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 CHAPTER VI.
THE MOON.

Attractive aspect of the Moon.—Absence of air and water.—

Only one Hemisphere visible.—Earthshine.—Telescopic
observations of the lunar surface.—Eclipses.—Lunar changes.—
Formations.—Plato and other objects described.—Table of
Moon’s age and formations near terminator.—Occultations of
stars.—Visibility of the new Moon.

“The western Sun withdraws: meanwhile the Moon,

Full orb’d, and breaking through the scatter’d clouds,
Shows her broad visage in the crimson’d east.”
Early in autumn, when the evenings are frequently clear, many
persons are led with more force than usual to evince an interest in
our satellite, and to desire information which may not be
conveniently obtained at the time. The aspect of the Moon at her
rising, near the time of the full, during the months of August,
September, and October, is more conspicuously noticeable than at
any other season of the year, on account of the position she then
assumes on successive nights, enabling her to rise at closely
identical times for several evenings together. The appearance of her
large, ruddy globe at near the same hour, and her increasing
brilliancy as her horizontal rays give way under a more vertical
position, originated the title of “Harvest Moon,” to commemorate the
facility afforded by her light for the ingathering of the corn preceding
the time of the autumnal equinox.
It will be universally admitted that the Moon possesses special
attractions for us, as being situated nearer than any other celestial
body, and forming the inseparable companion or tributary world to
the Earth. The many important influences she exercises have led to
her becoming the object of close investigation; so that her motions
and physical appearances have been ascertained with a remarkable
degree of exactness and amplitude. Her movements regulate the
tides; her positions are of the utmost moment to the mariner; her
light is the welcome beacon of the wayfarer, and its picturesque
serenity has ever formed the theme of poets. To the practical
astronomer she constitutes an orb perfectly unique as regards extent
and variety of detail; and questions relating to the physical condition
of her surface, now and in past ages, supply a fund of endless
speculation to the theorist.
The mean apparent diameter of the Moon is 31′ 5″, and it varies
from 29′ 21″ at perigee to 33′ 31″ at apogee. Her real diameter is
2160 miles, and her mean distance slightly exceeds 237,000 miles.
Her revolution round the Earth (= sidereal period) is performed in
27d 7h 43m 11s·46, but the time from one new moon to another (=
synodical period) is 29d 12h 44m 3s. The Moon’s motion through the
firmament is at the rate of 13° 10′ 35″ per day and 32′ 56″ per hour.
Thus she travels over a space slightly exceeding her own diameter in
one hour. The linear value of 1″ at the distance of our satellite is
1·16 mile, and of 1′ 69½ miles.
When we critically survey the face of the Moon with a good
telescope, we see at once that her surface is broken up into a series
of craters of various sizes, and that some very irregular formations
are scattered here and there, which present a similar appearance to
elevated mountain-ranges. The crateriform aspect of the Moon is
perhaps the more striking feature, from its greater extent; and we
recognize in the individual forms a simile to the circular cavities
formed in slag or some other hard substances under the action of
intense heat. In certain regions of the Moon, especially those near
the south pole, the disk is one mass of abutting craters, and were it
not for the obvious want of symmetry in form and uniformity of size,
the appearance would be analogous to that of a gigantic
honeycomb. These craters are commonly surrounded by high walls
or ramparts, and often include conical hills rising from their centres
to great heights. While the eye examines these singular structures,
and lingers amongst the mass of intricate detail in which the whole
surface abounds, we cannot but feel impressed at the marvellous
sharpness of definition with which the different features are
presented to our view. It matters not to what district we direct our
gaze, there is the same perfect serenity and clearness of outline. Not
the slightest indication can be discerned anywhere of mist or other
obscuring vapours hanging over the lunar landscape.
Absence of Air and Water.—Now it is palpable from this that the
Moon has no atmosphere of sufficient density to render itself
appreciable; for such an appendage, if it existed in any visible form,
would at once obtrude upon the attention, and we should probably
recognize some of the characteristics common to the behaviour of
our terrestrial clouds. But nothing of the kind is apparent on the
Moon: there is an unbroken transparency spread over the whole
extent of the Moon’s scenery; whence we conclude that if any air
exists on the surface it is of extremely attenuated nature, and
possibly confined to the bottom of the craters and low-lying
formations, which are arranged in such prolific manner on our
satellite.
Nor is there any perceptible intimation of water upon the Moon. It
is true that several dark grey patches have been given names,
leading one directly to the inference that lakes and seas comprise
part of the surface phenomena. Thus there is the Mare Serenitatis
(“the sea of serenity”) and many other designations of similar
import, which we cannot but insist are wrongly applied and
calculated to lead to misapprehension. Before the invention of the
telescope furnished us with the means of accurately determining the
character of the lunar features, such apellations may have been
considered eligible; but now that the non-existence of water in any
extensive form is admitted, the titles are rendered obsolete. Still
their retention is in some respects advisable, for any sweeping
change in a recognized system of nomenclature must cause
confusion, and the names alluded to serve a useful end in facilitating
reference; so that, under the circumstances, it would perhaps be
unwise to attempt reform, or to introduce an innovation which must
occasion many difficulties.
Only one Hemisphere visible.—In discussing the nature and
appearances of the lunar formations, it must be distinctly understood
that our remarks apply to those visible on the side invariably turned
towards the Earth. For, in point of fact, there is a considerable
expanse of the lunar disk never perceptible from the Earth at all.
This is occasioned by the circumstance that the Moon rotates upon
her axis in precisely the same time as she revolves around the Earth,
and is therefore enabled to present the same side towards us on all
occasions. A slight tilting (called libration) takes place, so that we are
allowed a glimpse of fragments of the side normally invisible, and its
analogous aspect leads us to suppose that there is no great
distinction between the features of the Moon’s visible and invisible
hemispheres. From exact computations it appears that we are
enabled to see a proportion of 59/100 of the surface, and that the
remaining 41/100 are permanently beyond our reach.
Earthshine.—A few mornings before new moon, and on a few
evenings after it, the whole outline of the dark portion of the lunar
globe may be distinctly perceived. A feeble illumination like twilight
pervades the opaque part, and this is really earthlight thrown upon
our satellite, for near the times of new moon the Earth appears at
her brightest (her disk being fully illuminated) as seen from the
Moon. The French term for this light is la lumière cendrée, or “the
ashy light.” The appearance is often popularly referred to in our own
country as “the old Moon in the new Moon’s arms.” Some of the old
observers remarked that the waning Moon showed this earthlight
more strongly than the new Moon.
Telescopic Observations of the Lunar Surface.—Our telescopes
give by far the most pleasing view of the Moon when she is in a
crescent shape. At such a period the craters and mountains, with
their dark shadows, are splendidly displayed. A good view is also
obtainable with the Moon at first or last quarter, or when the disk is
gibbous. But the full Moon is decidedly less attractive; for the
shadows have all disappeared, and the various formations have quite
lost their distinctive character. The disk is enveloped in a flood of
light, causing glare, and though there is a large amount of detail,
including systems of bright rays, many differences of tint, and bright
spots, yet the effect is altogether less satisfactory than at the time of
a crescent phase.
The nature of the work undertaken by the amateur must largely
depend upon his opportunities and the capacity of his appliances. It
is evident that in the investigation of lunar details it is essential to be
very particular in recording observations; for unless the conditions of
illumination are nearly the same, lunar objects will present little
resemblance. He should therefore examine the formations at
intervals of 59d 1h 28m, when the terminator is resting on nearly
identical parts of the surface. In periods of 442d 23h (= 15 lunations)
there is another repetition of similar phase; also in periods of 502d
0h 28m (= 17 lunations).
The observer, in entering results into his note-book, should state
the Moon’s age to the nearest minute, and give aperture and power
of telescope and state of sky. Those objects which he has recorded
at one lunation should be re-observed after an intervening lunation,
or at intervals of 59d 1h 28m. He will then find his notes and
drawings are comparable. By the persistent scrutiny of special
structures he will discern more and more of their details; in other
words, he will find his eye soon acquires power with experience and
familiarity with the object. Comparisons of his own work with the
charts and records of previous observers will be sure to interest him
greatly, and the differences which he will almost certainly detect may
exert a useful influence in inciting him to ascertain the source of
them. He must not be premature in attributing such discordances to
actual changes on the Moon; for he must remember that perfect
harmony is rarely to be found in the experiences of different
observers. But whenever his own results are inconsistent with those
of others, the fact should be carefully noted and the observations
repeated and rediscussed with a view to reconcile them. The charts
and descriptions of former selenographers are excellent in their way,
and the outcome of much zealous labour; but they contain omissions
and inaccuracies which it has been impracticable to avoid. The
amateur who discovers a mountain, craterlet, or rill not depicted on
his lunar maps must therefore neither regard it as a new formation
or as a new discovery; for it may have been overlooked by some of
the previous observers, and is possibly drawn or described in a work
which he does not happen to have consulted. Such differences
should, however, always be announced, as they clear the way for
others working in the same field.
A small instrument, with an object-glass of about 2½ inches, will
reveal a large amount of intricate detail on the surface of our
satellite, and will afford the young student many evenings of
interesting recreation. But for a more advanced survey of the
formations, with the view to discover unknown objects or traces of
physical change in known features, a telescope of at least 8 or 10
inches aperture is probably necessary, and powers of 300, 350, and
more.
Eclipses of the Moon.—These phenomena comprise a variety of
interesting aspects. They are less numerous, in actual occurrence,
than solar eclipses in the proportion of about 2 to 3; but they are
more frequently visible, because they may be witnessed from any
part of an entire hemisphere, whereas eclipses of the Sun are only
observable from a tract of the Earth’s surface not exceeding 180
miles in breadth. The Moon may remain totally eclipsed for a period
of 2 hours 4 minutes, and the whole duration, including the
penumbral obscuration from its first to its last projection, is about 6
hours. Sometimes the Moon suffers total eclipse twice in the same
year, and both may be visible, as in 1844, 1877, 1964, &c. It is
possible for three such eclipses to occur within a single year, as in
1544. In 1917 there will be three total lunar eclipses, but not all
visible in England. In the latter year there will be no less than seven
eclipses, as in 1935.
On the last two occasions—Oct. 4, 1884, and Jan. 28, 1888—when
the Moon was totally immersed in the Earth’s shadow, the
atmosphere was very clear; and it is hoped equally favourable
conditions will attend the similar phenomena of Nov. 15, 1891, Sept.
4, 1895, and Dec. 27, 1898. One of the most interesting features
during these temporary obscurations of our satellite is the
occultation of small stars. Prof. Struve compiled a list of no less than
116 of these objects that would pass behind the Moon’s shadowed
limb during the eclipse of Oct. 4, 1884.
Another important effect is the variable colouring on the Moon.
This differs considerably in relative intensity as seen during
successive eclipses, and the cause is not perhaps fully accounted for.
Kepler thought it due to differences in humidity of those parts of the
Earth’s atmosphere through which the solar rays pass and are
refracted to the eclipsed Moon. The intense red hue which envelopes
the lunar surface on such occasions is due to the absorption of the
blue rays of light by our atmosphere. The sky at sunset is often
observed to be similarly coloured, and from the operation of similar
causes. Sometimes the Moon entirely disappears when eclipsed, but
on other occasions remains distinctly obvious, like a bright red ball
suspended in the firmament. On May 5, 1110, Dec. 9, 1620, May 18,
1761, and June 10, 1816, our satellite is said to have become
absolutely imperceptible during eclipse. Wargentin, who described
the appearance in 1761, remarks:—“The Moon’s body disappeared
so completely that not the slightest trace of any portion of the lunar
disk could be discerned, either with the naked eye or with the
telescope.” On Oct. 4, 1884, I noticed that the opacity was much
greater than usual; at the middle period of the eclipse the Moon’s
diameter was apparently so much reduced that she looked like a
dull, faint, nebulous mass, without sharply determinate outlines. The
effect was similar to that of a star or planet struggling through dense
haze. Yet, on March 19, 1848, the Moon “presented a luminosity
quite unusual. The light and dark places on the face of our satellite
could be almost as well made out as on an ordinary dull moonlight
night.” On July 12, 1870, Feb. 27 and Aug. 23, 1877, and Jan. 28,
1888, the Moon, as observed at Bristol, was also fairly bright when
totally immersed in the Earth’s shadow. In explanation of these
singular differences, Dr. Burder has suggested that Kepler’s views
seem inadequate, and that the solar corona is probably implicated in
producing light and dark eclipses. He concludes that, as the corona
sometimes extends to considerable distances from the Sun, and is
very variable in brightness, it may have sufficient influence to
occasion the effects alluded to.
Lunar Changes.—The question as to whether physical changes are
occurring in the surface-formations of our satellite is one which
offers attractive inducements to telescopic observers. Though the
Moon appears to have passed the active state, it is very possible that
trivial alterations continue to affect some of her features. In April
1787 Sir W. Herschel wrote:—“I perceive three volcanoes in different
places of the dark part of the new Moon. Two of them are already
nearly extinct, or otherwise in a state of going to break out; the third
shows an eruption of fire or luminous matter.” Schröter, however,
was correctly of opinion that these appearances were due to
reflected light from the Earth falling upon elevated spots of the
Moon having unusual capacity to return it. Schröter himself thought
he detected sudden changes in 1791. He says that, on the 30th of
December, at 5h p.m., with a 7-foot reflector magnifying 161 times,
he perceived the commencement of a small crater on the S.W.
declivity of the volcanic mountain in the Mare Crisium, having a
shadow of at least 2′ 5″. On the 11th of January, 1792, at 5h 20m
p.m., on looking at the place again he could see neither the new
crater nor its shadow. In this case the disappearance was doubtless
an apparent one, merely due to the reversed illumination under
which the object was examined in the interval of 12 days.
Many other observers besides Herschel have been struck with the
brightness of certain spots situated in the opaque region of the lunar
disk; but there is no doubt the cause has been uniformly one and
the same, viz. the highly reflective properties of some of the
mountains (notably of one named Aristarchus), which are distinctly
visible as luminous spots amid the relatively dark regions
surrounding them. They afford no certain evidence of existing
volcanic energy, and in the light of modern researches such an idea
cannot be entertained.
On June 10, 1866, Temple noticed a remarkable light appearance,
agreeing with the position of Aristarchus, upon the dark side of the
Moon, faintly illuminated by earthshine. The object did not exhibit a
faint white light analogous to that of other craters in the dark side,
but it was star-like, diffused, in colour reddish yellow, and evidently
dissimilar to other bright spots. He wrote, in reference to this
matter:—“Of course I am far from surmising a still active chemical
outbreak, as such an outbreak supposes water and an atmosphere,
both of which are universally allowed not to exist on the Moon, so
that the crater-forming process can only be thought of as a dry,
chemical, although warm one.”
On November 17, 1866, Schmidt announced that the lunar crater
Linné, about 5½ miles in diameter, and situated in the Mare
Serenitatis, had disappeared! He averred that he had been familiar
with the object as a deep crater since 1841, but in October 1866 he
found its place occupied by a whitish cloud. This cloud was always
visible, but the crater itself appeared to have become filled up, and
was certainly invisible under its former aspect. Such a definite
statement, emanating as it did from a diligent and experienced
student of selenography, naturally aroused keen interest, and Linné
at once became the object of wide-spread observation. But a
reference to Schröter’s results, obtained in the latter part of the last
century, threw some doubt upon the alleged change. This observer
had figured Linné on November 5, 1788, as a round white spot, and
there is nothing in his drawing indicating a crateriform aspect. His
description of Linné was:—“A flat, somewhat doubtful crater, which
appears as a round white spot.” Mr. Huggins regarded Schröter’s
observations as correctly expressing the appearance of this object in
1867 under the same conditions of illumination. On the other hand,
Lohrmann (1823) and Mädler (1831) referred to Linné as a deep
crater, and in terms inconsistent both with Schröter’s drawing and
with the present aspect of the object. The outcome of the many
fresh observations that were collected was that Linné appeared as a
white cloud, with a small black crater within a large shallow-ringed
depression. But as usual in such cases, the observers were far from
being unanimous as to the details of the formation; and certainly in
regard to a lunar object this need occasion no surprise, for slight
differences in the angle of illumination produce marked changes in
the aspect of lunar features. The fact of actual change could not be
demonstrated, and the negative view appears to have subsequently
gained weight.
Another instance of alleged activity on the Moon was notified by
Dr. Klein in the spring of 1877. He saw a deep black crater about 18
miles to the W.N.W. of Hyginus, and in a particular place where he
had previously recognized no such object, though he had frequently
examined the region and was perfectly familiar with it. Forthwith
every telescope was directed to this part of the Moon. The maps of
earlier observers were eagerly consulted, and lunar photographs
scanned for traces of the new object. Many drawings were made of
the district near Hyginus and of the remarkable rill or cleft connected
with it; but amongst both old and new records some puzzling
discordances were detected. Many of the observers, instead of
finding Dr. Klein’s new formation a sharply-cut, deep crater, saw it
rather in the character of a saucer-like depression; and I drew it
under this aspect on several occasions with a 10-inch reflector. The
fact, therefore, of its being a new feature admitted of no valid and
convincing proofs, and thus the same uncertainty remains attached
to this object as to Linné, nothing being absolutely proved16. The
problem as to whether the Moon is still the seat of physical activity
has yet to be solved.
 Many circumstances are antagonistic to the discovery of changes
on the Moon. As the Sun’s altitude is constantly varying with
reference to lunar objects, they assume different aspects from hour
to hour. In a short interval the same formations become very
dissimilar. When the Sun is rising above the more minute craters
they are often distinguished in their true characters; but near the
period of full Moon they are visible as bright spots, and it is
impossible to tell whether they represent craters or conical hills.
With a vertical Sun, as at the full, all the shadows have disappeared
—in fact, the entire configuration has been transformed, and many
of the interesting lineaments displayed at the crescent phase are no
longer seen. The Moon’s libration also introduces slight differences in
the appearance of objects. And these are not the only drawbacks;
for observations, in themselves, are seldom accordant, and it is
found that drawings and descriptions are not always to be
reconciled, though referring to identical and invariable features. The
lunar landscape must be studied under the same conditions of
illumination and libration, with the same instrument and power, and
in a similar state of atmosphere, if results are to be strictly
comparable. But it is very rarely that observations can be effected
under precisely equal conditions; hence discordances are found
amongst the records.
The whole of the Moon’s visible sphere exhibits striking imprints of
convulsions and volcanic action in past times, though no such forces
appear to operate now. The surface seems to have become
quiescent, and to have assumed a rigidity inconsistent with the idea
of present energy. But we cannot be absolutely certain that minute
changes are not taking place, and, being minute, the prospect of
their detection is somewhat remote. Students of lunar scenery will
probably have to watch details with scrupulous care and for long
periods before an instance of real activity can be demonstrated.
Lunar Formations.—The Moon abounds in objects of very
diversified character, and they have been classified according to
peculiarities of structure. The names of eminent astronomers have
been applied to many of the more definite features—a plan of
nomenclature which originated with Riccioli, who published a lunar
map at the middle of the seventeenth century. The following brief
summary comprises many of the principal formations:—
Mare. A name applied by Hevelius to denote the large and
relatively level plains on the Moon, which present some similarity to
terrestrial seas. They are visible to the naked eye as dusky spots,
and in a telescope show many craters, hills, and mounds, and some
extensive undulations of surface.
Palus (Marsh) and Lacus (Lake) were titles given by Riccioli to
minor areas of a dark colour, and exhibiting greater variety of detail
and tint than the Maria.
Sinus (Bay) has been applied to objects like deep bays on the
borders of the Maria.
Walled Plains extend from 40 to 150 miles in diameter, and are
commonly surrounded by a terraced wall or mountain-ranges. The
interiors are tolerably level, though often marked with crater-pits,
mounds, and ridges.
Mountain-Rings. These represent rings of mountains and hills,
enclosing irregularities, possibly furnished by the debris of the
crumbling exterior walls, which, in certain instances, appear to have
fallen inwards.
Ring-Plains are more circular and regular in type than the walled
plains, and consist of a moderately flat surface surrounded by a
single wall. Crater-Plains are somewhat similar, and seldom exceed
20 miles in diameter. They “rise steeply from the mass of debris
around the foot of their walls to a considerable height, and then fall
precipitously to the interior in a rough curved slope, whilst on their
walls, especially on the exterior, craterlets and crater-cones often
exist in considerable numbers.”
 Craters, Craterlets, and Crater-Pits. Usually circular in form, and
severally offering distinctions as to dimensions and shape. The
craters are surrounded by walls, rising abruptly to tolerable heights,
and pretty regular in their contour. When the Sun is rising the
shadow of the walls falls upon the interior of the craters, and many
of these dark conspicuous objects are to be seen near the Moon’s
terminator. With a high Sun some of the craters are extremely
bright. In proof of the large number of these objects, it may be
noted here that in Mädler’s lunar map (1837) 7735 craters are
figured, while in Schmidt’s (1878) there are no less than 32,856!
Crater-Cones. Conical hills or mountains, visible as small luminous
spots about the period of full Moon. They are from 1/2 to 3 miles in
diameter, and show deep central depressions. It is somewhat
difficult to distinguish them from the ordinary mountain-peaks and
white spots, and they are not unlike the cones of terrestrial
volcanoes.
Rills or Clefts. These are very curious objects. They were first
discovered by Schröter in 1787, and some of them are to be traced
over a considerable extent of the lunar surface, their entire length
being 200 or 300 miles. They have the appearance of cuttings or
canals, and are sometimes straight, sometimes bent, and not
unfrequently develop branches which intersect each other. They
apparently run without interruption through many varieties of lunar
objects. The bottoms of these rills are nearly flat, and look not unlike
dried riverbeds. Some observers have regarded them as fractures or
cracks in the Moon’s surface; but their appearance and
circumstances of arrangement are opposed to such a view. Our
present knowledge includes more than 1000 of these rills.
Mountain-Ranges are chains of lofty peaks and highlands,
sometimes divided by rills and numerous ravines and cross valleys.
Some of these ranges are of vast magnitude, and the summits of the
mountains reach altitudes between 15,000 and 20,000 feet, and
sometimes even more.
 Mountain-Ridges are to be found scattered in the greatest
abundance in the most disturbed localities of the lunar surface. They
sometimes connect several formations, or surmount ravines or
depressions of large extent. Peaks attaining altitudes of more than
5000 feet rise from them, and they range in several cases over 100
miles.
Ray-Centres. Systems of radiating light-streaks, having a
mountain-ring as the centre of divergence, and stretching to
distances of some hundreds of miles round. Tycho, Copernicus,
Kepler, Anaxagoras, Aristarchus, and Olbers are pronounced
examples of this class.
In Beer and Mädler’s chart of the Moon the names are attached to
the various formations, as they are also in Neison’s maps and in
some other works. One of these will be absolutely necessary to the
student in prosecuting his studies. He will then have a ready means
of acquainting himself with the various formations, and making
comparisons between his new results and the drawings of earlier
selenographers. I would refer the reader to Neison’s and Webb’s
books for many references in detail to lunar features, and must be
content here with a brief description of a few leading objects:—
Plato is an extensive walled plain, 60 miles in diameter, and
situated on the N.E. boundary of the Mare Imbrium. Nasmyth and
Carpenter describe the wall as “serrated with noble peaks, which
cast their black shadows across the plateau in a most picturesque
manner, like the towers and spires of a great cathedral.” It has
received a large amount of attention, with a view to trace whether
changes are occurring in the numerous white spots and streaks lying
in its interior. In 1869-71 Mr. Birt collected many observations, and
on discussing them was led to believe that “there is strong
probability that activity, of a character sufficient to render its effects
visible, had been manifested.” The inquiry was renewed by Stanley
Williams in 1882-84, and he concluded that the results were strongly
confirmatory of actual change having occurred since 1869-71. The
relative visibility of several of the bright spots had altered in the
interim, and the curious intermingling bright streaks also exhibited
traces of variation. At sunrise the interior of Plato is pure grey; but
with the sun at a considerable height above it, the plain becomes a
dark steel-grey. The change is an abnormal one, and difficult to
explain. South of Plato there is a fine example of an isolated peak,
named Pico, which is about 8000 feet high.
Fig. 25.

Light-spots and streaks on Plato, 1879-82. (A. Stanley Williams.)

Great Alpine Valley. This object, supposed to have been discovered

by Bianchini in 1727, and having a length, according to Mädler, of 83
miles and a breadth varying from 3½ to 6 miles, is a very
conspicuous depression situated near Plato, and running from the
Mare Frigoris to the Mare Imbrium. It exhibits at its southern
extremity an oval formation, and a narrow gorge issues from it to
the northward, opening out further on, and imparting to the whole
appearance a shape which Webb likened to a Florence oil-flask.
Elger has fully described this singular structure. “It is only when far
removed from the terminator that its V-shaped outlet to the Mare
Imbrium flanked on either side by the lofty Alps can be traced to
advantage, or the flask-like expansion with the constricted gorge
leading up to it from the N.W. satisfactorily observed. At other times
these features are always more or less concealed by the shadows of
neighbouring heights. The details of the upper or more attenuated
end of the valley are, however, best seen under a setting sun, when
many striking objects come to light, of which few traces appear at
other times.”
Archimedes. One of the most definite and regular of the walled
plains. It is 60 miles in diameter, with a wall rising about 4200 feet
above the surface. Some small craters and various streaks diversify
its centre.
Tycho. A grand ring-plain, 54 miles in diameter and about 17,000
feet (= nearly 3 miles) deep, and forming the centre of the chief ray-
system of the Moon. The light-radiations stretch over one fourth of
the visible hemisphere at the full, but they are imperceptible with
the Sun’s altitude below 20°. These remarkable radiations from
Tycho form a striking aspect of lunar scenery, and any small
telescope reveals them. Webb has termed Tycho “the metropolitan
formation of the Moon;” and the idea embodied in the expression
must strike observers as very apposite. This object is visible to the
naked eye at the time of full. A fine hill rises from its centre to a
height of 5500 feet.
Copernicus. A magnificent ring-plain, 56 miles in diameter, and
surrounded by a wall (in which there are terraces and lofty peaks,
separated by ravines) attaining an elevation of 11,000 feet. There is
a central hill of nearly 2500 feet. From Copernicus light-streaks are
plentifully extended on all sides, and apparently connect this object
with the many others of similar character which are situated in this
region. Neison says that near Copernicus the light-streaks unite and
form a kind of nimbus or light-cloud about it. The streaks are most
conspicuous towards the N., where they are from 5 to 14 miles in
width. To the N.W. of Copernicus, about halfway in the direction of
the neighbouring ring-plain Eratosthenes (and N. of Stadius), there
is a considerable number of crater-pits. Mädler figured sixty-one of
these, and regarded that number as certainly less than half the total
number visible. They appear to be ranged in rows or streams, and
are so close together in places as to nearly form crater-rills. Schmidt
saw the ground hereabout pierced like a honeycomb, and managed
to count about 300 little craters; but they are so thickly strewn in
this district that exact numbers or places cannot be assigned. They
are best observable when the Sun is rising on the E. wall of
Copernicus. The interior of this fine object shows six or seven peaks,
which are often capped with sunshine, and very brilliant amid the
black shadow thrown from the surrounding wall.
Theophilus. Another ring-plain, and one of the deepest visible. Its
terraced lofty wall, 64 miles in diameter, rises in a series of peaks to
heights varying between 14,000 and 18,000 feet. There is a central
mountain, broken by ravines; but from one of the masses a peak
ascends to a height of about 6000 feet.
Petavius. A large walled plain, surrounded by a double wall or
rampart, which rises to 11,000 feet on its E. side. There are hills and
ridges in the interior, and a central peak, A, reaching to 5500 feet
above the E. part of the floor, which is convex in form. A smaller
peak, of nearly 4000 feet, lies W. of A. Several small craterlets have
been seen in the interior.
Newton. The deepest walled plain known upon the Moon’s
surface. In form it is elliptical; its length is 143 miles, while its
breadth is only 69 miles. The walls show the terracing so common in
these objects, and one lofty peak reaches the unusual height of
24,000 feet above the floor. The interior includes some small craters,
mountain protuberances, and other irregularities. Neison says that,
owing to “the immense height of the wall, a great part of the floor is
entirely lost in shadow, neither Earth nor Sun being ever visible from
it.”
Fig. 26.
 Petavius and Wrottesley at sunset. 1885, Dec. 23, 9h to 10h 30m.
(T. Gwyn Elger.)

Grimaldi. An immense walled plain, extending over 148 miles from

N. to S. and about 130 miles from E. to W. Its interior is very dark.
Clavius is another grand example of this class of object, and is rather
larger than Grimaldi, but unfavourably placed near the S. pole.
Schickard may also be mentioned as a large formation of similar
type, and situated near the S.E. limb of the Moon.
Fig. 27.
 Birt, Birt A, and the Straight Wall. 1883, Feb. 15, 6h to 8h 40m.
(T. Gwyn Elger.)

Rill or Cleft of Hyginus. A conspicuous example of the lunar rills,

and one which yields to very moderate instruments. Neison notes
that it is readily visible in a 2-inch telescope; while Webb remarks
that a power of only 40, in a good instrument, is enough to show it
under any illumination. The rill is about 150 miles long. It cuts
through a number of crater-pits, and Mädler found so many
widenings in it that it appeared like a confluent train of craters. The
rill traverses the large crater-pit Hyginus, which is 3-3/4 miles in
diameter and moderately deep. Other fine examples of rill-systems
will be found between Rheita and Metius and near Triesnecker and
Ramsden.
 Straight Wall. A singular structure on the E. side of the ring-plain
Thebit. It is a ridge or wall, which looks regular enough for a work of
art, according to Webb. Its average height is 450 feet (Schröter),
1004 feet (Mädler), or 880 feet (Schmidt). These several
determinations are given to show the discordances sometimes found
in the measures of good observers. This object is about 60 miles
long; at one extremity lies a small crater, at the other there is a
branching mountain nearly 2000 feet high. Elger has drawn this
object, under both a rising and a setting sun, in the Liverpool
Astronomical Society’s ‘Journal,’ vol. v. p. 156, and remarks that it
may be well observed at from 20 to 30 hours after the Moon’s first
quarter.
Valley near Rheita. South of the ring-plain Rheita, on the S.W.
limb, there is an enormous valley, which extends in its entire length
over 187 miles, with a width ranging from 10 to 25 miles. There are
several fine valleys in this particular region.
Leibnitz Mountains. These are really situated on the further
hemisphere of the Moon, but libration brings them into view, and
they are sometimes grandly seen in profile on the S. margin. Four of
the peaks ascend to elevations of 26,000 or 27,000 feet, and one
mass, towering far above the others, is fully 30,000 feet in height,
and is unquestionably the most lofty mountain on the Moon.
Dörfel Mountains. Visible on the Moon’s S.S.E. limb. They exhibit
three peaks, which, on the authority of Schröter, rise to more than
26,000 feet above the average level of the limb. The loftiest
mountains on the Earth are in the Himalayas—a range of immense
extent to the N. of India. The three highest peaks are Mount Everest
(29,002 feet), Kunchinjinga (28,156 feet), and Dhawalagiri (28,000
feet). The only lunar mountain more elevated than these is that of
the Leibnitz range, which, as we have already stated, ascends to
fully 30,000 feet.
Fig. 28.
 Aristarchus and Herodotus at sunrise. 1884, Jan. 9, 8h 30m to 10h 30m.
(T. Gwyn Elger.)

Apennines. A vast chain of mountains, extending over more than

450 miles of the lunar surface. Huygens is the most elevated peak,
rising to more than 18,000 feet, and on its summit it shows a small
crater. There are several other very lofty peaks in this range. The
Sun rises upon the westerly region of these mountains at the time of
first quarter, and the peaks and ridges, with their contrasting
shadows, create a gorgeous effect just within, and projecting into
the darkness beyond, the terminator. There is an immense amount
of detail to be studied here, and much of it is within the reach of
small instruments.
 As the lunar mountains and craters are best seen near the
terminator, it may be useful to give a table of objects thus favourably
placed between the times of new and full Moon. The summary may
assist the student, though it does not aim at exactness, only even
days being given.
Objects near the Terminator.

Moon’s
age
in days.
2 Mare Crisium, Messala, Sunrise on the Mare Humboldtianum,
Langrenus, Vendelinus, Condorcet, Hansen, Gauss17,
Hahn, Berosus.
318 Craters in Mare Crisium, Taruntius, Picard, Fraunhofer, Vega,
Pontécoulant, Cleomedes19, Furnerius, Petavius,
Endymion, Messier20, Vlacq.
4 Mare Nectaris, Macrobius21, Proclus, Sunrise on Fracastorius,
Rheita and Metius with the intervening valley, Guttemberg,
Colombo, Santbech, Mountainous region W. of Mare
Serenitatis, Hercules, Atlas.
5 Palus Somnii, Plana, Capella, Isidorus, Polybius, Piccolomini,
Vitruvius, Littrow, Fabricius, Posidonius, LeMonnier,
Theophilus, Cyrillus, Catharina, Hommel.
6 Tacitus, Maurolycus, Barocius, Dionysius22, Sosigenes,
Abulfeda, Descartes, Almamon, Gemma Frisius, Plinius,
Ross, Arago, Delambre, Aristoteles, Eudoxus, Julius Cæsar,
Linné, Menelaus.
7 Ptolemæus, Albategnius, Manilius23, Hyginus and
its rill-system, Hipparchus, Autolycus, Aristillus, Cassini,
Alpine Valley, W. C. Bond, Walter, Miller, LaCaille,
Apennines, Triesnecker and the rills W. of it.
8 Mare Frigoris, Arzachel, Alphonsus, Alpetragius,
Bode, Pallas, Archimedes, Plato, Maginus24, Mösting25,
 Thebit, Saussure, Moretus, Straight Wall, Lalande, Kirch.
9 Tycho, Clavius, Eratosthenes26, Stadius and the craters
running to N.E., Timocharis, Pitatus, Gruemberger,
Teneriffe Mountains, Straight Range27, Formation W. of
Fontenelle28, Gambart.
10 Sinus Iridum, Copernicus, Hesiodus and the rill
to E., Wilhelm I., Longomontanus29, Heinsius, Pytheas,
Lambert, Helicon, Wurzelbauer.
11 Bullialdus, Campanus, Mercator, Reinhold, Riphæan
Mountains, Hippalus, Capuanus, Blancanus, Tobias Mayer.
12 Mare Imbrium, Gassendi30, Aristarchus and sinuous
valley to the N.E., Herodotus, Marius, Flamsteed,
Letronne, Schiller, Mersenius, Doppelmayer.
13 Schickhard, Wargentin, Grimaldi, Byrgius, Phocylides,
Hevelius, Seleucus, Crüger, Briggs, Segner, Sirsalis.
14 Mare Smythii, Bailly, Inghirami, Bouvard, Riccioli,
Olbers, Hercynian Mountains, Cardanus, Krafft,
Cordilleras31, Pythagoras32.

Occultations of Stars.—Among the various phenomena to which

the lunar motions give rise none are more pleasing to the possessors
of small telescopes than occultations of stars. Several of these
occurrences are visible every month. If the amateur has the means
of obtaining accurate time, he will engage himself usefully in noting
the moments of disappearance and reappearance of the stars
occulted. This work is efficiently done, it is true, at some of our
observatories, and therefore little real necessity exists for amateurs
to embark in routine work which can be conveniently undertaken at
establishments where they have better appliances and trained
observers to use them. The mere watching of an occultation, apart
from the registry of exact results, is interesting; and there are
features connected with it which have proved exceedingly difficult to
account for. The stars do not always disappear instantaneously. On
coming up to the edge of the Moon they have not been suddenly
blotted out, but have appeared to hang on the Moon’s limb for
several seconds. This must arise from an optical illusion, from the
action of a lunar atmosphere, or the stars must be observed through
fissures on the Moon’s edge. The former explanation is probably
correct; for it has happened that two observers at the same place
have received different impressions of the phenomenon. One has
seen the star apparently projected on the Moon’s limb for about 5
seconds, while the other has witnessed its sudden extinction, in the
usual manner, as it met the Moon’s edge. New observations, made
with good instruments and reliable eyes, and fully described, will
doubtless throw more light on the peculiar effects sometimes
recorded.
Visibility of the new and old Moon.—It is an interesting feature of
observation to note how soon after conjunction the Moon’s thin
crescent is observable with the naked eye. A case has been
mentioned in which the old Moon was seen one morning before
sunrise and the new Moon just after sunset on the next day. At
Bristol, on the evening of March 30, 1881, I saw the new Moon at 7h
10m, the horizon being very clear in the west. She was then only 20h
38m old. On June 4, 1875, I observed the Moon’s crescent at 9h 10m,
or 22h 49m after new Moon. Dr. Degroupet, of Belgium, saw the old
Moon on the morning of Nov. 22, 1889, between 6h 47m and 7h 22m
G.M.T., or within 18h 22m of the time of new Moon.
 CHAPTER VII.
MERCURY.

Supposed planet, “Vulcan.”—Visibility of Mercury.—Period &c.

—Elongations.—Amateur’s first view.—Phases.—Atmosphere of
Mercury.—Telescopic observations.—Schiaparelli’s results.—
Observations of Schröter and Sir W. Herschel.—Transits of
Mercury.—Occultations of Mercury.

“Come, let us view the glowing west,

Not far from the fallen Sun;
For Mercury is sparkling there,
And his race will soon be run.
With aspect pale, and wav’ring beam,
He is quick to steal away,
And veils his face in curling mists,—
Let us watch him while we may.”
Supposed planet “Vulcan.”—Mercury is the nearest known planet
to the Sun. It is true that a body, provisionally named Vulcan33, has
been presumed to exist in the space interior to the orbit of Mercury;
but absolute proof is lacking, and every year the idea is losing
strength in the absence of any confirmation of a reliable kind.
Certain planetary spots, observed in motion on the solar disk, were
reported to have been transits of this intra-Mercurial orb. Some
eminent astronomers were thus drawn to take an affirmative view of
the question, and went so far as to compute the orbital elements
and predict a few ensuing transits of the suspected planet. But
nothing was seen at the important times, and some of the earlier
observations have been shown to possess no significance whatever,
while grave doubts are attached to many of the others. Not one of
the regular and best observers of the Sun has recently detected any
such body during its transits (which would be likely to occur pretty
frequently), and there is other evidence of a negative character; so
that the ghost of Vulcan may be said to have been laid, and we may
regard it as proven that no major planet revolves in the interval of
36,000,000 miles separating Mercury from the Sun.
Visibility of Mercury.—Copernicus, amid the fogs of the Vistula,
looked for Mercury in vain, and complained in his last hours that he
had never seen it. Tycho Brahe, in the Island of Hueen, appears to
have been far more successful. The planet is extremely fugitive in his
appearances, but is not nearly so difficult to find as many suppose.
Whenever the horizon is very clear, and the planet well placed, a
small sparkling object, looking more like a scintillating star than a
planetary body, will be detected at a low altitude and may be
followed to the horizon.

Period &c.—Mercury revolves round the Sun in 87d 23h 15m 44s in
an eccentric orbit, so that his distance from that luminary varies
from 43,350,000 to 28,570,000 miles. When in superior conjunction
the apparent diameter of the planet is 4″·5; at inferior, conjunction it
is 12″·9, and at elongation 7″. His real diameter is 3000 miles.
Elongations.—Being situated so near to the Sun, it is obvious that
to an observer on the Earth he must always remain in the same
general region of the firmament as that body. His orbital motion
enables him to successively assume positions to the E. and W. of the
Sun, and these are known as his elongations, which vary in distance
from 18° to 28°. He becomes visible at these periods either in the
morning or evening twilight, and under the best circumstances may
remain above the horizon two hours in the absence of the Sun. The
best times to observe the planet are at his E. elongations during the
first half of the year, or at his W. elongations in the last half; for his
position at such times being N. of the Sun’s place, he remains a long
while in view. It is unfortunate that when the elongation approaches
its extreme limits of 28° the planet is situated S. of the Sun, and
therefore not nearly so favourably visible as at an elongation of only
18° or 20°, when his position is N. of the Sun.
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