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 The Rough Guide to

Languedoc and
Roussillon

written and researched by

Brian Catlos

NEW YORK • LONDON • DELHI

www.roughguides.com
 Contents

| C ONTENTS |
6 Narbonne, Béziers
Colour section 1–24
and around......................... 299
Introduction................................ 4 7 Roussillon.......................... 337
Where to go................................ 7
When to go............................... 12 Contexts 387–414
Things not to miss.................... 15
History.................................... 389
Books..................................... 408
Basics 25–66
Getting there . .......................... 27 Language 415–438
Getting around.......................... 33
Accommodation....................... 40 Occitan and Catalan............... 417
Eating and drinking................... 44 French.................................... 422
The media................................. 49 Glossary................................. 435
Sports and outdoor pursuits..... 50
Living and working in France.... 53 Travel store 439–442
Travel essentials....................... 55

Guide 67–386 Small print & Index 443–456

1 Toulouse and around............ 69

2 Carcassonne, Upper The Land of the
Cathars colour section
Aude and Ariège.............. 113
following p.216
3 Albi and Haut
Languedoc......................... 165
4 Nîmes and around.............. 209
5 Montpellier and around...... 255 Wines of Languedoc
and Roussillon colour
section following p.312

 Place de la Comédie, Montpellier  Tree-lined road, Languedoc

| INTRODUCTION | WHE RE TO GO | W HE N TO GO

Introduction to

Languedoc
and Roussillon
The Languedoc and Roussillon region is one of France’s
best-kept secrets. While Provence and the Côte d’Azur just
across the Rhône have been living it up, attracting movie
stars and the masses, its less pretentious neighbour has
remained in comfortable obscurity. And so much the better
for those in the know. Dramatically varied landscapes, two
distinct, proud cultures – Occitan and Catalan – a tradition
of heresy and steadfast rebellion and age-old customs
all combine to make this a great region unmatched in its
romantic associations, at once epitomizing and defying
everything that is France. Now shaking off centuries of
sleepy neglect, Languedoc and Roussillon are emerging as
one of the most enticing parts of the country, with remote
villages and little-travelled byways affording a window onto
a vanishing European rural culture, as well as beaches and
cities offering a thrilling diversity of activity.
The boundaries of Languedoc have never been
easy to fix. In its broadest – and original –
sense, Languedoc includes the lands where the
Occitan language (the langue d’Oc) was spoken
˘ in the Middle Ages, an area stretching along the
north towards Savoy, through the Massif Central
 Cordes
Fact file

| INTRODUCTION | WHE RE TO GO | W HE N TO GO
• The area covered by this guide
includes most of the modern
région of Languedoc-Roussillon
and some of the most populated
parts of the Midi-Pyrénées. The
population of this area is approxi-
mately 3,400,000, concentrated in
a handful of urban centres, includ-
ing Toulouse, Montpellier, Nîmes
and Perpignan. Mid-sized towns
include Albi, Béziers, Narbonne,
Sète and Carcassonne. Away from
the coast, the broad plains of the
Lauragais are lightly populated,
and many areas of the hilly uplands
are all but deserted.
• Languedoc’s terrain is highly
varied. The windswept coast,
although rocky in the shadow of
the Pyrenees, is generally a flat
and sandy expanse, punctuated
by salty inlets. Scrubby gar-
rigues, rocky hills, rise out of the
sun-baked littoral plain, providing
and west along the Atlantic coast,
shelter for vineyards. Further from
taking in even Bordeaux. Nowa- the sea, the highlands of Haut
days, for administrative purposes, Languedoc and the cordillera
it has been lumped in together of the Pyrenees are covered by
with its neighbour as the modern cooler and damper forests, and
mark the transition from the Medi-
région of Languedoc-Roussillon,
terranean to the Atlantic climate
and trimmed down to the strip zone. On their far side, broad
of coast running from Montpel- expanses of grain-lands are cut
lier west to the border of Spain across by the occasional river-val-
including the inland region jutting ley or ridge.
north of Nîmes. But this latter, • Gone are the glory days of woad
and silk; today, aside from the
narrow definition of Languedoc is
industry of Toulouse – and on a
as inappropriate as the traditional smaller scale, that of Carcassonne,
one is vague. In defining Langue- Perpignan, Sète and Montpellier
doc in this guide we’ve avoided – the region’s economy depends
artificial boundaries in favour of for the most part on wine and,
increasingly, tourism. On the
cultural and historical cohesion
coast, mollusc farming supple-
and the logistics of travel, so that ments the still functioning but
the region butts up to neighbour- declining fishing industry. ˘

ing Provence at the Rhône, and

| INTRODUCTION | WHE RE TO GO | W HE N TO GO

stretches west and inland to include the medieval capital of Toulouse, as

well as the lands of Foix and Albi. Roussillon, Languedoc’s accidental
partner, squashed in between the eastern Pyrenees and the Corbières
˘ hills, is also characterized by a particular linguistic heritage, derived in
 | INTRODUCTION | WHE RE TO GO | W HE N TO GO

this case from a long history as part of the Catalan confederacy centred
in Barcelona. Both regimes have distinct cultures but, in addition to their
border, share a common history of occupation and of resistance and
eventual submission to the modern France of Paris and the North. ˘
 Cathars
| INTRODUCTION | WHE RE TO GO | W HE N TO GO

It’s hard to imagine a more romantic episode of the Middle Ages. A

peaceful people, living in a land of troubadours and poets, following the
religion of their choosing, are declared heretics by a grasping and
imperious papacy. This unleashes a series of brutal and drawn-out
military campaigns, sanctified as Crusades, but in fact wars of aggres-
sive colonialism waged by northern French nobles and churchmen on
the unsuspecting locals. It’s a story of knights and lords, martyrdoms,
Inquisition, lost treasures, a proud but beleaguered nation and castles
perched on rocky spurs, ending in the destruction of the Cathar faith,
the suppression of Occitan culture and the subjugation of the people of
Languedoc. The truth was far more complex than this popular and
exaggerated Sir Walter Scott-ish version of the events, but the story of
the Cathars is a fascinating and exciting introduction to the region’s
history, long buried by the modern French state. For the full story, see
The Land of the Cathars colour section and Contexts p.394.

 Towers and fortifications of the Château de Foix

Where to go

W
ith the tremendous range of sights and activities on offer in
Languedoc and Roussillon, where you go will be determined
by your interests and inclinations. Toulouse is the region’s
largest city and its most important cultural hub. Here you’ll
˘ find a thriving nightlife and a collection of world-class museums and
monuments, including the Les Abattoirs contemporary art museum and
the basilica of St-Sernin. North of the city, the famous vineyards of Gaillac
stretch up towards Albi, home to the Toulouse-Lautrec museum and an

| INTRODUCTION | WHE RE TO GO | W HE N TO GO
obligatory stop for anyone interested in modern painting. Nearby, the hills
and forests of the Parc du Haut Languedoc, once the refuge of Protes-
tant Huguenots, are now presided over by the herds of Brébais goats which
give Roquefort cheese its famous flavour. To the south, the Ariège river,
excellent for rafting in the summer, can be followed up into the Pyrenees.
Here, south of medieval Foix, you’ll find some of Europe’s oldest and most
enigmatic prehistoric caves. The mountains themselves have trails and pistes
which make for spectacular hiking or skiing, depending on the season.
The Canal du Midi, a placid tree-lined waterway and the largest
UNESCO World Heritage site on earth, leads east from Toulouse towards
the Mediterranean, passing beneath the walls of Carcassonne, the greatest
of the heretic fortresses and France’s most recognizable medieval monu-
ment. Southeast of here, Montségur lies deep in Cathar country, at the
upper end of the Aude and its stunning array of castle ruins, romantically
perched on isolated cliff-tops.
Nothing could contrast with this more than the Camargue, the swampy
delta of the Rhône, which forms Languedoc’s northern frontier – home to
the bull ranches which fuel the region’s passion for the corrida. The beauty
of the sun-baked garrigues just inland was well known to the Romans, whose
monuments in and around Nîmes, including the famous Pont du Gard
aqueduct, bear witness to the area’s ancient glory. From here, you can either
follow the path of the Roman super-highway, the Via Domitia, or the
medieval Santiago pilgrim route past a series of atmospheric fortress-towns,  Bize-Minervois

˘
  The Feria in Nîmes
| INTRODUCTION | WHE RE TO GO | W HE N TO GO

like Aigues-Mortes and Sommières, or you can dip down to the coast, a
long swathe of sandy beach broken only by the salty inlets which are home
to shellfish and windsurfers. Just south, Montpellier is a thriving multicul-
tural city, close to the sea and with a lively street-life sustained by the student
population of its famous university, which has been turning out graduates for
eight hundred years. From here, the Hérault valley provides access to a rocky
hinterland where you can visit the ancient monastery of St-Guilhem-le-
Désert or hike through the spectacular Cirque de Navacelles.  Main square, St-Guilhem

10
 Food and drink

| INTRODUCTION | WHE RE TO GO | W HE N TO GO
Languedoc and Roussillon present a culinary terrain as varied as their
landscape. The coastal towns brim with freshly-caught fish and the culti-
vated shellfish of the saltwater étangs. In the east, the marshy Camargue
is home to some of continen-
tal Europe’s best beef. The
rough hills which rise above
the plain provide a range of
fresh herbs and, in a brief
season of glory, truffles. In the
broad plains of the Lauragais,
duck, the Frenchman’s steak,
is ubiquitous, along with
its fellow fowl, goose, usu-
ally in the shape of rich foie
gras. This is also the home of
Languedoc’s “national” dish,
cassoulet – a baked-bean
stew. In the desolate uplands,
pork dominates in the form
of chops, feet and a range
of regional sausages, while
sheep and goats provide the
milk for cheeses, both pun-
gent and sweet, and a series
 Cassoulet
of micro-climate valleys pro-
duce a bounty of fruit. Aside
from Catalan, Spanish and North African food, there is little “ethnic” ele-
ment in culinary Languedoc, although you will find other French cuisines
well represented. The best respite from what can be delicious but even-
tually monotonous terroir fare, is gastronomique – adventurous cuisine
blending regional elements with diverse ingredients and creative culinary
techniques. Wherever you are, wash your meal down with the local wine.
Languedoc has a wide selection of underrated vintages, while along the
Tarn, at Gaillac, the interface between Atlantic and Mediterranean climate
zones provides conditions for one of the most venerable of appellations.

At Pézenas, a town whose cobbled streets are girded by seventeenth-

century palaces, the sun-baked Languedocian plain opens out. Medieval
Béziers and Roman Narbonne preside over an expanse of archetypal
Midi landscape. Blue skies are set off against the red soil and the iridescent
green of seemingly endless vineyards. Only the ports, Agde and Sète, justly
famed for their seafood and maritime traditions, manage to shake off the
pleasant torpor of the plains.
Further south, Roussillon (French Catalonia), snuggles in the foothills of 11

the Pyrenees, a region whose vivid contrasts have inspired artists including
 the Fauvists and Picasso. The capital, Perpignan, makes an ideal jumping-
off point for visiting the rocky coves of the Côte Vermeille, or ascending
| INTRODUCTION | WHE RE TO GO | W HE N TO GO

the river valleys into the heart of the département. On the coast, Collioure
and Banyuls are beautifully set beach towns, immune from the crass com-
mercialism which characterizes the worst of the coastal resorts. Inland, the
narrow-gauge Train Jaune winds upwards past Le Canigou, the mountain-
symbol of the Catalan people, and the evocative old garrison towns of
Villefranche and Mont-Louis, while the festivals at Prades and Céret
make a great introduction to the lively Catalan folk traditions.

Canal du Midi
In the 1660s, a local tax-collector, Paul Riquet, dreamed of bringing
prosperity back to Languedoc by building a canal to link it to the Medi-
terranean and the Atlantic. This mammoth civic engineering project was
the most complex and greatest such undertaking since the time of the
Romans. Although it bankrupted the visionary Riquet, who did not live to
see its inauguration, by 1856 the canal was carrying one million passen-
gers and more than 100,000 tonnes of freight per year. Struck down into
sudden obsolescence by the invention of the steam engine, the canal
system languished in over a century of disrepair, before being resur-
rected in the last few decades as a tourist attraction. The quintessential
Languedoc experience is to boat, walk or cycle along Riquet’s canal,
travelling at an easy pace, the tree-lined hedges providing shelter from
the same sun which coaxes up the region’s famous grapes.

12
 Horse in the Petite Camargue

| INTRODUCTION | WHE RE TO GO | W HE N TO GO
When to go

W
henever you visit, Languedoc and Roussillon offer a rich range
of sights and activities to enjoy. The summer season, the time
when most people come, offers a range of advantages but also
some short-comings. In July and August you can count on
long museum and monument hours, as well as the widest selection of
hotels and restaurants, many of which are seasonal. The weather is generally
warm and sunny enough that you can swim throughout the region, be it
in the Mediterranean or in the nearest lake or river. Many of the region’s
village festivals take place in the summer, along with an array of special
concert series. On the other hand, queues lengthen along with the opening
hours. In summer months competition for accommodation is often fierce;
you’ll be forced to book ahead for hotels, particularly on the coast, and
this can detract from the spontaneous aspect of your travels. Traffic is also
increasingly problematic in summer; the coastal highways and byways are
chock-a-block with frenzied drivers rushing to get either to the beach or
back home. If you’re thinking of a cycling holiday, you’ll probably want to
confine yourself to the quieter (and hillier) upland roads.
On the other hand, the long off-season, from November through to
Easter, sees many services shut down and museum and monument hours
reduced. Many of the villages, along with a lot of hotels and restaurants, all
but shut down, with the exception of the Pyrenean ski resorts which, of 13

course, are at their busiest. The weather is unreliable; it is frequently cold

 and grey, and a light layer
of snow makes the Cathar
| INTRODUCTION | WHE RE TO GO | W HE N TO GO

ruins more romantic

but less comfortable to
explore. This is, however,
arguably the best time to
visit urban centres like
Toulouse and Montpel-
lier; with their student
populations in residence,
these cities spring to life.
Not only do theatre and opera seasons get under way, but the bars and
clubs pack out with throngs of young folk. Christmas and Lent breathe
additional life into the countryside in the form of an array of colourful and
unique festivities.
The best time to go is probably the shoulder seasons, May and June, and
September, which offer a good balance between tranquillity and action. In
early June you can visit a town like Cordes and find it quiet and not yet
overrun. The cities will be winding down their university seasons and the
cultural programmes are preparing their finales. With a bit of luck, you’ll
get good weather, although you may find swimming only suits the brave.
The grape harvest and bull-fighting festivals are in full swing, and even
the coastal roads are still relatively safe for two-wheelers. You’ll also more
or less have your pick of the hotels and restaurants and will generally still
be charged low-season prices.

Average temperatures and rainfall

Jan Apr Jul Oct

Toulouse
precipitation mm/in 50/2 60/2.4 38/1.5 58/2.3
average high temp ˚C/F 7/45 17/63 27/81 17/63
average low temp ˚C/F 3/38 6/43 15/59 9/48
Montpellier
precipitation mm/in 50/2 60/2.4 38/1.5 58/2.3
average high temp ˚C/F 10/50 17/63 28/82 19/66
average low temp ˚C/F 2/36 6/43 16/60 9/48
Foix
precipitation mm/in 68/2.7 54/2.1 22/0.88 61/2.4
average high temp ˚C/F 10/50 17/63 27/81 19/66
average low temp ˚C/F 2/36 9/48 17/63 10/50
Perpignan
precipitation mm/in 51/2 56/2.2 18/0.7 89/3.6
14
average high temp ˚C/F 12/54 17/63 28/82 20/68
average low temp ˚C/F 4/40 9/48 19/66 12/54
24
| AC TIVITIE S | CONSUM E | E V E N TS | N ATURE | SI GHTS |
things not to miss

It’s not possible to see everything that Languedoc and Roussillon

have to offer in one trip – and we don’t suggest you try. What
follows, in no particular order, is a selective and subjective taste
of the region’s highlights: outstanding natural features, spectacular
cities, history, culture and beautiful architecture. They’re arranged
in five colour-coded categories to help you find the very best
things to see, do and experience. All entries have a page reference
to take you straight into the Guide, where you can find out more.

15

01 Train Jaune Page 366 • Twisting up into the high valleys of the Pyrenees, this
revived narrow-gauge line is a worthy excursion in itself and perfect for hikers.
| AC TIVITIE S | CONSUM E | E V E N TS | NATURE | S I GHTS |

02 Nîmes amphitheatre Page 223 • The gladiators have been replaced by

bullfighters but, 2000 years on, this 20,000-seat stadium still packs in the crowds.

04 Rabastens Page 186 • Get a rare

glimpse of a medieval church in all of its
painted glory.

16 03 Water-jousting Page 276 •

Originating centuries ago in Sète,
this sport is now a passionate fixture of
Languedoc traditional culture.
 | AC TIVITIE S | CONSUM E | E V E N TS | N ATURE | SI GHTS |

05 Oppidum D’Ensérune Page 323 • A pre-Roman settlement perched on a

ridge above the vineyards of Béziers.

17

06 Beaches Page 247 • From naked hedonism to romantic solitude, Languedoc’s

Mediterranean beaches, such as Le Grau-du-Roi, offer it all.
| AC TIVITIE S | CONSUM E | E V E N TS | NATURE | S I GHTS |

07 Collioure Page 382 • Roussillon at its most Catalan: a picturesque beach town
presided over by a medieval castle.

18

08 Cordes-sur-Ciel Page 181 • Cruise the boutiques or enjoy the evocative

atmosphere in this hill-top Cathar town.
 09 Seafood
Page 46 •
Whether cultivated

| AC TIVITIE S | CONSUM E | E V E N TS | N ATURE | SI GHTS |

in the Bassin de
Thau or fished from
the sea, the area’s
seafood is a must.

10 La Petite Camargue Page 249 • Ride on horseback or cruise the canals and
salt pans of Durrell’s “Little Argentina.”

19

11 Christmas traditions Page 349 • Pessebres, caganers and cagatiós set

Roussillon’s Christmas festivities apart from the rest of France.
 13 Toulouse-Lautrec Page
174 • This Languedoc native
revolutionized nineteenth-century art; enjoy
| AC TIVITIE S | CONSUM E | E V E N TS | NATURE | S I GHTS |

the largest collection of his work and visit his

childhood estate.

12 Cirque de Navacelles
Page 292 • A dramatic oxbow canyon,
which cuts through the causse of the upper
Hérault.

20

14 Le Canigou Page 363 • Bonfires and a torch-light pilgrimage illuminate Catalonia’s

sacred mountain in mid-summer.
 | AC TIVITIE S | CONSUM E | E V E N TS | N ATURE | SI GHTS |
15 Outdoor activities Page 50 • The regions’ rivers and hills offer a full range of
hiking, trekking and water-sports.

16 Montségur Page 141 • The romantic and mysterious last redoubt of the Cathars.

17
de Niaux
La
Grotte

Page 158 • The

finest of the
Pyrenean caves,
the remote
Grotto de Viaüx
is known for
its enigmatic
prehistoric
paintings.

21
| AC TIVITIE S | CONSUM E | E V E N TS | NATURE | S I GHTS |

18 The Orb valley Page 334 • Follow this mountain river valley through near-
forgotten hamlets, such as Lunas.

22

19 Carcassonne Page 117 • France’s most famous and evocative medieval citadel.
 | AC TIVITIE S | CONSUM E | E V E N TS | N ATURE | SI GHTS |
20 Tauromachie Page 224 • Get swept up in the excitement and drama of the “art
of the bull”.

22 Pézenas Page 283 • Languedoc’s

former capital and the stomping
ground of Molière still evokes the glory of the
Age of Absolutism.

21 Swimming at the Pont

Du Gard Page 234 • Take a dip
under the lofty arches of this extraordinary
23

Roman Aqueduct.
| AC TIVITIE S | CONSUM E | E V E N TS | NATURE | S I GHTS |

23 The monastery of St-Roman Page 240 • Medieval monks hewed out this
underground monastic complex on the banks of the Rhône.

24

24 Aigues-Mortes Page 245 • Visit this perfectly preserved medieval walled town,
romantically set among swamps and dunes.
Basics

25
 Basics

Getting there ............................................................................. 27

Getting around........................................................................... 33

Accommodation........................................................................ 40

Eating and drinking.................................................................... 44

The media.................................................................................. 49

Sports and outdoor pursuits...................................................... 50

Living and working in France..................................................... 53

Travel Essentials........................................................................ 55

26
 Getting there

BASIC S
The quickest and most cost-effective way of reaching Languedoc and Roussil-

| Getting there
lon from most parts of Britain is by air, though from the southeast of England it’s
worth considering the Eurostar, which links with fast and efficient TGV services
south from Lille and Paris.

Getting to Languedoc and Roussillon from and from Birmingham and Bristol to Toulouse.
North America is straightforward; there are Both EasyJet and Ryanair also have regular
direct flights from over thirty major cities services from many British regional airports
to Paris, from where you can either take to Girona airport in Catalonia, just 60km from
an internal flight to the region or transfer the border of Roussillon. Return fares on all
to France’s excellent train network. Many the budget airlines start at around £20, but
people heading for France from Australia generally range from £60–150 for Carcas-
and New Zealand travel via London, sonne, and £45–125 for other destinations.
although there are scheduled flights to Paris Air France and British Airways also offer
from Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Cairns, scheduled flights from London to Toulouse
Perth and Auckland. from £120 return and to Montpellier for
Airfares always depend on the season, around £140. Air France flies from Heath-
with the highest being around mid-June to row at least once daily direct to Toulouse,
mid-September, when the weather is best; and from Gatwick to Toulouse and Montpel-
fares drop during the “shoulder” seasons lier. British Airways flies several times daily
– Easter to mid-June and mid-September from Gatwick to Marseilles, and once daily to
through October – and you’ll get the best Montpellier. Both airlines also have frequent
prices during the low season, November to daily flights from London and many British
Easter (excluding Christmas and New Year). regional airports to Paris, from where travel-
Note also that flying on weekends ordinar- lers can continue overland (see p.31).
ily adds to the round-trip fare; price ranges By far the most convenient way to fly
quoted below assume midweek travel. from the Irish Republic to Languedoc and
Roussillon is by flying direct from Dublin to
Flights from the UK and Toulouse with Aer Lingus. Ryanair also has
Ireland several routes to the region, including Dublin
Flying is the quickest way of getting to to Carcassonne and Nîmes, and Shannon
Languedoc and Roussillon, with journey times to Carcassonne. There are no direct flights
from London to Toulouse of less than two from Northern Ireland to Languedoc and
hours. You can also get direct budget flights Roussillon, but all the main budget airlines
there from a variety of British regional airports. can get you there from Belfast via an English
Several low-cost airlines – Ryanair, hub. Ryanair, for example, flies from Derry
BMIBaby, Flybe and EasyJet – offer sched- Airport to London Stansted for around £75,
uled flights into the region, or to hubs within from where you can pick up an onward flight
easy striking distance of it. Ryanair flies from to their various Languedoc destinations.
Dublin, East Midlands, Shannon, and Liver- Alternatively, you could get a British Airways
pool to Carcassonne; from East Midlands, flight directly from Belfast City Airport to Paris
Liverpool and Dublin to Nîmes; and from CDG, and continue overland from there.
Stansted to Perpignan and Montpellier.
EasyJet flies daily from Bristol and Gatwick Flights from the US and
to Toulouse, while BMIBaby flies from Canada 27
Manchester to Perpignan. Flybe flies from To get to Languedoc and Roussillon from
Birmingham and Southampton to Perpignan, North America, you can either fly to London
 Travelling with pets from the UK
If you wish to take your dog (or cat) to France, the Pet Travel Scheme (PETS)
enables you to avoid putting it in quarantine when re-entering the UK as long as
BASIC S

certain conditions are met. Current regulations are available on the Department for
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) website w www.defra.gov.uk/animalh
/quarantine/index.htm or through the PETS Helpline (t0870/241 1710).
| Getting there

and hook up with a budget airline (see From New Zealand, fares from Auckland
p.27), or, better, fly to Paris and continue start at around NZ$2000 in low season, up
overland, by renting a car or using France’s to NZ$3000 in peak season.
excellent rail system (see p.34). From South Africa, Air France flies direct
Transatlantic fares to Paris from the US are from Johannesburg to Paris from around
very reasonable, thanks to intense competi- 6140ZAR return. BA, flying via London,
tion. A typical return fare for a midweek flight comes in slightly more expensive, at around
costs around $850 from Houston, $750 from 10,000ZAR from Cape Town and 8600ZAR
Los Angeles and $650 from New York. From from Johannesburg. Flight times are around
Canada, prices to Paris are in the region of ten hours from Johannesburg to Paris,
CAN$850 from Montréal and Toronto, and and 14 hours from Cape Town including a
CAN$1100 from Vancouver. For contact stopover.
details of airlines that fly from the US and
Canada to Paris and London, see below. Agents, airlines and
specialist operators
Flights from Australia, Many airlines and discount travel websites
New Zealand and South offer you the opportunity to book your tick-
Africa ets online, cutting out the costs of agents
From Australia, New Zealand and South and middlemen. Good deals can often be
Africa, the best way to reach Languedoc found through discount or auction sites, as
and Rousillon is to fly to Paris then continue well as through the airlines’ own websites.
overland by train (see p.31). However, you There are also many tour operators offering
can find a wider range of options by flying to specialist tours of Languedoc and Roussil-
another European capital – usually London lon, such as walking, biking and boating.
– and picking up a budget flight there (see
p.27). Fares are priced according to the Online booking agents and travel sites
French tourist seasons: the brief low season
wwww.expedia.co.uk (in UK)
runs from early January to the end of Febru- wwww.expedia.com (in US)
ary and through October and November; wwww.expedia.ca (in Canada)
high season lasts from mid-May to the end wwww.lastminute.com (in UK)
of August and from December to early Janu- wwww.opodo.co.uk (in UK)
ary. For contact details of airlines that fly to wwww.orbitz.com (in US)
Paris and London, see below. wwww.travelocity.co.uk (in UK)
The best deals from Australia or New wwww.travelocity.com (in US)
Zealand to Europe are routed via Asia, wwww.travelocity.ca (in Canada)
often with a transfer or overnight stop in wwww.zuji.com.au (in Australia)
the airline’s home city. Flights via the US are wwww.zuji.co.nz (in New Zealand)
usually slightly more expensive. Airfares from
east-coast gateways to Paris are common Airlines
rated, with regular tourist class fares start- Aer Lingus UK t0870/876 5000, Republic of
ing at around Aus$2000 in low season, or Ireland t0818/365 000, w www.aerlingus.com.
28 AUS$2500 in high season. From Perth and Air France UK t0870/142-4343, US
Darwin flights cost around Aus$100–300 t1-800/237-2747, Canada t1-800/667-2747,
less via Asia, and Aus$400 more via the US. Australia t02/9244 2100, New Zealand t09/308
 Fly less – stay longer! Travel and climate change
Climate change is a serious threat to the ecosystems that humans rely upon, and
air travel is among the fastest-growing contributors to the problem. Rough Guides

BASIC S
regard travel, overall, as a global benefit, and feel strongly that the advantages to
developing economies are important, as is the opportunity of greater contact and
awareness among peoples. But we all have a responsibility to limit our personal
impact on global warming, and that means giving thought to how often we fly, and

| Getting there
what we can do to redress the harm that our trips create.

Flying and climate change

Pretty much every form of motorized travel generates CO2 – the main cause of
human-induced climate change – but planes also generate climate-warming
contrails and cirrus clouds and emit oxides of nitrogen, which create ozone (another
greenhouse gas) at flight levels. Furthermore, flying simply allows us to travel much
further than we otherwise would do. The figures are frightening: one person taking
a return flight between Europe and California produces the equivalent impact of 2.5
tonnes of CO2 – similar to the yearly output of the average UK car.
Fuel-cell and other less harmful types of plane may emerge eventually. But until
then, there are really just two options for concerned travellers: to reduce the amount
we travel by air (take fewer trips – stay for longer!), and to make the trips we do take
“climate neutral” via a carbon offset scheme.

Carbon offset schemes

Offset schemes run by w www.climatecare.org, w www.carbonneutral.com and
others allow you to make up for some or all of the greenhouse gases that you are
responsible for releasing. To do this, they provide “carbon calculators” for working
out the global-warming contribution of a specific flight (or even your entire exis-
tence), and then let you contribute an appropriate amount of money to fund offset-
ting measures. These include rainforest reforestation and initiatives to reduce future
energy demand – often run in conjunction with sustainable development schemes.
Rough Guides, together with Lonely Planet and other concerned partners in the
travel industry, are supporting a carbon offset scheme run by climatecare.org.
Please take the time to view our website and see how you can help to make your
trip climate neutral.
wwww.roughguides.com/climatechange

3352, South Africa t 0861/340-340,wwww Continental Airlines US & Canada t 1-800/231-

.airfrance.com. 0856, w www.continental.com.
Air Canada US & Canada t 1-888/247-2262, Delta Air Lines US & Canada t1-800/221-
w www.aircanada.com. 1212,wwww.delta.com.
Air New Zealand Australia t 13 24 76, New easyJet UK t0870/600 0000, w www.easyjet
Zealand t 0800/737 000, wwww.airnz.com. .com.
American Airlines US t 1-800/433-7300, flybe UK t 0870/889 0908, Republic of Ireland
Australia t 1300/650 7347, New Zealand, t1890/925 532, w www.flybe.com.
t 0800/887 997, w www.aa.com. Northwest/KLM Airlines US t1-800/225-2525,
bmibaby UK t 0870/264 2229, Republic of Australia t1300 303 747, New Zealand T09/309
Ireland t1890/340 122,wwww.bmibaby.com. 1782, South Africa t082/2345 747, w www.nwa
British Airways UK t 0870/850 9850, Republic .com, wwww.klm.com.
of Ireland t 1890/626 747, US & Canada t1-800/ Ryanair UK t0871/246 0000, Republic of Ireland
AIRWAYS, Australia t 1300/767 177, New Zealand t0818/303 030, wwww.ryanair.com.
t 09/966 9777, South Africa t011/441 8600, Qantas Australia t 13 13 13, New Zealand
wwww.ba.com. t0800/808 767, wwww.qantas.com. 29
Cathay Pacific Australia t13 17 47, New Zealand South African Airways SA t011978-1111,
t09/379 0861, wwww.cathaypacific.com. wwww.flysaa.com.
 United Airlines US t 1-800/241-6522, Australia Château de Quarante France t 04.67.89.40.41,
t 13 17 77, New Zealand t 09/379 3800 or wchateaudequarante.com. Upmarket, gourmet
0800/508 648, wwww.united.com. living in a private castle by night, chauffeur-driven
US Airways US & Canada t 1-800/428-4322, custom tours by day.
BASIC S

w www.usair.com. Discover France US & Canada t1-800/960-

Virgin Atlantic Airways US t 1-800/862-8621, 2221 or 480/905-1325, wwww.discoverfrance
Australia t 02/9244 2747, New Zealand t09/308 .com. Bike and hiking tours in Languedoc.
3377, w www.virgin-atlantic.com. Europe Through the Back Door US & Canada
| Getting there

t425/771-8303 ext. 298, w www.ricksteves.com.

Agents and operators Small-group and tailor-made tours.
Explore Holidays Australia t02/9423 8080,
ebookers UK T 0800/082 3000, Republic of Ire- wwww.exploreholidays.com.au. Accommodation,
land T 01/488 3507, wwww.ebookers.com. Low boat rental and package tours.
fares on an extensive selection of scheduled flights France OK France w www.franceok.com. Based in
and package deals. Argelès-sur-Mer; arranges canal, walking and
North South Travel UK T01245/608 291, gourmet tours in Roussillon.
w www.northsouthtravel.co.uk. Friendly, competitive France Unlimited Australia t03/9531 8787. All
travel agency, offering discounted fares worldwide. French travel arrangements, including châteaux stays,
Profits are used to support projects in the developing Alpine hiking and cycling tours.
world, especially the promotion of sustainable tourism. French Cycling Holidays wwww.frenchcycling
Trailfinders UK T 0845/058 5858, Republic of holidays.com. Cycling specialists who run both Leisure
Ireland t01/677 7888, Australia t1300/780 212, and Sport Cycling tours in Languedoc and Roussillon.
w www.trailfinders.com. One of the best-informed French Travel Connection Australia t02/9966
and most efficient agents for independent travellers. 1177, wwww.frenchtravel.com.au. Everything to do
STA Travel US t1-800-781-4040, Canada with travel to and around France.
t1-888-427-5639, UK t0870/1630 026, Australia Globus US & Canada t1-866/755-8581, wwww
t1300/733 035, New Zealand t0508/782 872, SA .globusjourneys.com. Planned vacation packages.
t0861/781 781, wwww.statravel.com. Worldwide Languedoc Nature France t04.67.45.00.67,
specialists in independent travel; also student IDs, wwww.languedoc-nature.com. Organizes a range
travel insurance, car rental, rail passes, and more. of tours based on outdoor activities, history, and
Good discounts for students and under-26s. gastronomy.
Passport Travel Australia t03/9867 3888,
Specialist tour operators wwww.travelcentre.com.au. Small-group walking
Abercrombie & Kent UK t 020/7730 9600, and cycling holidays.
wwww.abercrombiekent.co.uk; US & Canada Peregrine Adventures UK t01635/872 300,
t 1-800/323-7308 or 630/954-2944, wwww Australia t 1300/854 444, w www.peregrine
.abercrombiekent.com; Australia t03/9536 1800 adventures.com. Agent for a multitude of adventure
or 1300/851 800, New Zealand t0800/441 638, companies, taking small groups on guided and
w www.abercrombiekent.com.au. Upmarket biking independent walking and cycling holidays.
and walking tours. Rosé Exposé Events France t 04.68.43.99.70
ACE Study Tours UK t01223/835055, wwww wwww.drink-pink.com. Wine get-away weekends
.study-tours.org. Sophisticated educational tours in the Aude.
including Romanesque art itineraries. Sherpa Expeditions UK t 020/8577 2717,
Adventure Center US & Canada t1-800/228- wwww.sherpa-walking-holidays.co.uk. Self-guided
8747 or 510/654-1879, wwww.adventurecenter inn-to-inn walks and cycle trips, or escorted group
.com. Hiking and “soft adventure” specialists. treks, including the Côte Vermeille.
Baronnie de Bourgade France Susie Madron’s Cycling for Softies UK
t 04.67.39.02.34, wwww.baronnie-de-bourgade t0161/248 8282, wwww.cycling-for-softies
.com. This Béziers outfit offers week-long tours that .co.uk. An easy-going cycle holiday operator.
combine regional highlights with wine tasting. Although luggage transfer is not included in the deals,
BKTours France t 06.80.45.35.70 wwww it can be arranged for an additional fee.
.bkwine.com. Swedish-based company which runs Tastes of Languedoc UK t020/8339 6050,
Languedoc wine tours around Nîmes. wwww.tastesoflanguedoc.com. Organizes custom
Caprice Tours US & Canada t 1-866-2FRANCE, wine tours in Languedoc and Roussillon.
30
w www.caprice-tours.com. Cultural and linguistic Travel Notions Australia t 02/9552 3355,
tours. w www.unitednotions.com.au/travelnotions. France
specialists and agents for leisurely “Cycling for zone only), 22 days, or one month and you
Softies” tours. can purchase up to three zones or a global
Trek Holidays Canada t 1800/661 7265, pass covering all zones. Inter-Rail passes
w www.trekholidays.com. Agent for a vast array of do not include travel between Britain and

BASIC S
adventure companies, with hiking and cycling options the continent, although pass holders are
in France. eligible for discounts on rail travel in Britain
Walkabout Gourmet Adventures Australia and Northern Ireland, including Eurostar,
t 03/5159 6556, w www.walkaboutgourmet.com.
and cross-Channel ferries, plus discounts on

| Getting there
Classy food, wine and walking tours, including a
other shipping services around the Mediter-
Pyrenees itinerary.
ranean, Scandinavia and the Balearics.
By rail from the UK and Euro Domino pass
Ireland
The Euro Domino pass is only available
The quickest way to get to Languedoc
to European residents. Individual country
and Rousillon by train is on Eurostar from
passes provide unlimited travel in 28 Euro-
London or Ashford in Kent through the
pean and North African countries. The
Channel Tunnel to Paris or Lilles and then
passes are available for between three and
changing onto a fast TGV train to Toulouse
eight days’ travel within a one-month period;
(9­–10hr), Perpignan (9hr), Montpellier (7–8hr)
prices vary depending on the country, but
or Nîmes (7hr). The cheapest return ticket
include most high-speed train supplements.
to Paris is currently £59, but Eurostar can
You can buy as many separate country
also book the TGV leg: return fares from
passes as you want. There is a discounted
London to all four destinations above start at
youth price for those under 26, and a half-
around £110, though these are non-flexible.
price child (age 4–11) fare.
Note that Inter-Rail passes (see below) give
discounts on the Eurostar service. Eurailpasses
Travelling by regular train and ferry or
The Eurailpass, which must be purchased
hovercraft via Calais, Boulogne or Dieppe,
before arrival in Europe (and cannot be
then making onward connections to Langue-
purchased by European residents), allows
doc and Roussillon by train can work out
unlimited free first-class train travel in France
slightly cheaper than using the Channel
Tunnel, but it takes considerably longer, and and seventeen other countries, and is avail-
is generally less convenient. able in increments of fifteen days, 21 days,
one month, two months and three months.
Rail passes If you’re under 26, you can save money
with a Eurailpass Youth, which is valid for
There’s a huge array of rail passes available, second-class travel or, if you’re travelling
which may be worth considering if you’re with one to five other companions, a joint
visiting Languedoc and Roussillon as part of Eurailpass Saver, both of which are avail-
a longer pan-European journey. For details able in the same increments as the Eurail-
of local SNCF rail passes valid for journeys pass. You stand a better chance of getting
within France, see “Getting Around” p.34. your money’s worth out of a Eurailpass
Flexi, which is good for ten or fifteen days’
Inter-Rail pass first-class travel within a two-month period.
Inter-Rail passes are only available to This, too, comes in under-26/second-class
European residents, and you will be asked (Eurailpass Youth Flexi) and group (Eurail-
to provide proof of residency before being pass Saver Flexi) versions.
allowed to purchase one. They come in In addition, a scaled-down version of the
over-26 and (cheaper) under-26 versions, Eurailpass Flexi, the Eurail Selectpass, is
and cover 28 European countries (including available which allows travel in your choice
Turkey and Morocco) grouped together in of three, four or five of the seventeen coun-
zones. The Zone E Pass includes France, tries Eurail covers (they must be adjoining, 31
Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. by either rail or ship) for any five days, six
The passes are available for 16 days (one days, eight days, ten days or fifteen days
 (five-country option only) within a two-month Trainseurope UK t 0900/195 0101, wwww
period. In this plan, Belgium, the Netherlands .trainseurope.co.uk. Sells a variety of rail passes as
and Luxembourg are taken as one “country”. well as booking accommodation and other services.
Like the Eurailpass, the Selectpass is also
BASIC S

available in first-class, second-class youth, By car and ferry from the

or first-class saver options. UK and Ireland
Details of prices for all these passes can It’s a good nine hours’ drive south from
be found on the Eurail website (wwww
| Getting there

Calais on the north coast of France to

.eurail.com). Toulouse, but if you do want to drive, the
quickest way across the Channel is via the
Rail contacts Channel Tunnel (35 minutes), on Eurotun-
Europrail International Canada t1-888/667- nel’s (t0870/535 3535, wwww.eurotunnel
9734, w www.europrail.net. Sells Eurail, Europass .com) daily shuttles. Due to the frequency of
and individual country passes. the service, you don’t have to buy a ticket
Eurostar UK t 0870/160 6600, w www.eurostar in advance (though it is advisable in mid-
.com. summer and during other school holidays),
International Rail UK t 0870/751 5000, wwww but you must arrive at least thirty minutes
.international-rail.com. Sells all major European rail before departure; the target loading time is
passes. just ten minutes.
Northern Ireland Railways UK t028/9089 Fares are calculated per car, regardless of
9411, w www.nirailways.co.uk. Reservations and the number of passengers, and rates depend
rail passes, including student deals. on the time of year, time of day and length
Rail Europe (SNCF French Railways) UK
of stay (the cheapest ticket is for a day-trip,
t 0870/837 1371, US t1-877-257-2887, Canada
followed by a five-day return); it’s cheaper
t 1-800-361-RAIL, wwww.raileurope.com. Sells
to travel between 10pm and 6am, while the
discounted rail fares for under-26s and Eurostar
highest fares are reserved for weekend depar-
tickets; also official agents for InterRail and Eurail
passes, and sells rail passes for France. tures and returns in July and August. A five-
Rail Plus Australia t 1300/555 003 or 03/9642 day, off-peak, low-season trip, for example,
8644, wwww.railplus.com.au. Sells Eurail passes starts at £49 return (passengers included),
and train tickets. increasing to £155 in the peak period.

32
 Alternatively, you can get to France by t021/4277 801, wwww.brittanyferries.ie. Poole
ferry from various ports along England’s to Cherbourg; Portsmouth to Caen, Cherbourg and
south coast to the north coast of France. St Malo; Plymouth to Roscoff and Santander; Cork to
If you’re coming from the north of England Roscoff (March–Oct only).

BASIC S
or Scotland, consider an overnight ferry to Condor Ferries UK t0870/243 5140, wwww
Zeebrugge (Belgium), either from Hull or .condorferries.co.uk. Portsmouth to Cherbourg
from Rosyth. From Ireland you can take a (May–Sept); Poole to St-Malo (May–Sept); and Wey-
ferry direct from Rosslaire (near Wexford) to mouth to St-Malo via the Channel Islands.

| Getting there
either Cherbourg or Roscoff. Irish Ferries UK t08705/171 717, Northern
Ireland t00 353 818/ 300 400, Republic of Ireland
Ferry prices are seasonal and, for motorists,
t0818/300 400, wwww.irishferries.com. Rosslare
depend on the size of your vehicle. The popu-
to Cherbourg and Roscoff (MarchÂ�–Sept).
lar Dover–Calais route costs from £120 one-
Norfolkline UK t0870/870 1020, w www
way for a car and two adults. Note that return
.norfolkline.com. Dover to Dunkerque.
prices are substantially cheaper than one-way P&O Ferries UK t08705/980 333, wwww
fares, but generally need to be booked in .poferries.com. Dover to Calais; Portsmouth to
advance – details of routes and companies Bilbao; and Hull to Zeebrugge.
are listed below. You can either contact the Sea France UK t0870/443 1653, wwww
companies direct to reserve space in advance .seafrance.com. Dover to Calais.
– essential in peak season if you’re intending SpeedFerries UK t0870/220 0570, wwww
to drive – or any travel agent in the UK or .speedferries.com. Dover to Boulogne.
France will do it for you. All ferry companies Superfast Ferries UK t 0870/234 0870, w www
also offer foot passenger fares from £20 one- .superfast.com. Rosyth near Edinburgh to Zeebrugge
way; accompanying bicycles can usually be (Belgium).
carried free, at least in the low season, and Transmanche Ferries UK t 0800/917 1201,
for a charge of around £5 one-way in mid- w www.transmancheferries.com. Newhaven to
and high seasons. The ferry companies also Dieppe.
often offer special deals on three-, five- and
ten-day returns, or discounts for regular users By bus
who own a property abroad, while the tour Eurolines run regular bus-ferry services
operator Eurodrive (t020/8324 4009, wwww from London Victoria to over sixty French
.eurodrive.co.uk) can also arrange discounts cities. Prices are much lower than for the
on car-ferry crossings. same journey by train, with adult return
The cheapest way of getting to France fares of around £50 to Toulouse (£30 if
from Ireland – though far from the quickest booked 30 days in advance); the journey
– is by ferry from Cork or Rosslare outside time is roughly nineteen hours. Regional
Wexford to Cherbourg or Roscoff, in return fares from the rest of England and
Brittany, and then continuing overland. from Wales are available, as are student and
If you don’t want to drive far when you’ve youth discounts. Tickets can be bought
reached France, you can take advantage directly from the company, from National
of SNCF’s motorail, which you can book Express agents and from most high-street
through Rail Europe (see p.32), putting your travel agents.
car on the train in either Calais or Paris for
Narbonne or Toulouse. This is a relatively Bus contacts
expensive option though: for four people
Busabout UK t020/7950 1661, wwww
travelling from Calais to Toulouse, for exam- .busabout.com.
ple, the regular one-way price ranges from Eurolines UK t0870/5-808080, Republic of
£289, dependent on the time of year. Ireland t01/836 6111, w www.nationalexpress
.com/eurolines.
Ferry contacts
Brittany Ferries UK t 08703/665 333,
w www.brittanyferries.co.uk, Republic of Ireland 33
 Getting around
BASIC S

France has the most extensive train network in western Europe, and rail is the best
| Getting around

way of travelling between almost all the major towns within Languedoc and Roussil-
lon. The nationally-owned French train company, the SNCF (Société Nationale des
Chemins de Fer), runs fast, modern trains. In rural areas where branch lines have
been closed, routes (such as Castres–Montpellier) are covered by buses operated
solely by SNCF or in partnership with independent companies. It’s an integrated
service, with buses timetabled to meet trains and the same ticket covering both.

The private bus services that supplement between TGV and other train fares is that
the SNCF services are confusing and unco- you pay a compulsory reservation charge
ordinated. Some areas, such as the coast (from e3), plus a supplement on certain
or around larger centres like Toulouse, Albi peak-hour trains. Check the SNCF website,
and Castres, are quite well served, while the however, for a whole range of last-minute
service in less populated regions, like the special deals and upgrades.
Corbières and parts of the Pyrenees and In person, it is easiest to use the coun-
Haut Languedoc, is barely existent – often ter service for buying tickets, though the
designed to carry the inhabitants of hamlets touch-screen computerized system avail-
to and from weekly markets, and thus not able in most stations can be read in English
very useful for tourists. Weekends and holi- and is a good way to check fares and times
days frequently have no service. – if need be, you can always press the red
annulment button to cancel the transaction
By rail before committing yourself. All tickets – but
The SNCF has pioneered one of the most not passes (see p.35) – must be validated
efficient, comfortable and user-friendly rail- in the orange machines at station platform
way systems in the world. Its staff are, with entrances, and it is an offence not to follow
few exceptions, courteous and helpful, and the instruction Compostez votre billet (“Vali-
its trains – for the most part, fast, clean and date your ticket”). Train journeys may be
frequent – continue, in spite of the closure of broken any time, anywhere, for as long as the
some rural lines, to cover much of Langue- ticket is valid (usually two months), but after
doc and Roussillon; a main rail corridor a break of 24 hours you must validate your
runs from Toulouse to Narbonne, where it ticket again when you resume your journey.
joins the coastal line, linking Cerbère on the After a spate of terrorist bombings in the
Spanish border and Beaucaire (Tarascon) late 1990s, most train stations closed their
at the Rhône, while spur lines run up major luggage lockers (consignes automatiques);
river valleys – including the Tarn, Ariège and these days a few have reopened, and larger
Conflent. For national train information, stations have a staffed luggage check-in,
phone t 08.36.35.35.35 (e0.34 per minute) usually with limited hours (consignes are
or check w www.voyages-sncf.com. noted in the Guide).
Pride and joy of the system are the high- Regional rail maps and complete timeta-
speed TGVs (trains à grande vitesse), capa- bles are sold in tobacconist shops (tabacs).
ble of 300kph, and their offspring Eurostar. Leaflet timetables for particular lines are
There are several stations connected to the available free at stations. Autocar or a bullet
TGV in Languedoc and Roussillon, among symbol at the top of a column means it’s an
them Nîmes (journey time from Paris 4hr), SNCF bus service, on which rail tickets and
34 Montpellier (4hr 30min), Narbonne (5hr), passes are valid.
Béziers (4hr 45min), Perpignan (6hr) and Aside from the regular lines there are a
Toulouse (4hr 30min). The only difference number of tourist-oriented railways, including
the spectacular Train Jaune (see p.366) station and access areas formerly served
which winds its way up through the by rail. In addition to SNCF buses, private,
Pyrenees, and the ATM train (see p.322), municipal and départemental buses can be
which heads up into the hinterland of useful for mid- to long-distance journeys.

BASIC S
Narbonne. The most frustrating thing about them is
the multiplicity of services and the difficulty
French rail discounts and passes in obtaining departure information other
than at bus stops and stations. In Toulouse,

| Getting around
SNCF offers a whole range of discounted
city buses can be used to access outlying
fares within France on standard rail prices
villages, and in Montpellier the network goes
on période bleue (blue period) and période
as far out as the coast. Some départements,
blanche (white period) days. A leaflet show-
like the Hérault and the Tarn, have rural bus
ing the blue, white (smaller discount) and
networks; their roadside stops usually have
red (peak) periods is given out at stations. In
a copy of the schedule attached to the sign
addition, any two people travelling together
or shelter. Private operators cover much of
(à deux), or a small group of up to five
rural Languedoc and Roussillon too – unfor-
people, are entitled to a 25 percent discount tunately, their routes miss some of the more
on return tickets on TGVs, subject to availa- interesting and less inhabited areas, and the
bility, or on other trains if they start their jour- timetable is constructed to suit working,
ney on a blue period day; the same reduc- market and school hours – all often daunt-
tion applies to a group of up to four people ingly early. All buses are, generally speaking,
travelling with a child under 12, to under cheaper and slower than trains.
26-year-olds, over-60s, and for anyone who Larger towns usually have a gare routière
books a return journey of at least 200km in (bus station), often next to the gare SNCF.
distance, including a Saturday night away However, the private bus companies don’t
(this latter is called the séjour). always work together and you’ll frequently
Finally, a range of train passes that give find them leaving from an array of different
discounts (valid for a year) can be purchased points (the local tourist office will usually help
from main stations and most travel agents in locate them).
France. Over-60s can buy the Carte Senior
for e53, which offers up to 50 percent off By car
tickets on TGVs, or other journeys start-
Driving in Languedoc and Roussillon can
ing in blue periods, a 25 percent reduction
be a real pleasure, and gives you the free-
on white period journeys, as well as a 30
dom to explore parts of the region that
percent reduction on international journeys
would otherwise remain inaccessible, in
involving most countries in western and
particular the sparsely populated upland
central Europe. The same reductions are
of Haut Languedoc, the Hérault and the
available for under-26s with a Carte 12–25
Pyrenees. Autoroutes in the region run
pass, which costs e49. Under-12s can
through the same corridors as the main rail
obtain the same advantages for themselves
lines, connecting Toulouse and Narbonne,
and up to four travelling companions of any and from here, running north and south
age by purchasing the Enfant Plus Carte along the Mediterranean coast. If you are
(e65). Those aged between 26 and 59 years in a hurry, it is well worth paying the toll
can purchase a Carte Escapades (e85), but (see p.36) for their use, as the free national
this only entitles the holder to a 40 percent routes, which also follow this corridor, tend
reduction on normal, white-period fares. to be heavily travelled by both local drivers
For details of pan-European rail passes, see and long-distance truckers. By autoroute,
Getting There, p.31. in good traffic conditions, you can reach
Nîmes from Toulouse in 2–3 hours. Away
By bus from the main arteries, the older main roads
The most convenient bus services are those or routes nationales (marked N9 or RN230, 35
run as an extension of rail links by SNCF, for example, on signs and maps) are gener-
which always run to and from the SNCF ally uncongested and, passing through the
 centres of the towns along the way, make and Roussillon, which can help if you run
for a more scenic, if slower, drive than the into mechanical difficulties. You can find
autoroutes. Smaller routes départemen- them in the Yellow Pages (wwww.pages
tales (marked D) should not be shunned. jaunes.fr) under “Garages d’automobiles”.
BASIC S

Although they are occasionally in relatively For breakdowns, look under “Dépannages”.
poor condition, you can often travel for If you have an accident or break-in, you
kilometres across country, seeing few other should report it to the local police (and keep
cars, on broad and well-maintained roads. a copy) in order to make an insurance claim.
| Getting around

The most challenging part of driving in Many car insurance policies cover your car in
Languedoc and Roussillon is likely to be Europe, but you’re advised to take out extra
entering large cities for the first time: as a cover for motor assistance in case your car
general rule of thumb you can usually reach breaks down, costing around £50 for seven
the centre by following signs for the tour- days. Check with your local automobile
ist office. That said, parking is likely to be association before leaving home.
problematic, so you may instead want to
follow signs for the gare SNCF, which will Traffic information and route planning
have some pay parking and most likely be
For up-to-the-minute traffic informa-
within walking distance of the centre. Most
tion regarding traffic jams and road works
cities also have sufficient underground park-
on autoroutes throughout France, ring
ing garages (typical clearance 1.70–2m),
t08.92.68.10.77 (e0.34/min; French only)
where you may pay up to e30 over night.
or consult the bilingual website wwww.auto
Outside of the city cores, street parking is
routes.fr. Traffic information for other roads
usually free, although it may mean spending
can be obtained from the Bison Futé recorded
a considerable time hunting around. Many
information service (t08.26.02.20.22; e0.15/
hotels have garages for which they typically
min; French only) or its website wwww.bison
charge e5 and up per night.
-fute.equipement.gouv.fr.
Of course, there are times when it is wiser
For route planning, wwww.viamichelin
not to drive: congestion is a major prob-
.com can provide you with point-to-point
lem on the Autoroute Méditerranéenne in
driving directions for itineraries throughout
summer, particularly on the first and last few
France.
days of July and August, and the same goes
for roads of all categories along the coast
Rules of the road
on summer weekends, when the going is
frustratingly slow. The high cost of petrol British, Irish, Australian, Canadian, New
(essence) can also be a discouraging factor: Zealand and US driving licences are valid
prices at the time of writing were around in France, though an International Driver’s
e1.28 a litre for four-star unleaded (super Licence makes life easier if you get a police
sans plomb) and around e1.10 a litre for officer unwilling to peruse a document in
diesel (gasoil). There are 3.8 litres to the US English. If the vehicle is rented, its registra-
gallon. The cheapest petrol or diesel fuel can tion document (carte grise) and the insurance
usually be found at out-of-town superstores papers must be carried. GB stickers must, by
or hypermarchés, though note that many of law, be displayed, and a Green Card, though
these are automated and do not recognize not a legal requirement, might save some
most non-French credit cards. hassle. If your car is right-hand drive, you must
In addition, you have to pay a toll (péage) have your headlight dip adjusted to the right
on most autoroutes. Rates vary, but to give before you go – it’s a legal requirement – and
you an idea, travelling only by motorway the as a courtesy change or paint them to yellow
1039km from Calais to Montpellier would or stick on black glare deflectors. Remember
cost you around e59.60 for a car without also that you have to be 18 years of age to
trailer, plus e62.34 in fuel (based on a mid- drive in France, regardless of whether you
36 sized car), and take approximately 10 hours. hold a licence in your own country.
All the major car manufacturers have The law of priorité à droite – giving way to
garages and service stations in Languedoc traffic coming from your right, even when it is
coming from a minor road – is being phased North Americans and Australians in
out as it is a major cause of accidents. It still particular should be forewarned that it is
applies in built-up areas, so you have to be very difficult to arrange the hire of a car with
vigilant in towns, keeping a lookout along automatic transmission; if you can’t drive

BASIC S
the roadside for the yellow diamond on a a manual you should try to book an auto-
white background that gives you right of matic well in advance, possibly before you
way – until you see the same sign with an leave home, and be prepared to pay a much
oblique black slash, which indicates vehi- higher price for it.

| Getting around
cles emerging from the right have right of Most rental companies will only deal with
way. At roundabouts the priorité à droite people over 25 unless an extra insurance
law no longer applies. Stop signs mean premium, typically around e20–25 per
stop completely; Cédez le passage means day, is paid (but you still must be over 21
“Give way”. Other signs warning of potential and have driven for at least one year). OTU
dangers are déviation (diversion), gravillons Voyage (t01.55.82.32.32, wwww.otu.fr),
(loose chippings), nids de poules (potholes) the student travel agency, can arrange car
and chaussée déformée (uneven surface). rental for young drivers.
Speed limits in France are: 130kph
(80mph) on autoroutes; 110kph (68mph) on Car rental agencies
dual carriageways; 90kph (56mph) on other Avis UK T0870/606 0100, Republic of Ireland
roads; and 50kph (31mph) in towns. The t021/428 1111, US T 1-800/230-4898, Canada
town limit is constant, but in wet weather, T1-800/272-5871, Australia T13 63 33 or
and for drivers with less than two years’ 02/9353 9000, New Zealand T 09/526 2847 or
experience, the three road limits are 110kph 0800/655 111, wwww.avis.com.
(68mph), 100kph (62mph) and 80kph Budget UK T08701/565656, Republic of Ireland
(50mph) respectively. The standard fine for T09/0662 7711, US T1-800/527-0700, Canada
exceeding the speed limit by 20kph (12mph), T1-800/268-8900, Australia T1300/362 848, New
for example, is e90; above 40kph (25mph) Zealand T0800/283-438, wwww.budget.com.
you will not only be fined but will also have Europcar UK t0870/607 5000, Republic of
Ireland T01/614 2888,US & Canada T1-877/940
to go to court. The legal blood alcohol limit
6900, Australia T 1300/131 390, wwww.europcar
while driving is 0.05 percent alcohol (lower
.com.
than in the UK and North America), and
Hertz UK T020/7026-0077, Republic of Ireland
random breath tests are common: if you are
T01/870-5777, US T1-800/654-3131, Canada
caught over the limit, your driving privileges T1-800/263-0600, Australia T08/9921-4052,
may be immediately suspended. New Zealand T0800/654 321, wwww.hertz.com.
Holiday Autos UK T0871/222-3200, Republic
Car rental of Ireland T01/872 9366, Australia T1300/554
Car rental in France costs upwards of e250 432, New Zealand T0800/144 040, wwww
.holidayautos.co.uk.
a week (from around e70 a day), but can be
cheaper if arranged before you leave home.
Moped and motorbike rental
You’ll find the big firms – Hertz, Avis, Europ-
car and Budget – at airports and in most big Mopeds and scooters are relatively easy to
cities, with addresses detailed throughout find; outside the mountainous areas every-
the Guide. Rental from airports normally one from young kids to grandmas seems
includes a surcharge. Local firms can be to ride them, and although they’re not built
cheaper but you need to check the small for any kind of long-distance travel, they’re
print and be sure of where the car can be ideal for shooting around town and nearby.
returned to. It’s normal to pay an indemnity Places that rent out bicycles will often also
of e150–300 against any damage to the rent out mopeds; you can expect to pay
car – they will take your credit card number e40 a day for a 50cc Suzuki. No licence is
rather than cash. You should return the car needed for 50cc and under bikes, but for
with a full tank of fuel. The cost of car rental anything larger you’ll need a valid motor- 37
includes the basic legally necessary car bike licence. Rental prices are around e55
insurance. a day for a 125cc motorbike; also expect to
 leave a hefty deposit by cash or credit card (frequently utilizing disused roadways and
– e1000 is not unusual – which you may rail rights of way). These days more and
lose in the event of damage or theft. Crash more cyclists are using mountain bikes,
helmets are now compulsory on all mopeds which the French call VTTs (vélos tout
BASIC S

and motorbikes. terrain), even for touring holidays, although

it’s much less effort, and much quicker, to
Hitching cycle long distances and carry luggage
on a traditionally styled touring or racing
| Getting around

If you’re intent on hitching, you’ll have to rely

almost exclusively on car drivers, as lorries bike. Your primary concern using bicycle
very rarely give lifts. Even so, it won’t be transport in this region will likely be the
easy. Looking as clean and respectable as traffic, which on the narrow two-lane routes
possible makes a big difference, and hitching nationales is frequently heavy and extremely
the less frequented D roads is much quicker. fast. Dedicated and experienced cyclists
In mountain areas a rucksack and hiking gear may want to tackle all or part of the ten-day
will help procure a lift from fellow hikers. Raid Pyrénéen, a mountainous 879km route
Autoroutes are a special case. Hitching from Cerbère on the Med to Hendaye on
on the autoroute itself is strictly illegal, but the Atlantic. For more information or to get
you can make excellent time going from one official recognition for having completed the
service station to another and, if you get Raid, contact Cyclo Club Béarnais (59 av L-
stuck, at least there’s food, drink, shelter and Sallenave, 64000 Pau; t 05.59.84.32.64 Fri
washing facilities at most service stations. only 6–7.30pm). The Fédération Française
It helps to have the Guide des Autoroutes, de Cyclotourisme (w www.ffct.org) is a
published by Michelin, which shows all further useful source of information on all
the rest stops, service stations, tollbooths things to do with cycling in France.
(péages), exits and so on. Remember to get Restaurants and hotels along the way are
out at the service station before your driver nearly always obliging about looking after
leaves the autoroute. The tollbooths are your bike, even to the point of allowing it
a second best (and legal) option; ordinary into your room. Most large towns have well-
approach roads tend to be difficult and can stocked retail and repair shops, where parts
easily lead to a fine. are normally cheaper than in Britain or the
For long-distance rides, or for greater US. However, if you’re using a foreign-made
security, you might consider using the bike which doesn’t have standard metric
national hitching organization, Allostop wheels, it’s a good idea to carry spare tyres.
(t 01.53.20.42.42, w www.allostop.net); Inner tubes are not a problem, as they adapt
reservations are normally made through the to either size, though make sure you get the
Paris number, but there is also a local branch right valves.
in Montpellier (see p.273). Similar net- The train network runs various schemes for
based services include Covoiture (w www cyclists, all of them covered by the free leaf-
.covoiturage.com) and Gnafou (w www let Guide du Train et du Vélo, available from
.gnafou.net). Generally the cost of using most stations. Trains marked with a bicycle in
these services amounts to 20–40 percent of the timetable allow you to take a bike as free
the price of normal public transport. accompanied luggage. Otherwise, you have
to send your bike parcelled up as registered
By bike luggage for a fee of e25. Although it may well
Bicycles (vélos) have high status in France, arrive in less time, the SNCF won’t guarantee
and the French respect cyclists – both as delivery in under five days, and you do hear
traffic and, when you stop off at a restau- stories of bicycles disappearing altogether.
rant or hotel, as customers. In addition, Ferries either take bikes free or charge a
municipali-ties like Toulouse and Montpellier, maximum of £5 one-way. British Airways and
and their respective départements – Haute Air France both take bikes free – you may
38 Garonne and Hérault – are actively promot- have to box them though, and you should
ing cycling, not only with city paths, but with contact the airlines first. Eurostar allow you
comprehensive networks linking rural areas to take your bicycle as part of your baggage
allowance provided it is dismantled and which gives a detailed account of the
stored in a special bike bag, and the dimen- route (in French), including maps, camp-
sions don’t exceed 120cm by 90cm. Other- sites, refuge huts and sources of provisions
wise it needs to be sent on unaccompanied, Topoguides are produced by the principal

BASIC S
with a guaranteed arrival of 24 hours – (you French walkers’ organization, the Fédéra-
can register it up to ten days in advance; tion Française de la Randonnée Pédestre,
book through Esprit Europe (t08705/850 (t01.44.89.93.93, w www.ffrp.asso.fr). In
850, wwww.espriteurope.co.uk); the fee is addition, many tourist offices can provide

| Getting around
£20 one-way. guides to their local footpaths, especially in
Bikes – usually mountain bikes – are often popular hiking areas, where they often share
available to rent from campsites, hostels premises with professional mountain guides
and gîtes d’étapes, as well as from specialist and hike leaders. The latter organize climb-
cycle shops and some tourist offices for ing and walking expeditions for all levels of
around e15–20 per day. The bikes are experience.
often not insured, however, and you will be The main climbing organization is the Club
presented with the bill for their replacement Alpin Français (t01.53.72.87.00, wwww
if they’re stolen or damaged. Check whether .ffcam.fr); most major towns in the region have
your travel insurance policy covers you for a branch office, the most useful being the
this if you intend to rent a bike. CAF de TOULOUSE, 3 rue de l’Orient, 31000
As for maps, a minimum requirement is Toulouse (Mon 2–5pm, Tues–Fri 9am–noon &
the IGN 1:100,000 series (see p.60) – the 2–7pm; t05.61.63.74.42, wperso.wanadoo
smallest scale that carries contours. The .fr/clubalpintoulouse). In the Pyrenees, CIMES
UK’s national cyclists’ association, the CTC (t05.62.90.09.92, wwww.cimes-pyrenees
(t 0870/873 0060, wwww.ctc.org.uk), can .net) offers similar services and has its own
suggest routes and supply advice for network of refuges.
members, as well as running a particularly
good insurance scheme. Companies offering Inland waterways
specialist bike touring holidays are listed on Languedoc is home to one of France’s most
p.30. Useful vocabulary for cyclists is given famous inland waterways, the Canal du
on p.426. Midi, which leads from Toulouse (where it
hooks up with the River Garonne) to Agde
Walking and Sète, passing Carcassonne and Béziers
Long-distance walkers are well served in en route. A spur, the Canal de la Robine
Languedoc and Roussillon by an extensive passes Narbonne before reaching the sea at
network of marked footpaths, including Gruissan and Port-Nouvelle. From Sète, you
long-distance routes, known as sentiers de can enter the Canal du Rhône à Sète, which
grande randonnée or, more commonly, GRs heads east, passing St-Gilles and Beaucaire,
(see also p.51). They’re fully signposted and until it reaches the Rhône. Subsidiary canals
equipped with campsites and rest huts along branch out through the flatlands of the Petite
the way. Some of the main routes in the Camargue, and penetrate the extensive
region are the GR10, which runs the length Rhône delta. For information on maximum
of the Pyrenees, the GRs 7 and 36, which dimensions, documentation, regulations
wind their way down from Haut Languedoc and so forth, ask at a French Government
through the Corbières, and GR653 which Tourist Office for their booklet Boating on the
follows the medieval Arles–Jaca pilgrimage Waterways, or contact Voies Navigables de
route (le chemin de St-Jacques) to Santiago France, 175 rue Ludovic Boutleux, 62408
in Spain. Other routes are composites, like Bethune (t 03.21.63.24.24, wwww.vnf.fr),
the “Sentier Cathar”, which utilizes various which has information on boating in Langue-
GRs and ARs (local paths) to link Cathar doc and Roussillon, and lists of French firms
sites between Perpignan and Foix. that rent out boats.
Each path is described in a Topogu-
39
ide (available in Britain from Stanfords
 Accommodation
BASIC S

At most times of the year, you can turn up in any town in Languedoc and Roussillon
| Accommodation

and find a room, or a place in a campsite. Booking a couple of nights in advance can
be reassuring, however, as it saves you the effort of trudging round. The “Language”
section at the back of the Guide (see p.422) should help you make a reservation,
though many hoteliers and campsite managers – and almost all hostel managers
– speak some English. In most towns you’ll be able to get a double room for around
e35–50, or a single for e32–45; as a general rule the areas around train stations have
the highest density of cheap hotels. Note that many municipalities charge a hotel
tax, calculated on top of the posted rate, ranging from e0.20–e3 per night.

Problems with availability arise mainly between establishments. For under e30,
between mid-July and the end of August, the bed is likely to be old and floppy, there
when the French take their own vacations won’t be soundproofing, and showers will
en masse. The first weekend of August is the be communal. Rooms usually have a sink
busiest time of all. During this period, hotel (lavabo) in one corner, sometimes with a toilet
and hostel accommodation can be hard to (WC) behind a screen as well; bathrooms
come by, particularly in the coastal resorts, and showers (douches) are almost invariably
and you may find yourself falling back on local found on the landing – referred to as douche
tourist offices for help and ideas. Some tourist et WC dans le palier. The shared showers
offices offer a booking service but they are not usually free – they cost between e3
cannot guarantee rooms at a particular price. and e5 per shower (douche). If you plan to
All tourist offices can provide lists of hotels, shower every day and there is more than one
hostels or organizations such as CROUS of you, it’s worth adding up what the ultimate
(see p.43) as well as details of campsites and cost will be – you might be better off moving
bed-and-breakfasts. With campsites, you to a more expensive room with its own
can be more relaxed about finding an empty shower. Over e40 will get you a room with its
space, unless you’re touring with a caravan own bath or shower though not necessarily
or camper van or looking for a place on the a toilet (WC), and, though the decor may not
Mediterranean coast or upper Ariège valley. be anything to write home about, comfort-
Most French hotels are graded from zero able furniture. If wandering dark halls late at
to five stars. The price more or less corres- night in search of a toilet is not your idea of
ponds to the number of stars, though the fun, ask for a bathroom (salle de bain) which
system is a little haphazard, having more will get you both a toilet and a shower in a
to do with ratios of bathrooms-per-guest separate room; these occasionally have bath
than genuine quality, and non-classified and tubs (bain) too. This type of room can be had
single-star hotels are often very good. What for around e50, and may also come with a
you get for your money varies enormously TV. At more than e65, you should expect a

Accommodation price codes

All the hotels and guesthouses listed in this book have been price-coded according
to the following scale. The prices quoted are for the cheapest available double room
in high season.
1 Under e30 4 e55–70 7 e100–125
2 e30–40 5 e70–85 8 e125–150
40
3 e40–55 6 e85–100 9 Over e150
higher standard of fittings and something chains include B&B (t08.92.78.29.29,
approaching luxury. Hotels with one star or e0.34 per min; wwww.hotel-bb.com) and
above have a telephone in the rooms, though the slightly more comfortable Première
some phones can only receive calls. Classe (t08.25.00.30.03, wwww.premiere

BASIC S
Big cities have a good variety of cheap classe.fr) and Etap Hôtel (t08.92.68.89.00,
establishments; in small towns or villages e0.34 per min; wwww.etaphotel.com).
where the choice is limited, you may not be More upmarket but still affordable chains
so lucky. The modern and cheesy resorts include Ibis (t08.92.68.66.86, e0.34 per

| Accommodation
which have sprung up along the Languedoc min; wwww.ibishotel.com) and Campanile
coast have inordinately high July and August (t01.64.62.46.00, wwww.campanile.fr),
prices. If you are staying more than three where en-suite rooms with satellite TV and
days in a hotel it’s often possible to negotiate direct-dial phones cost from around e40–50.
a lower price, particularly out of season. If you are staying put in a town for three days
Breakfast is not normally included and or more, you might also look into local Rési-
can add e5–8 per person to a bill – though dences de Tourisme, which are slightly more
there is no obligation to take it and you will economical than hotels and sometimes offer
nearly always do better at a café. The cost self-catering. Aside from the chains, there
of eating dinner in a hotel’s restaurant can a number of hotel federations in France.
be a more important factor to bear in mind The biggest of these is Logis de France
when picking a place to stay. Officially, it (t01.45.84.83.84, wwww.logis-de-france
is illegal for hotels to insist on your taking .fr), an association of over three thousand
meals, but they often do in places heavily hotels nationwide. Other good resources
dependent on seasonal tourism. However, include wwww.resinfrance.fr, an official central
this is not always such a bad thing, and you reservation service, or wwww.francehotel
can sometimes get a real bargain. Single reservation.com.
rooms are only marginally cheaper than Several cities in Languedoc and Roussillon
doubles, so sharing always slashes costs. participate in the “Bon Weekend en Ville”
Most hotels willingly provide rooms with programme, whereby you book through the
extra beds, for three or more people, at local tourist office and get two nights for the
good discounts. price of one (Oct–May only) at participat-
Note that many family-run hotels are closed ing hotels, as well as an array of discount
every year for two or three weeks some- coupons and special deals. Participating
time between May and September – where towns include Albi, Carcassonne, Nîmes
possible we’ve detailed this in the text. In and Toulouse, but the list is growing, so it’s
addition, some hotels in smaller towns and worth enquiring about when you are making
villages close for one or two nights a week, arrangements to stay in larger towns. If you
usually Sunday or Monday – if in doubt, ring are planning your trip in advance, contact
first to check. local tourist offices before arrival; there are
A very useful option, especially if it’s late at very often special accommodation deals on
night, are the motel chains. In contrast to the offer, especially outside high season.
downtown hotels which often offer doubtful
value (worn-out mattresses, dust, noise, etc) Bed-and-breakfast
you can count on a decent and reliable stand- accommodation
ard in the chains even if they are without much In country areas, you’ll come across
charm. Among the cheapest is the one-star chambres d’hôtes and fermes auberges,
Formule 1 chain (t08.92.68.56.85, e0.34 bed-and-breakfast accommodation in
per min; wwww.hotelformule1.com), well someone’s house or farm. These vary in
signposted on the outskirts of most big towns. standard and are rarely a cheap option,
They are characterless, but provide rooms for usually costing the equivalent of a two-star
up to three people from e27. With a Visa, hotel. However, if you’re lucky, they may be
Mastercard, Eurocard or American Express good sources of traditional home cooking 41
credit card, you can let yourself into a room and French company. The brown leaflets
at any hour of the day or night. Other budget available in tourist offices list most of them.
 If you are planning to stay a week or more and washing facilities from around e8, and
in any one place it might be worth consider- they are marked on the large-scale IGN
ing renting a house. You can do this by walkers’ maps and listed in the individual GR
checking adverts from the private owners Topoguides. In addition, mountain areas are
BASIC S

in, for example, British Sunday newspapers well supplied with refuge huts, mostly run
(Observer and Sunday Times, mainly), or by the Club Alpin Français (CAF), but also by
trying one of the numerous holiday firms that CIMES (in the Pyrenees). Many are open in
market accommodation/travel packages (see summer only. They are the only available shel-
| Accommodation

p.30 for a brief selection of these). Otherwise, ter once you are above the villages. Costs are
economical longer-term, self-catering options from around e10 for the night, less if you’re
include the gîtes rurauk (rural homes rent- a member of a climbing organization affiliated
ing for e300 and up per week, administered to the CAF. Meals – invariably four courses
by Gîtes de France) and the Clévacances – cost around e14, which is not unreason-
programme, which has mainly town proper- able when you consider that all supplies have
ties for rent. Contact the Fédération Nationale to be brought up by mule or helicopter.
des Locations de France Clévacances More information can be found in the
(t05.61.13.55.66, wwww.clevacances.fr). guides Gîtes d’Étape et Séjours published
Alternatively check local tourist office listings by Gîtes de France (see opposite), and Gîtes
for appartements or meublés. d’Étape et Refuges, published by Guides
Gîtes de France (t01.49.70.75.75, La Cadole (which also has the handy
wwww.gites-de-france.fr), a government- webpage wwww.gites-refuges.com), avail-
funded agency which promotes and manages able in French bookshops for e18.30.
a range of bed-and-breakfast and self-
catering accommodation in France, the latter Departmental offices of Gîtes de
usually consisting of a self-contained coun- France
try cottage, known as a gîte rural or gîte de Ariège 31bis av Général-de-Gaulle, BP 143, 09004
séjour. Further details can be found in their Foix t 05.61.02.30.89, f05.61.65.17.34, egites
two national guides – Chambres et Tables [email protected]
d’Hôtes and Chambres d’Hôtes de Pres- Aude 78 rue Barbacane, 11000 Carcassonne
tige et Gîtes de Charme – which are also t04.68.11.40.70, f 04.68.11.40.72
sometimes on sale in bookshops and tourist Gard CDT 3 pl des Arènes, BP 59, 30007 Nîmes
offices. The national guides, however, are not t04.66.27.94.94, f 04.66.27.94.95
exhaustive; complete listings (with photos) are Haute-Garonne 14 rue Bayard, BP 845, 31015
Toulouse t05.61.99.70.60, f 05.61.99.41.22
available in the guides distributed by depart-
Hérault Maison de Tourisme, 1977 av des Moulins,
mental Gîtes de France offices – you can
BP 3070, 34034 Montpellier t04.67.67.62.62,
either contact the main office for a complete
f 04.67.67.71.69, wwww.gites-de-france-herault
list, or pick up copies from local and depart-
.asso.fr
mental tourist offices. If you’re planning from Pyrénées-Orientales 30 rue Pierre-Breton-
home, the simplest way to make reserva- neau, 66017 Perpignan t 04.68.55.60.95,
tions is through their website. Rural bed-and- f04.68.50.68.44
breakfast and dining accommodation can also Tarn Maison des Agriculteurs, La Milliasolle, BP 89,
be arranged through Bienvenue à la Ferme 81003 Albi t05.63.48.83.01, f 05.63.48.83.12
(t01.53.57.11.44, wwww.bienvenue-a-la
-ferme.com) which also publishes regional and Hostels
departmental guides. At between e12 and e20 per night for a
dormitory bed, and generally breakfast thrown
Gîtes d’étapes and in, hostels – auberges de jeunesse – are
refuges invaluable for single travellers on a budget.
In the countryside, gîtes d’étape provide For hostels, per-person prices of dorm beds
basic hostel-style accommodation, often run are given throughout the Guide. Many modern
42 by the local village or municipality (whose hostels now also offer rooms for couples, with
mayor will probably be in charge of the key). en-suite showers, but they don’t necessarily
They provide bunk beds and primitive kitchen work out cheaper than hotels – particularly if
you’ve had to pay a bus fare out to the edge open often don’t bother to collect the over-
of town to reach them. However, many hostels night charge.
are beautifully sited, and they allow you to cut If you’re planning to do a lot of camping,
costs by preparing your own food in their an international camping carnet is a good

BASIC S
kitchens, or eating in their cheap canteens. investment. The carnet serves as useful iden-
There are three rival French hostelling tification, covers you for third party insurance
associations: the main two ones are the when camping and gives ten-percent reduc-
Fédération Unie des Auberges de Jeunesse tions at campsites listed in the CCI information

| Accommodation
(FUAG; t 01.44.89.87.27, wwww.fuaj.org), booklet that comes with your carnet. It is avail-
which has its hostels detailed in the Inter- able in the UK from the AA, the RAC or the
national Handbook, and the Ligue Française Carefree Travel Service (t0247/642 2024),
pour les Auberges de Jeunesse (LFAJ; who also book inspected camping sites in
t 01.45.48.69.84, wwww.auberges-de Europe and arrange ferry crossings; in the
-jeunesse.com). Normally, to stay at FUAJ US or Canada, contact Family Campers and
or LFAJ hostels, you must be a member of RVers(t1-800/245 9755, wwww.fcrv.org).
Hostelling International (HI) or the Interna- On the coast around the beach towns, there
tional Youth Hostel Federation (IYHF). If you are superior categories of campsite where
don’t join up before you leave home, you you’ll pay prices similar to those of a hotel for
can purchase a membership card on arrival the facilities – bars, restaurants and sometimes
in the French hostel for e15.25 (e10.70 for swimming pools. These have rather more
under-26s). The third hostelling organiza- permanent status than the campings munici-
tion is the Union des Centres de Rencontres paux, with people often spending a whole
Internationales de France (t 01.40.26.57.64, holiday in the one base. If you plan to do the
e [email protected]), with 60 hostels in same, and particularly if you have a caravan,
France; membership is not required. camper or a big tent, it’s wise to book ahead –
A few large towns provide a more luxuri- reckon on paying at least e8 a head with a tent
ous standard of hostel accommodation in or a camper van. Inland, camping à la ferme
Foyers des Jeunes Travailleurs/Travailleuses, – on somebody’s farm – is another possibility
residential hostels for young workers and (generally without facilities). Lists of sites are
students, where you can usually get a private detailed in the Tourist Board’s Accueil à la
room for around e14. They normally have a Campagne booklet.
good cafeteria or canteen. A number of companies in the UK also
At the height of summer (usually July and specialize in camping holidays with well-
Aug only), there’s also the possibility of stay- equipped tents provided: try Canvas Holi-
ing in student accommodation in university days (t0870/192 1154, wwww.canvas.co
towns and cities. The main organization to .uk) or Eurocamp (t0870/9019 410, wwww
contact for this is CROUS, (t01.40.51.55.55, .eurocamp.co.uk). Twelve nights’ camping
wwww.crous-paris.fr). Prices are similar to the at Argelès, near Perpignan, with Canvas, for
official hostels, from around e14 per person, example, costs about £900 in high season
and you don’t need membership. for two adults and up to four children, includ-
ing Channel ferry.
Camping Lastly, a word of caution: never camp
Practically every village and town in France rough (camping sauvage, as the French call it)
has at least one campsite to cater for the on anyone’s land without first asking permis-
thousands of people who spend their holiday sion, as you may well have to deal with an
under canvas – camping is a very big deal irate farmer and his dogs. On the other hand,
in France. The cheapest – at around e5–8 a politely phrased request for permission will
per person per night – is usually the camp- as often as not get positive results. Camping
ing municipal, run by the local municipality. on public land is not officially permitted, but
In season or whenever they’re officially open, is widely practised by the French, and if you
they are always clean and have plenty of hot are discreet you will likely not meet with prob- 43
water; often they are situated in prime local lems. On beaches, it’s best to camp out only
positions. Out of season, those that stay where other people are doing so.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
as-Sadiq was through Musa, not Ismaʿil, then following the next
three Imams ʿAli ar-Rida—Muhammad al-Jawad—ʿAli al-Hadi (see
above)—al-Hasan al-Askari—Ubayd Allah the Mahdi. According to
this the Fatimite Mahdi in Africa was the son of the eleventh Imam
of the “Twelvers,” and thus replaced Muhammad al-Muntazar.
(7) The same line as the preceding, but admitting Muhammad al-
Muntazar as twelfth Imam who “disappeared” in 260, and asserting
that ʿUbayd Allah who appeared in North Africa was this same
Muhammad emerging from concealment, after an interval of 29
years.
(8) The same line as far as ʿAli al-Hadi, then Husayn, presumably
a brother of Hasan al-Askari, and ʿUbayd Allah as son of this
Husayn. This is given by Ibn Khallikan on the authority of a
reference in Ibn al-Athir. All these three last genealogies must be
dismissed as later suggestions since it is clear that the Ismaʿilian
sect rejected the Imams of the “Twelvers” after Jaʿfar as-Sadiq: but
it may be that Ahmad’s first claim was simply to be an ʿAlid, and not
necessarily the son of the house of Ismaʿil.
(9) Finally we have another theory, mentioned by Ibn Khallikan,
that the Mahdi was descended from Hasan, a brother of Jaʿfar as-
Sadiq, and so an ʿAlid but not an Imam, and from this Hasan came
ʿAbdullah, Ahmad, Hasan, and then ʿAli or ʿUbayd Allah the Mahdi.
Back to ʿAbdullah this was the generally asserted genealogy of the
Mahdi’s family, but Hasan, the brother of Jaʿfar, replaces Maymun.
The chief point is that there were so many alternative forms of the
genealogy, and close scrutiny shows very weak points in every one
of them. To the fully initiated this was a very small matter, as no
importance was attached to the claim to the Imamate or to the
descent from ʿAli at all. No doubt all these pedigrees served their
purpose in dealing with the different types of proselytes, and their
very diversity tends to prove that they were actually accepted and
circulated in a sect which adapted its teachings to suit the opinions
of the different classes with which it came into contact. It was not
until the Fatimids became a political power that any need was felt to
bring these various genealogies into any kind of agreement, and
then, no doubt, the variant forms circulated by the different
missionaries were a source of embarrassment.
 III
THE QARMATIANS

We turn now to the formation of the important branch of the

Ismaʿilian sect known as the Qarmatians, which is particularly
interesting as we have detailed accounts of its formation which show
how the propaganda worked, and illustrate the ease with which an
armed group could set up an independent robber state in this period
of the decay of the Khalifate. Of the history of their founding there
are two leading narratives slightly divergent in details,—which De
Goeje (pp. 13-17) calls A. and B. A. given by De Sacy (Druses, pp.
clxvi., etc.) is that of Nuwayri, who drew his information from Akhu
Muhsin, who obtained it from Ibn Razzam, and the substance, drawn
from the same sources, appears in the Fihrist. B. (in De Sacy clxxi.,
etc.) is really the account given by Tabari, and is based on the
description given by a person who had been present at the
examination of Zaqruyah the Qarmatian by Muhammad b. Dawud b.
al-Jarrah. The A. account is as follows.
One of Ahmad’s missionaries named Husayn Ahwazi was sent to
labour in the district of Kufa known as the Sawad. As he was
travelling he met a man named Hamdan b. Ashhath al-Qarmati, who
was leading an ox with forage on its back. Husayn asked him the
way to a place named Kass-Nahram, and Hamdan replied that he
was going there himself. Then Husayn asked him where was a place
named Dawr, and Hamdan told him that was his home. So they went
on together. Then Hamdan says: “You seem to have come a long
way and to be very tired: get on this ox of mine.” But Husayn
declined, saying that he had not been told to do so. Hamdan
remarked: “You speak as though you acted according to the orders
which some one had given you.” Husayn admitted that this was so.
“And who,” Hamdan asked, “it is then from whom you receive these
orders and prohibitions?” Husayn replied: “It is my master and
yours, the master of this world and of the world to come.” After
some reflection Hamdan said: “There is only God most High who is
master of all things.” “True,” replied Husayn, “but God entrusts
control to whom he pleases.” Hamdan then asked, “What do you
intend to do in the village to which you have asked to be directed?”
“I am going,” said Husayn, “to bring to many people who dwell there
a knowledge of the secrets of God. I have received orders to water
the village, to enrich the inhabitants, to deliver them, and to put
them in possession of their masters’ goods.” Then he began to
persuade Hamdan to embrace his teaching. Hamdan said: “I
beseech you in the name of God to reveal to me what you possess
of this wisdom: deliver it to me, and God will deliver you.” “That,”
said Husayn, “is a thing I cannot do, unless I previously get from
you an undertaking and bind you in the name of God by a promise
as an oath like that which God has always exacted from his prophets
and apostles. After that I shall be able to tell you things which will
be useful to you.” Hamdan continued to urge, and at last Husayn
gave way, and as they sat by the roadside Husayn administered the
oath to him and asked his name. Hamdan replied that he was
commonly known as the Qarmat, and invited Husayn to take up his
abode with him. So Husayn went to his house and gained many
converts from Hamdan’s kinsmen and neighbours. There he stayed
for some time, arousing in his host and others the strongest
admiration of the ascetic and pious life he led, fasting by day, and
watching by night. He worked as a tailor, and it was generally felt
that the garments which had passed through his hands were
consecrated. When the date harvest came a learned and wealthy
citizen of Kufa named Abu ʿAbdullah Muhammad b. ʿUmar b.
Shabab Adawi, hearing good reports of him, made him guardian of
his date garden, and found him scrupulous in his attention and
honesty. Husayn revealed his doctrines to this employer, but he saw
through the piety which had impressed the villagers and understood
that he was a conspirator. Before his death Husayn appointed
Hamdan as daʿi in his place. This is an outline of the narrative of the
origin of the Qarmatians, so called as the followers of Hamdan the
Qarmat, according to the Sherif Abu l-Hasan as reported in the
history of Nuwayri.
Gregory Bar Hebraeus gives a different account which appears
also in Bibars Mansuri and in another part of Nuwayri who cites the
authority of Ibn Athir, and this is the second account which de Goeje
calls B. According to it a Persian of Khuzistan established himself in
the Nahrayn or district between the rivers, near Hufa, and soon drew
attention by the asceticism and piety of his life. When anyone went
and sat by him he used to discourse about religion and try to induce
his hearers to renounce the world; he taught that it was a matter of
obligation to pray fifty times a day, and that it was his office to guide
men to the true Imam whose abode he knew. Some merchants
purchased the produce of the garden in which this recluse had taken
up his abode, and enquired for a trustworthy watchman to look after
their property. The gardener introduced the recluse to them, and
they gave him charge of the produce. When they came to take away
their dates they paid the watchman, and he, on his part, paid the
gardener for the dates supplied to him, deducting a rebate for the
stones. The merchants saw this reckoning going on, and supposed
that he had been selling some of their dates, so they struck him,
saying, “Is it not enough that you have eaten our dates?—is it for
you also to sell the stones?” The gardener then spoke up and told
them the facts, and when they perceived their error they made their
apologies and conceived a very high opinion of his rectitude and
probity. Some time later he fell ill, and the gardener sent for a
certain villager commonly known as Qaramita, a word which in the
Nabataean language means a man with red eyes. This villager’s real
name is not given, but Tabari adds that Muhammad b. Dawud b. al-
Jarrah said to someone that he was called Hamdan. He was an
owner of oxen which were used to carry the produce of Sawad to
the city of Kufa. He took the sick man to his house and there the
devotee stayed until he was quite well, and whilst there taught the
Qaramita the doctrines of the sect to which he belonged, and also
instructed the villagers. From amongst his converts he chose twelve
nakibs, in imitation of Moses and Jesus, and sent them out as
missionaries. He required his followers to pray fifty times a day, and
as a result the work of the villagers fell into arrears. A certain
Haysam who possessed property in the village perceived this and
made enquiry as to the reason; this led him into contact with the
devotee who was induced to reveal to him his peculiar doctrines.
Haysam perceived their subversive character and took him to Kufa
where he locked him up in his house, but a female servant who was
moved by the captive’s apparent piety stole the key and set him
free. In the morning the room was found empty, and this was
reported as a miracle. Soon afterwards the devotee re-appeared to
the villagers and told them that he had been set free by angels, and
then he escaped to Syria. After his departure the Qaramata
continued to preach and expand the doctrines which he had learned,
and in this was assisted by the other nakibs. According to Ibn Athir,
cited by Nuwayri, this Qaramat or Hamdan was a man who “affected
a religious life, detached from the world and mortified,” and “when
anyone joined his sect Hamdan took a piece of gold from him,
saying that it was for the Imam. From them (i.e., his followers) he
chose twelve nakibs whom he charged to call men to his religion,
saying that they were the apostles of Isa b. Maryam.”
The A. text refers to Husayn’s death, the B. text says that he went
to Syria. Tabari speaks of the devotee as coming from Khuzistan, but
Akhu Muhsin says that he was sent by Ahmad from Salamiya. De
Goeje (p. 18) suggests that he may have been Ahmad’s son Husayn.
According to the Kitab al-Oyun (MS. Berlin, 69—cited by de Goeje)
Saʿid, the son of Husayn, the son of Ahmad, the son of ʿAbdullah,
was born at Salamiya in 259 or 260. But evidently there is some
error here. Husayn was the grandson, not the son, of Abdullah, and
the head of the sect did not leave Askar Mokram before 266:
probably not until after the repression of the slave rebellion in 270.
No open revolt of the Qarmatians took place until 286.
In his Chronicle Bar Hebraeus applies to the sect of the Nusayri all
that he says about the Qarmatians, and so the books of the Druses
in their references to the Nusayri prove that they hold very much the
same doctrines as the Ismaʿilians. It is supposed that the Nusayri
sect is a survival of an ancient pagan community (cf. René Dussand:
Hist. et religion des Nosairis, Paris, 1900). This fits in with the advice
given to the missionaries that Manichaean converts may be admitted
to a higher grade without hesitation.
After this rather confused account of the foundation of the sect of
Qarmatians we find ourselves on surer ground. It is clear that
Hamdan surnamed the Qarmati was the convert chosen to act as
head of the branch founded near Kufa, and he seems to have been
diligent in sending out missionaries throughout the whole district of
Sawad, where success was easy as the oppressed Nabataean
villagers were still groaning under the tyranny of the Arab colonists
of the two camp-cities, Kufa and Basra. Not only were the peasants
won over in large numbers, but many of the dissatisfied Arab tribes
were also gained: these, it will be understood, were those tribes
which had had no share in the wealth acquired by the Khalif and his
followers. At first Hamdan required each proselyte to pay a piece of
silver, corresponding to the fitr or legal alms which Muslims are
expected to pay at the end of Ramadan. Then he exacted a piece of
gold from each person on attaining the age of reason, a tribute
which he called hijra or “flight,” perhaps because intended for the
maintenance of a place of refuge called the “house of flight.” Later
again he demanded seven pieces of gold which he termed bulgha or
“livelihood.” He prepared a choice banquet, and gave a small portion
to each of those who gave him the seven pieces of gold, saying that
it was the food of the dwellers in paradise sent down to the Imam.
He next levied a fifth of all their possessions, basing his claim on the
words of the Qurʾan, “And know ye, that when ye have taken any
booty, a fifth part belongeth to God and to His Apostle” (Qur. 8, 42).
Next he required them to deposit all their goods in a common fund,
a reminiscence of the communism taught in pre-Islamic times by the
Persian prophet Mazdak, and justified this by the passages,
“Remember God’s goodness towards you, how that when ye were
enemies, He united your hearts, and by His favour ye became
brethren” (Qur. 3, 98), and “Hadst thou spent all the riches of the
earth, thou couldst not have united their hearts; but God hath united
them, for He is Mighty, Wise” (Qur. 8, 64). He told them that they
had no need of money because everything on earth belonged to
them, but he exhorted them to procure arms. All this took place in
the year 276.
The daʿi chose in each village a man worthy of confidence, and in
his charge they placed the property of the inhabitants. By this means
clothes were provided for those who were without, and all had their
needs supplied so that there was no more poverty. All worked
diligently, for rank was made to depend on a man’s utility to the
community; no one possessed any private property save sword and
arms. Then it is said the daʿi assembled men and women together
on a certain night, and encouraged them to indulge in promiscuous
intercourse. After this, assured of their absolute obedience, he
began to teach them the more secret doctrines of the sect, and so
deprived them of all belief in religion, and discouraged the
observance of external rites such as prayer, fasting, and the like.
This was the distinctive mark of the Qarmatian branch: the initiated
were no longer a small minority living in the midst of their fellow
sectarians who still adhered to the external forms of Islam, but
amongst the Qarmatians all were initiated to the fullest extent in all
the teachings of the sect. Before long they began to steal and to
commit murders, so that they produced a reign of terror in the
vicinity. Then the daʿis felt that the time was ripe for open revolt,
and selected a village in the Sawad called Mahimabad, near the river
Euphrates, and within the royal domain as their rallying place or
“house of flight”: thither they carried large stones, and in a short
time surrounded it with a strong wall and erected a building in the
midst, in which a great many persons could be assembled and
where goods could be stored. This took place in 277.
At this time the Khalifate was weak, and this favoured the lawless
movements of the villagers who now came to be known as
Qarmatians from their leader. Their head, Hamdan the Qarmati,
meanwhile kept up constant correspondence with the leaders of the
sect at Salamiya. After the death of Ahmad his son and successor
wrote a letter to Hamdan, but he was not satisfied with its contents:
he observed that this letter differed considerably in expression from
those which he had previously received, and contained matters
which did not seem to agree with the teaching he had received, so
he concluded that the responsible heads had changed their policy. To
make sure he sent a trusty follower named Abdan to Salamiya to
find out how matters stood. Abdan arrived there, learned about the
death of Ahmad and the succession of his son Husayn, and had an
interview with this latter. In that interview he asked who was the
Imam to whom they owed obedience, and Husayn replied by the
counter question, “Who then is the Imam?” Abdan replied, “It is
Muhammad the son of Ismaʿil the son of Jaʿfar, the master of the
world, to whose obedience your father called men, and whose hujja
he was.” Husayn showed some annoyance at this reply, and said:
“Muhammad the son of Ismaʿil has no rights in all this; there has
never been any other Imam than my father who was descended
from Maymun b. Daysan, and to-day I take his place.” By this reply
Abdan discovered the real nature of the sect, or at least its present
policy. He then returned to the Qarmati and told him what he had
discovered, and by his orders all the duʿat were called together and
informed of what Abdan had discovered and advised to stop their
propaganda. As a result the preaching came to an end in the
districts about Kufa, but they were not able to check it in remoter
parts, and they ceased all correspondence with the leaders at
Salamiya.
Then one of the sons of Ahmad who had been on a visit to
Talakan tried to see the Qarmati on his return journey, but was
unable to find him. He therefore called on Abdan and reproached
him for ceasing to correspond with Salamiya. Abdan replied that he
had left off preaching and desired to sever his connection with the
sect as he had discovered that they were not really loyal to the
house of ʿAli, but were supporting an Imam of the family of
Maymun: he only asked God’s pardon for what he had previously
done in error. When the visitor saw that he had nothing to hope
from Abdan, he turned to another daʿi named Zaqruya b. Mahruya
and discussed with him Abdan’s attitude. Zaqruya received him well,
and it was agreed that he should be established as chief daʿi in the
district and, in return would resume the former relations with
Salamiya. To this Zaqruya assented, but objected that, so long as
Abdan was alive all efforts would be fruitless, as all revered him as a
leader. They agreed therefore to get rid of Abdan. For this end
Zaqruya collected a number of his neighbours, informed them that
the hujja or earthly representative of the Imam was dead, and that
his son was now occupying his place. The people expressed the
greatest respect towards the new hujja, and declared their readiness
to carry out his commands. He told them that they were to kill
Abdan as he had proved to be a rebel and apostate. Next night
Abdan was killed. When, however, it came to be known that it was
Zaqruya who had brought about his death the Qarmates were
indignant, and Zaqruya had to flee for his life and hide himself, and
advised the representative from Salamiya who seems to have
remained with him, to leave the neighbourhood. This took place in
286.
During the rest of that year, and the year following, the
Qarmatians were busy hunting for Zaqruya who was compelled to
move from place to place, and finally retired to a subterranean
retreat. When he went into the village near his hiding place a
woman who lived in the house used to make bread on the stone
which covered the entrance to the concealed cave so as to disarm
suspicion.
In 288 the search seemed to be relaxed, and then Zaqruya sent
his son Hasan to Syria with a companion named Hasan b. Ahmad,
and told them to preach to the Arabs of the B. Kalb tribe, inviting
them to recognise Muhammad b. Ismaʿil as the Imam. These two
envoys obtained many followers. The envoy who had made plans
with Zaqruya had meanwhile gone back to Talakan, and now,
annoyed at Zaqruya’s silence, went to the Sawad and discovered his
place of concealment. When Zaqruya told him of the success of his
mission to the Arabs he was delighted and determined to join the
envoys himself. Zaqruya approved this plan and sent with him his
nephew Isa b. Mahwayh, surnamed Mudatthar, and another young
man surnamed Mutawwak, at the same time writing a letter to his
son bidding him render obedience to the leader of these new comers
whom he termed Sahib al-Nakat. When they reached the B. Kalb
they were welcomed and received with every profession of loyalty,
and the tribe prepared for war. This took place in 289. The resulting
conflict with the authorities was, however, unsuccessful: the
sectaries were not able to repeat their brigandage which the
weakness of the central authority had been unable to prevent about
the Sawad, and the leader, the kinsman of the Mahdi at Salamiya,
was killed, and the Arabs scattered.
Nuwayri says that this leader had struck money, both gold and
silver, and that the coins were inscribed on one side: “Say, the truth
has come and falsehood has disappeared” (Qur. 17, 83): and on the
other: “There is no God but God; Say, ‘for this I ask no wage of you,
save the love of my kindred’” (Qur. 42, 22).
After this leader’s death Hasan, son of Zaqruya, took command of
the Qarmatians and assumed the name of Ahmad. The general
Muhammad b. Sulayman had a great victory over him and, as he
was unable to reconstruct his forces, he left for Baghdad where, he
said, he had many followers, and put his son Kasam in charge as his
deputy, promising to write to him. This was, however, only a pretext
as he intended to seek safety in flight, but was caught by Mudatthar
and Mutawwak and put to death.
This check caused the Arabs to keep quiet for some time. Then
they received a letter from Zaqruya saying that he had heard of the
death of Hasan and Isa by revelation, and that after their death the
Imam was going to be revealed and would triumph with his
followers. Kasam was now getting anxious, and thought it well to
visit his grandfather Zaqruya in the Sawad; but Zaqruya disapproved
the course of events and rebuked him severely, sending another
disciple, an ex-schoolmaster named Muhammad b. Abdullah, to
replace him. At first this new commander met with success, then
came reverse and he was killed. At this news Zaqruya sent back
Kasam to collect the remnants of the party which he did and brought
them to ad-Derna, a village in the Sawad. Here they were joined by
Zaqruya, who was hailed by the Arabs as their wali, and all the
Qarmatians in the Sawad came out to join them. The rising in the
Sawad was a mere jacquerie of Nabataean peasants, and the
Qarmatian movement proper never rose much above this level. At
the head of his men Zaqruya attacked the caravan of pilgrims on
their way to Mecca in 294, plundered it, and slew twenty thousand
pilgrims. The Khalif then sent out forces to put down these
troublesome brigands, the Qarmatians were severely punished,
Zaqruya was taken prisoner and sent in chains to the Khalif, but died
of his wounds on the way (Abu l-Feda: Ann. Mosl., ii. 299).
In 295 a man named Abu Khatam founded a new sect of
Qarmatians in the Sawad, and these were known as the Buraniyya
after Burani, who was the most active daʿi in organising them. Abu
Khatam forbade his followers to use garlic, leeks, or radishes, and
prohibited the shedding of any animal’s blood; he made them
abandon all the religious observances of Islam, and instituted rites of
an entirely new character. We shall find these prohibitions of
particular vegetables in the ordinances of the Fatimid Khalif Hakim
later on, but there justified by certain Shiʿite theories. At the end of
the year Abu Khatam drops out of sight entirely. The movement is of
interest only in showing the tendency of the Ismaʿilians to form new
schisms.
Another off-shoot of the Qarmatians established itself in the
Bahrayn, the land between the Tigris and Euphrates. In 281 Yahya, a
son of the Mahdi, whom de Sacy supposes to have been the same
individual who advised Zaqruya and who was killed near Damascus
in 289, the one of whom we have already heard as the Sahib an-
Nakat, although no mention of his real name is given in any account
of Zaqruya’s rising, came to al-Katif and lodged in the house of a
Shiʿite called ʿAli b. Maʿli b. Hamdan. He told his host that he had
been sent by the Mahdi to invite the Shiʿites to recognise him, the
representative of Ismaʿil, as the Imam, and to announce that the
public appearance of the “concealed one” was near at hand. ʿAli
gathered together the Shiʿites of the locality, and showed them the
letter which Yahya had given him to be read to them: they promised
obedience and declared themselves ready to take up arms as soon
as the Mahdi’s representative appeared amongst them. Very soon all
the villagers of the Bahrayn were induced to join in these
undertakings. Yahya then went away and returned with a letter,
which he stated that he had obtained from the Mahdi authorising
him to act as their leader, and calling on them to pay him six pieces
of gold and two-thirds for each man. This they did, and then Yahya
brought a new letter bidding them give him a fifth of all their goods,
and this they did also.
Ibn al-Athir says that Yahya went to the house of Abu Saʿid al-
Jannabi, one of these Shiʿites, and that his host gave him food, and
then told his wife to go in to Yahya and not refuse him her favours.
News of this, however, came to the governor of the town, and he
had Yahya beaten and his hair and beard shorn off as a punishment
for the scandal caused. After this Abu Saʿid fled to his native town
of Jannaba, and Yahya went out to the Arab tribes of Kalab, Oqayl,
and Haras, who rallied round him, so that he found himself at the
head of a considerable force in 286. It will be noted that the desert
tribes, even though the most purely Arab, were always ready to join
revolutionary movements, anti-Arab as well as other; in fact they
were simply marauders, and fell in with any plans which offered
promise of a period of successful brigandage, irrespective of any
political or religious movements involved.
Nuwayri supposes either that Abu Saʿid had previously learned
Qarmatian ideas in the Sawad, or had been initiated by Hamdan and
appointed daʿi for the district of al-Katif. Most of his followers were
drawn from the lowest classes, butchers, porters, and such like. The
Sharif Abu l-Hasan says that Abu Saʿid regarded the daʿi Zaqruya as
a rival and felt a jealousy towards him, so that, having contrived to
get Zaqruya into a house belonging to him, he starved him to death.
When he had gathered a considerable following Abu Saʿid
established himself at the town of al-ʾAhsa, besieged Hajar, the
capital of the Bahrayn, for a matter of two years, during which his
followers were considerably increased, and finally captured the town
by cutting off its water supply. Some of the inhabitants escaped to
the islands in the river near by, others embraced Abu Saʿid’s
doctrines, whilst others were put to death. The town was pillaged
and ruined, and thus al-ʾAhsa afterwards replaced it as the capital
of the Bahrayn. According to Ibn Khallikan Abu Saʿid first appeared
as kabir or “great man” of the Qarmatians in 286. In 287 they made
an attempt on Basra, and though they defeated the forces sent by
the Khalif to repel them, they were unable to take the city (Ibn
Khall., i. 427).
Abu Saʿid then attempted to get possession of Oman, but was
obliged to abandon this scheme. He was slain in 301 with several
other Qarmatian leaders, and was succeeded by his son Abu l-Kasam
Saʿid, who held the leadership until his second son Abu Tahar, who
had been designated successor, was old enough to take up the task,
which happened in 305. The Qarmatian risings which take a position
of considerable prominence in later history all took place under the
successors of Abu Saʿid, who may be regarded as the founder of the
Qarmatians as a revolutionary force, although there had been an
earlier beginning of the sect as an off-shoot of the Ismaʿilians under
Hamdan and his missionaries.
According to Ibn Khallikan Abu Saʿid entered Syria in 289, and in
291 he was slain in his bath by one of his eunuchs. He left six sons.
It was Abu Tahar who marched on Basra in 311, occupied it without
serious resistance, and plundered the city. But to these doings of the
Qarmatians we shall return later.
 IV
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FATIMIDS IN NORTH
AFRICA

The political career of the Fatimids centres in North Africa and

Egypt, and commences with the activity of Ibn Hawshab, who
himself never visited those parts. This man, whom Maqrizi calls Abu
l-Kasam Hasan b. Farash b. Hawshab, and Abu l-Fera and Bibars
Mansuri, referred to as Rustam b. Husayn b. Hawshab b. Zadam an-
Najjar (“the carpenter”), was a follower of Ahmad whom we have
seen as succeeding his father ʿAbdullah, and accompanied him on a
pilgrimage to the sacred sites of the Shiʿites, the tombs of Hasan
and Husayn and of several of the later Imams, all in the
neighbourhood of Kufa and Samarra,—ʿAli’s own tomb is not known
for certain, but is commonly believed to be at Najaf, near Kufa.
Whilst there they noticed a wealthy Shiʿite of Yemen named
Muhammad himself remarked by his tears and display of grief
(Maqrizi i. 349). According to this Yemenite’s own account he had
just read the Sura of “The Grotto” (Qur. 18), when he noticed an old
man with a young companion close at hand. The old man sat down,
his companion sat near, but kept on observing Muhammad, until at
last he left the old man and drew near him. Muhammad asked him
who he was; he gave his name as Husayn, and hearing this sacred
name Muhammad could not restrain his tears. The old man observed
this very attentively, and bids the young man ask him to join them.
When Muhammad did so he asked who and what he was. The man
replied that he was a Shiʿite, and gave his name as Hasan b. Faraj
b. Hawshab. The old man said that he knew his father, and that he
was a “Twelver.” Did the son hold the same views? Hasan replied
that he always had held them, but that of late he had felt much
discouragement (cf. extract in Quatremère, Journal asiatique, for
Aug., 1836). From this a conversation commenced, and as a result
Hasan was converted to acceptance of the Ismaʿilian creed. Further,
Ahmad drew the conclusion that Yemen would offer a promising field
for Shiʿite propaganda, and decided to send Ibn Hawshab to act as
daʿi in Yemen, and about a.h. 270 (= a.d. 883) he appears there as
settled in the district of the B. Musa tribe at Sana (Maq. i. 349). At
first he claimed to be simply a merchant, but his neighbours soon
penetrated his disguise and urged him to act openly as a Shiʿite
missionary who, they assured him, would be in every way welcome
(Bibars Mansuri). Thus encouraged he declared himself a Shiʿite
agent, and soon gathered a considerable band of followers drawn,
not only from the immediate vicinity, but also from the Qarmatians
of Mesopotamia. As soon as they were strong enough Ibn Hawshab’s
companions took up arms and began raids upon neighbours who
had not accepted the Shiʿite creed and met with much success in
obtaining plunder.
From the earliest period of Muslim history North Africa has been
the favourite field of exploitation of every sect and political party
which found itself in opposition to the official Khalifate, and there
has always been very close intercourse between that area and South
Arabia; indeed, there are even common peculiarities of dialect
between the two. Thus we find that as soon as the new Ismaʿilian
sect was established in Yemen, Ibn Hawshab sent two missionaries,
Hulwani and Abu Sufyan (Maq. ii. 10) to preach in the province of
Ifrikiya, the modern Tripoli and Tunis, where their work seems to
have lain particularly amongst the aboriginal Berber population, for
the Berbers were always more disposed to any heresy or rebellion
which would give them a good pretext for making war against the
ruling Arabs. Nothing is known of the subsequent history of these
two missionaries save that after a brief career during which they
seem to have made a deep impression, especially on the Katama
tribe, they died. This Katama tribe lived in the broken territory north-
west of the town of Constantine, in what would now be north-east
Algeria.
 As we shall have to refer more than once to the geography of
North Africa it will be convenient here to make a brief statement of
its political divisions and condition in the fourth century a.h. By North
Africa we understand the whole territory lying between the land of
Egypt on the east and the Atlantic on the west, bounded by the
Mediterranean on the north and by the great desert on the south.
Previous to the Arab invasion this land was inhabited by the Berbers
or Libyans, the same who, under the name of Lebu, had constantly
threatened Egypt in the days of the Pharaohs. As a race these
Berbers seem to have progressed little since neo-lithic times, and
were still in the condition of nomadic tribes like the Arabs of the pre-
Islamic period. Their language was not Semitic, but it has many very
marked Semitic affinities and, although language transmission is
often quite distinct from racial descent, it seems quite probable that
in this case the race bore a parallel relation to the Arab stock. This
would be best explained by the supposition that both were derived
from a neo-lithic race, which at one time spread along the whole of
the southern coast of the Mediterranean and across into Western
Asia, but that some cause, perhaps the early development of
civilization in the Nile valley, had cut off the eastern wing from the
rest, and this segregated portion developed the distinctive
characteristics which we term Semitic.
Along the coast there had been a series of colonies, Greek, Punic,
Roman, and Visigothic, but these left no permanent mark on the
Berber population, language, or culture. Although at the time of the
Arab invasion the country was theoretically under the rule of
Byzantium, and the invaders had to meet the resistance of a Greek
army, the early defeat of the Greeks brought an immediate end to
Greek influence in the country, and left the Arabs face to face with
the Berber tribes.
The Arab invasion of North Africa followed immediately after the
conquest of Egypt, but the internal disputes of the Muslim
community prevented this invasion from resulting in a regular
conquest, much less in settlement. It was not until the second
invasion took place in a.h. 45 (= a.d. 665) that we can regard the
Arabs as really beginning the conquest of the country and its
settlement. For centuries afterwards the Arab hold was precarious in
the extreme, and many Berber states were founded from time to
time, some of which had an existence of several centuries. As a rule
there was a pronounced racial antipathy between Arab and Berber,
but this was mild compared with the tribal feuds between different
Berber groups, and Arab rule was only possible by temporary
alliance with one or other of the quarrelling factions. Strangely
enough the religion of Islam spread rapidly amongst the Berbers,
but it took a peculiar development which shows the survival of many
pre-Islamic religious ideas and observances. The worship of saints
and the reverence paid to their tombs is a corruption of Islam which
appears in most lands, but in the West it takes an extreme form,
although there are tribes which reject it altogether. Similar worship,
often in a revolting form, is paid to living saints or murabits
(marabouts), who are allowed to indulge every passion, and to
disregard the ordinary rules of morality: very often these reputed
saints are no more than insane persons, for the Berbers, like many
other primitive people, regard insanity as a form of divine
inspiration. Such saints, even those living to-day, are credited with
miraculous powers, and especially with the power of surpassing the
limitations of time and place, and so to pass from one place to
another in an instant of time, and to be in two places at once.
These ideas, of course, are no legitimate development of Islam, to
which they are plainly repugnant, but represent the survival of older
pagan beliefs which Islam has not been able to eradicate. At the
same time, as we have noted, there are tribes which are completely
free from these ideas, and there is, especially in the towns, an
element which is strictly orthodox in its rejection of alien
superstitions, and there have been many learned theologians and
jurists of the Berber race, for the most part of a reactionary and
conservative school of thought. The conquest of Spain was carried
out by Muslims, amongst whom the Berbers were in the numerical
majority, and the Berber element always predominated in Spain,
where some of the most brilliant philosophy, literature, and art of the
Islamic world was produced.
North Africa was always the home of the lost causes of Islam.
Whenever the Khalifs of Baghdad tried to exterminate some
obnoxious sect or dynasty, the last survivors took refuge in the
remoter parts of the West, and there managed to hold their own, so
that even now those parts show the strangest survivals of otherwise
forgotten movements. But North Africa always gave its readiest
welcome to those sects which show a strongly puritan character:
though anyone in revolt against the Khalif or other recognized
authority could count on a welcome in North Africa for that very fact.
In race, language, and religious ideas the Berbers of the North are
one with the Berber tribes of the great desert which spreads to the
watershed of the Benwe and connects, by regular trade routes
following the ridges which traverse North Africa from north-west to
south-east, with the Horn of Africa. But these desert dwellers of the
south do not enter into the subject of our present enquiry.
The Arab conquerors settled along North Africa and down to the
desert edge in sporadic groups, their tribes as a rule occupying the
lower ground, whilst the older population maintained itself in the
mountainous districts. But this does not mean that the Berbers were
held at bay as a subject people: the Katama, for instance, possessed
some of the best territory in North Africa, and were practically
independent of the Khalif. During the invasion of 45 the city of
Kairawan was founded some distance south of Tunis. The site was
badly chosen, and it is now little more than a decayed village, but
for some centuries it served as the political capital of Ifrikiya, the
province which lay next to Egypt and embraced the modern states of
Tripoli, Tunis, and the eastern part of Algeria to the meridian of
Bougie. West of this lay Maghrab or “the western land” which was
divided into two districts, Central Maghrab, extending from the
borders of Ifrikiya across the greater part of Algeria and the eastern
third of Morocco, and Farther Maghrab, which was the land beyond
to the Atlantic coast.
 The Berber tribes were spread over all these provinces. In the
eastern part of Ifrikiya the chief were the tribes of Hwara, Luata,
Nefusa, and Zuagha: in Central Ifrikiya the Warghu and Nefzawa: in
western Ifrikiya the Nefzawa, Katama, Awraba, and a number of
smaller tribes to the south: the chief tribes of Central Maghrab were
the Zuawa (or Zouaves), Magbrawa, and B. Mzab: and in Farther
Maghrab the B. Wanudin, Ghomara (in the Rif of Morocco), the
Miknasa, etc. No satisfactory result has ever been attained by those
who have tried to identify the ancient Numidians, Mauritanians, and
Gaetuli with existing tribes; evidently, as in Arabia, there have been
new groupings and new formations, which forbid the tracing back of
the mediaeval tribal divisions to ancient times; perhaps it was Islam
which finally rendered permanent the divisions as they existed in the
first century of the Hijra. Amongst these Berber tribes were spread
the tribes of Arab invaders and settlers which, even in the 10th
century a.d. extended in scattered groups from the borders of Egypt
to the Atlantic. For the most part each race preserved its own
language, the Arabic dialects being distinguished by archaic forms,
and a phonology somewhat modified by Berber influences; but there
are several instances of Berber tribes which have adopted Arabic,
and some of Arabs and mixed groups which have adopted the
Berber language. For the most part the Arabs have had no
reluctance to mingle with the Berbers, but the attitude of the
Berbers varies, and some groups rigidly exclude intermarriage
between themselves and the Arabs or any others.
The Kharijites, the oldest and most turbulent dissenting sect of
Islam, the reactionaries who opposed the modification of Muslim
customs under Hellenistic influence, had appeared in Maghrab early
in the 2nd century of the Hijra after their suppression in Asia, and
were still a living force there in the fourth century, when their very
name was almost forgotten elsewhere. A small group of the less
extreme branch of that sect, the Ibadites, still survives in strict
isolation in South Algeria. The Idrisids, a dynasty descended from
the house of Hasan the son of ʿAli, founded by Idris who escaped
from the attempted extermination of his kinsmen at Madina in 169,
ruled an independent state in Farther Maghrab in the fourth century.
The Umayyads dethroned by the ʿAbbasids in 132, had a
representative who escaped to North Africa, and then crossed to
Spain where they founded a Khalifate at Cordova which, in the
fourth century, had become a great and flourishing power. Indeed
the Maghrab was too remote from the Khalifs of Baghdad ever to be
under effective control: one after another punitive expeditions
marched across North Africa, the disaffected were defeated, the
remnant took refuge in the hills, and in the course of a few years or
even months the former condition returned again. Obviously those
western lands offered a promising field to the agitator, whether
political rebel or sectarian leader, and Ibn Hawshab’s missionaries
had evidently struck a promising vein in the Berber tribe of Katama.
Amongst those who attached themselves to Ibn Hawshab in
Yemen was a certain Abu ʿAbdullah Hasan (or Husayn) b. Ahmad b.
Muhammad b. Zakariya, afterwards surnamed ash-Shiʿi, a native of
Sana and a zealous Shiʿite who had been inspector of weights and
measures in one of the districts attached to Baghdad. He was a man
not only of superior education and intelligence, but astute and with
as good knowledge of how to deal with men. Before long he became
one of Ibn Hawshab’s most trusty companions and, when the news
came of the death of the two missionaries who had been sent to
Africa, Ibn Hawshab determined to send him as daʿi, and provided
him with the funds necessary for his enterprise. Later on we find him
in Africa assisted by his brother, but we are without information as to
whether this brother was sent to join him later or set out with him
(Maqrizi ii. 11, Ibn Khallikan i. 465).
Abu ʿAbdullah’s first step was to go to Mecca and to find out
where the Katama pilgrims were lodged. As soon as he discovered
this he engaged a lodging near by and sat as close to them as he
could, listening to their conversation. Before long they began to talk
about the prerogatives of the house of ʿAli, a subject on which they
had been instructed by the two missionaries who had already visited
their country, and Abu ʿAbdullah joined in their conversation. When
he stood up to go away they begged to be allowed to visit him, and
to this he assented. They were delighted with his learning and
began to frequent his society, and one day they asked him where he
intended to go when he had finished his pilgrimage to Mecca. He
replied that it was his intention to go to Egypt, so they begged him
to join them as they would have to pass through Egypt on their
homeward journey. They set out together, and the good opinion they
had formed of him was greatly increased as they observed his piety,
his regularity in the exercises of religion, and his ascetic character.
During all this time he mentioned no word of his real intentions, but
constantly directed the conversation to the subject of the land of
Katama, and asked many questions about the neighbouring tribes
and their relation with the governor of Ifrikiya. On this last subject
the Katamites explained that they did not regard the governor as
having any authority over them, his residence was ten days’ journey
from their country, and his control was nil. He further enquired if
they were accustomed to bear arms, and they replied that this was
their usual occupation.
When they reached Egypt Abu ʿAbdullah said farewell to the
Katama tribesmen but, as they expressed deep regret at the idea of
leaving him, they asked what business he had to attend to in Egypt.
He replied that he had no business there but simply intended to
become a teacher. “If that is all,” they said, “our country will offer
you a better field, and you will find more who are disposed to
become your pupils, for we know your worth.” So as they pressed
him warmly, he consented to continue in their company, and went
on until they met some of their fellow tribesmen who came out to
meet them. All these had come under the influence of the two
former missionaries and were devoted Shiʿites and, when they
heard the account given by the returning pilgrims, they welcomed
Abu ʿAbdullah with every demonstration of respect.
At length, about the middle of Rabiʿ I. 288 (Feb., 900 a.d.) they
reached home, and every one of his companions pressed the
missionary to be his guest. He declined all these offers of hospitality
and asked them to inform him where was the valley of al-Khiyar (the
righteous men). This enquiry greatly astonished them as no one
could remember that such a name had ever been mentioned in his
presence: they admitted, however, that there was such a place and
described its situation, and he then told them that he would take up
his abode there and visit each of them from time to time. He then
set out with some guides to Mount Inkijan where the valley is
situated, and when they arrived there he told his companions, “Here
is the ‘Valley of the righteous men’ and it is on your account that it is
thus named, for one reads in the traditions that ‘the Mahdi will be
obliged to make his migration, and will be helped in his flight by the
Righteous Men who will be on earth at that time, and by a nation
whose name is derived from kitman’; it is because you will rise up in
this valley which has been named ‘The valley of the Righteous Men’”
(Maq. ii. 11). The derivation of the Berber name Katama from the
Arabic kitman “secret” was, of course, no more than a play upon
words.
Very soon the dwellers in the vicinity began to spread Abu
ʿAbdullah’s reputation, men came from all parts to visit him, and he
completely swayed a large body of Berber tribesmen amongst whom
the Katama tribe was most prominent. He made, however, no further
mention of the Mahdi, and did not seem to interest himself in the
subject. But he connected his work with that of the two former
missionaries and said: “I am the man entrusted with the sowing of
whom Abu Safyan and Hulwani spoke to you,” and this increased
their attachment towards him and his importance in their eyes (Maq.
id. 37). Some, however, regarded him with disfavour, for evidently
there were Berber tribes which had not adopted Shiʿite doctrines:
but the Katama tribe under its chieftain Hasan b. Harun supported
him, and took up arms against those who tried to interfere with his
work. This inter-tribal dispute was the beginning of a long conflict,
which ultimately made the Shiʿites dominant in North Africa.
Supported by the Katama and a number of Kabyle tribes Hasan
attacked and captured the town of Tarrut, and then advanced
against Meila.
Already reports of the religious teacher of Mount Ankijan had
spread through the province of Ifrikiya, and had reached Ibrahim b.
Ahmad the Aghlabi Emir. These Aghlabids were hereditary governors
of Ifrikiya established at Kairawan about 184 by the ʿAbbasid
Khalifs, to whom they paid tribute and were subject. Desirous of
obtaining more accurate information Ibrahim had sent to the
governor of Meila to make enquiry about Abu ʿAbdullah and his
doings, but the governor had sent back to Kairawan a somewhat
contemptuous account of him, in which he was described as a
religious fanatic, a devotee revered as a saint by the ignorant
people, and so the political possibilities of his activity were
overlooked.
The taking of Tarrut and the advance on Meila, which city, after a
brief resistance, was betrayed by some of its inhabitants, made a
change in this attitude. Ibrahim sent an army under his brother
Ahwal against Abu ʿAbdullah and his followers, and defeated them,
after which Ahwal returned home fully convinced that the rising had
been finally disposed of. From this defeat Abu ʿAbdullah retired to
Mount Ankijan where he established a “house of flight,” and there he
gathered his partisans around him. As soon as he heard of Ahwal’s
retirement he began a series of forays, pillaging the surrounding
districts and annoying those who did not join the Shiʿite sect. At this
Ahwal made a new expedition, but this time he suffered a repulse,
not severe enough to force him to retreat, but compelling him to be
satisfied with a defensive police duty in the neighbourhood which
was, however, effectual in checking the Shiʿite raids. But this did not
last long. In 291 (= a.d. 903) Ibrahim the Aghlabi died, and the
governorship passed to his son Ziadat Allah, a man indolent and
entirely devoted to pleasure, who recalled his brother Ahwal from his
military duties.
This, of course, opened new opportunities for Abu ʿAbdullah, and
very soon his followers were ranging at will through the whole
province of Ifrikiya, and he boldly declared that the Mahdi was now
near at hand and would soon appear in Africa, and would prove his
sacred mission by working miracles (Maq. ii. 11). Common report
affirmed that Abu ʿAbdullah himself had done many wonders, even
making the sun rise in the west, restoring the dead to life, and other
marvels. Not only had he now a very large following amongst the
Berber tribesmen, but many of the officers serving under Ziadat
Allah were well disposed towards the Shiʿite claims, and were
secretly in correspondence with Abu ʿAbdullah.
At this juncture, in 291, the Shiʿites were practically supreme in
all the country west of the suburbs of Kairawan, and now Abu
ʿAbdullah sent messengers over to the Mahdi inviting him to cross
into Africa. Ismaʿil had just died at Salamiya, and shortly before his
death advised his son Saʿid to migrate to a distant land. As soon as
his father died Saʿid and his son Abu l-Kasam Nizar set out from
Salamiya intending to go to Yemen, but hearing of the success in
North Africa changed their course in that direction, probably meeting
the messengers from Abu ʿAbdullah on the way (cf. Ibn Khaldun ii.
515-516). The journey was beset with great perils, especially in the
passing through Egypt. At that time the governor of Egypt was Abu
Musa Isa b. Muhammad Nushari, who had been appointed after the
death of Ibn Tulun in 292, and held office until the government was
usurped by Khalanj in 293-4, after which the Khalif al-Muqtadi
restored him to office which he held until his death in 297. Saʿid, or
ʿUbayd Allah as he now preferred to call himself, arrived during this
latter period of office, and the governor had grounds of suspicion
about him without very clear information. The refugees left Misr, the
old capital lying to the south of the present Cairo, but the governor
followed and overtook them. He attempted no violence, but joined
their company and induced them to rest with him in a garden, his
guard meanwhile surrounding the place. He tried every means to
win their confidence, and so to find out who they were and what
was the object of their journey: he tried to coax ʿUbayd Allah to join
him in taking refreshment, but ʿUbayd Allah declined on the pretext
that he was then observing a fast: then he tried to get information
by judicious questions, but in vain. At length he allowed ʿUbayd
Allah to go on his way. He offered the travellers an escort, but this
was politely declined. Then the governor assembled his men to
return home, but many of them showed their discontent that the
travellers had been allowed to escape, and on second thoughts the
governor himself regretted that he had not detained them for further
enquiry, and sent a body of men after them, but they had made
good use of their start, and it proved impossible to overtake them.
Some said that the governor had been bribed by ʿUbayd Allah, and
this seems to be likely enough.
After this escape ʿUbayd Allah, his son, and Abu l-ʿAbbas, the
brother of Abu ʿAbdullah, went on to Tripoli. The next town on their
way would be Kairawan, and ʿUbayd Allah was distinctly anxious
about venturing there, so he sent forward Abu l-ʿAbbas to obtain
information. Now it appears that Ziadat Allah had much clearer
grounds of suspicion than the Egyptian governor, and Abu l-ʿAbbas
was not able to escape suspicion, and was taken prisoner. Ziadat
Allah does not seem to have been so much interested in the prisoner
himself, but made every endeavour to find out some details about
the companions with whom he was travelling. Abu l-ʿAbbas denied
that he had travelled with any companions, or that he had any
knowledge of a fugitive from Syria: he asserted that he was simply a
merchant passing through Ifrikiya on his own business. But Ziadat
Allah’s suspicions were not allayed: Abu l-ʿAbbas was detained in
custody, and a messenger was sent to Tripoli to secure the arrest of
the other travellers. The messenger, however, returned with the
reply that ʿUbayd Allah had already left the city before the order for
his arrest had arrived. Again the suggestion is made that the
governor of Tripoli had been won over by bribes. It is supposed that
ʿUbayd Allah had been able to take with him a great part of his
considerable wealth, and that it was easy for him to corrupt the
provincial governors. Certainly he had information of what had
befallen Abu l-ʿAbbas in Kairawan. At first he retired to Kastilia, but
when he made sure that there was no possibility of Abu l-ʿAbbas
getting free and joining him there, he went on to Sijilmassa (Maq. ii.
11).
At the time of his arrival in this town the ruling prince, al-Yasa b.
Midrar, had no grounds of suspicion, and received the travellers very
kindly. ʿUbayd Allah made him valuable presents, and they soon
became intimate. One day, however, as they were sitting together, a
letter from Ziadat Allah was put into al-Yasa’s hand, and in it the
Aghlabi related the suspicions he had formed about ʿUbayd Allah.
The governor immediately ordered the arrest of ʿUbayd Allah and
his son, questioned them closely about their relations with Abu l-
ʿAbbas, and the suggestion that they were in some way associated
with Abu ʿAbdullah, but ʿUbayd Allah denied any knowledge of
either of these. The father and son were then separated and
confined in separate quarters, and the son, Abu l-Kasam, was
examined apart, but no information of any sort could be obtained
from him.
Meanwhile, since the departure of the messengers from Abu
ʿAbdullah to ʿUbayd Allah, the former had continued his career of
conquest. Meila, Satif, and other towns immediately near the Katama
territory were taken, and the governor at Kairawan was no longer
able to disguise from himself that the Shiʿite revolt was threatening
the very basis of Arab authority in Ifrikiya. Under these
circumstances Ziadat Allah assembled a council of canonists to
advise him about the Shiʿite claims. The meeting took place in the
house of the prince’s chief adviser, Abdullah b. Essaig, and, after
considering the religious character of Abu ʿAbdullah’s movement,
and especially the report that “he cursed the Companions,” i.e., that
he was a Shiʿite who cursed the first three Khalifs as usurpers who
had excluded ʿAli from his rights, regardless of the fact that they
had been the companions of the Prophet, they decided that Abu
ʿAbdullah and his followers must be publicly denounced as heretics.
Fortified with this decision which was necessary to stop the tendency
of his own people to favour the Shiʿites, the Aghlabid assembled an
army of 40,000 men whom he placed under a kinsman named
Ibrahim b. Habashi b. ʿUmar at-Tamimi, and sent them against the
Katama. Ibrahim took up his quarters at Konstantina l-Hawa, on the
western edge of the Katama country, and there he stayed six
months without actually attacking the Shiʿites, but serving as a
check upon their movements. As soon as he appeared Abu
ʿAbdullah retired to his usual retreat, “the house of flight,” and no
further advance was made on either side. As Ahwal had already
proved, this kind of patrol work was the most effective. But Ibrahim
desired a decisive punishment of the revolted tribes, and rashly
resolved to move out and attack Kerma, one of the cities occupied
by the Shiʿites. On the way Abu ʿAbdullah met and defeated him,
and he had to flee with the remnants of his army to Kairawan.
Matters were now becoming extremely serious, and Ziadat
assembled a new force which he entrusted to Harun b. Tabni. Harun
marched upon Daralmoluk and took it, but immediately afterwards
Abu ʿAbdullah arrived with his main band, and a general
engagement ensued, in which Harun was killed and his forces
completely routed. After this victory Abu ʿAbdullah marched upon
Banjas, which capitulated, and then was in a position to threaten
Kairawan itself. We have now reached the year 295, and at this point
Ziadat Allah raised a third army and took command himself. He
advanced to Elaris, but there his courtiers began to remonstrate with
him: if any disaster took place and he were involved it would mean
the downfall of the Aghlabid dynasty, a result which would not
necessarily proceed from the defeat of a subordinate general.
Persuaded by his entourage Ziadat Allah appointed his kinsman
Ibrahim as commander-in-chief, and himself retired to Raqada to the
south-west of Kairawan, and gave himself over entirely to a life of
pleasure.
Meanwhile Abu ʿAbdullah was extending his authority over the
whole country. He was invited to Bagaya which he occupied, then
took by force the small towns of Majana, Sash, and Maskanaya. His
politic clemency at Bagaya produced a good impression, and did
much to assist him in gaining over other towns. His success caused
great alarm to Ziadat Allah, and he consulted ʿAbdullah b. Essaig,
who advised him to retire to Egypt and leave a general in charge of
the army, but Ibrahim persuaded him to abandon this idea. Soon
afterwards Abu ʿAbdullah advanced to Merida, where were many
refugees from the towns already taken. The inhabitants asked for
terms, and Abu ʿAbdullah’s lieutenants agreed, the leader himself
being absent. When the envoys from the citizens returned and the
gates were opened to admit them, the attacking army made a
sudden rush, forced their way in, and pillaged the city.
Abu ʿAbdullah now resolved to attack Raqada where Ziadat Allah
was established. As he marched towards that town Ibrahim tried to
intercept him, and for this purpose left al-Arbes where he was
encamped, and occupied Derdemin, which lay near the route which
Abu ʿAbdullah would have to take. On his way the Shiʿites sent a
detachment to take Derdemin, without apparently being aware that
this was now Ibrahim’s headquarters. The detachment was repulsed
and put to flight. Abu ʿAbdullah was unable to understand why the
detachment did not return, and went after them with reinforcements
to find out. On the way they met their comrades in full flight from
Derdemin, but at their arrival the fugitives stopped, turned back, and
with the help of the new-comers inflicted a severe defeat on
Ibrahim. This was followed by the submission of Qafra and Qastilia,
the latter place being a general depot for Ziadat Allah’s munitions,
provisions, and money, all of which fell into the Shiʿites’ hands. For
the moment, however, Abu ʿAbdullah refrained from further
advance: he settled at Bagaya and established his headquarters
there, and then retired for a time on his own account to Mount
Ankijan.
Ibrahim then decided to take the offensive and laid siege to
Bagaya, news of which quickly brought Abu ʿAbdullah back from his
retirement, bringing 12,000 newly enrolled tribesmen with him. But
Bagaya was offering such a sturdy resistance to Ibrahim that the
besieger was both astonished and discouraged, and, hearing of Abu
ʿAbdullah’s approach, retired again to al-Arbes.
In the spring of the following year, a.h. 296, the two armies of
Ziadat Allah and Abu ʿAbdullah both took the field. The historians
state that the former numbered 200,000 men, the latter many more.
It must, of course, be remembered that figures of this sort by
oriental writers are hardly deserving of the least attention. An
engagement took place with results unfavourable to Ibrahim, who
forthwith retired to Kairawan, the strongest military stronghold in
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