Bergson.
This volume forms the best introduction to M. Bergson's
philosophy. In it the author explains with a thoroughness
not attempted in his other books the precise meaning he
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book is, therefore, indispensable to a proper understanding
of Bergson's position. German, Italian, Hungarian, Swedish,
and Russian translations of it have already appeared,
testifying to its intrinsic importance and indicating the
scope of its appeal.
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