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Teaching and Learning
for Social Justice
and Equity in
Higher Education
Foundations
Edited by
Laura Parson · C. Casey Ozaki
Teaching and Learning for Social Justice
and Equity in Higher Education
 Laura Parson · C. Casey Ozaki
Editors

Teaching and Learning

for Social Justice
and Equity in Higher
Education
Foundations
Editors
Laura Parson C. Casey Ozaki
North Dakota State University University of North Dakota
Fargo, ND, USA Grand Forks, ND, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-44938-4 ISBN 978-3-030-44939-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44939-1

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher,
whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation,
reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any
other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation,
computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher
nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains
neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: © Maram_shutterstock.com

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Contents

1 Introduction 1
C. Casey Ozaki and Laura Parson

2 Learning Theory Through a Social Justice Lens 7

Laura Parson and Claire Major

3 Beyond Behaviorism: Engaging Students in the Age

of Neoliberalism 39
Jeffery L. Jackson Jr. and Patrick White

4 Persistent Myths About the Psychology of Education:

Implications for Social Justice and Equity 53
Wilson S. Lester, Kamden K. Strunk and Payton D. Hoover

5 A Framework for Social Justice Education: Combining

Content, Process, and Holistic Development 73
Jessica Belue Buckley, Stephen John Quaye,
Stephanie H. Chang and Aileen N. Hentz

6 Postcolonial Approach to Curriculum Design 93

Laura Parson and Jessica Weise

7 Creating Inclusive College Classroom:

Granting Epistemic Credibility to Learners 117
Karla I. Loya

v
vi CONTENTS

8 Engagement with Diversity Experiences:

A Self-Regulated Learning Perspective 137
Christy M. Byrd, Ritika Rastogi and Erin R. Elliot

9 Critical Teacher Responsibility in Tumultuous Times:

Engaging in a Community of Practice 157
Hannah Carson Baggett, Alyssa Hadley Dunn
and Beth L. Sondel

10 A New Narrative About Emotions and Their

Connection to Learning 179
Sarah E. Schoper and Elijah C. Amelse

11 Critical Culturally Relevant Synergism in Higher

Education: Equitable Educational Experiences
Through Neuroscientific Curricula 199
Christopher J. Kazanjian and Cesar A. Rossatto

12 Understanding the Failure to Help Marginalized

Students Succeed in Higher Education: A Social Theory
Perspective of the Science of Teaching and Learning 219
Stefan A. Perun

13 Association Awareness: Pedagogically Reframing

Difficult Dialogues 239
Addrain Conyers, Christina Wright Fields, Martha Lucia Garcia,
Michele Rivas, Daria Hanssen and Stacy A. S. Williams

14 Adult Learning and Critical Contemplative Pedagogy

in Higher Education 259
Maryann Krikorian

15 Establishing Equitable Graduate Mentoring

in Higher Education 279
Lindsey Almond, Eric Hall and Elizabeth Devore

16 Decolonizing Knowledge and Fostering Critical Allyship 303

Elizabeth Laura Yomantas

17 Conclusion 329
Laura Parson and C. Casey Ozaki

Index 333
 Notes on Contributors

Lindsey Almond (she/her/hers) received her Bachelor’s degree in Child

Development from Appalachian State University with a minor in Psychology
and Master’s degree in Human Development and Family Science from East
Carolina University. She is a Ph.D. student in the Human Development
and Family Studies program at Auburn University where she works with the
Alabama Healthy Marriage and Relationship Education Initiative. Lindsey is
also pursuing two certificate programs at Auburn University in College and
University Teaching and Advanced Research Methods. Her research interests
include romantic relationships, technology, teaching practices, mentoring,
and emerging adulthood.
Elijah C. Amelse, M.S. (he/him/his) is a hall director at Concordia
College, Moorhead, Minnesota. Elijah earned his Bachelor’s degree in human
development from the University of Wisconsin-Green Bay and Master’s
degree in college student personnel from Western Illinois University. Elijah’s
interests include reading, learning about learning, exploring queer theory,
and enjoying the outdoors.
Hannah Carson Baggett, Ph.D. (she/her/hers) is a former high school
teacher and current Assistant Professor of Educational Research in the
College of Education at Auburn University. Her research interests include
critical theories, race and education, and educator beliefs. She also has par-
ticular interest in qualitative and participatory methods. Her work has been
published in journals such as the American Educational Research Journal,
Teaching and Teacher Education, Whiteness and Education, and Qualitative
Inquiry.
Jessica Belue Buckley, Ph.D. (she/her/hers) is a Clinical Assistant
Professor in the Higher Education Administration Program at the University
of Louisville. She is a Teaching Fellow in the Master Educator Course, a

vii
viii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

partnership program with US Army Cadet Command, and the Director of

the Recruiting and Retention College Advanced Instructor Course with the
US Army Recruiting and Retention Command. Her research interests include
campus climate, students’ experience of diversity in higher education, and the
intersection of environmental sustainability and higher education. Her work
is published in journals including the Journal of College Student Development,
Race Ethnicity and Education, and The Review of Higher Education.
Christy M. Byrd, Ph.D. (she/her/hers) research examines how students
make sense of race and culture in their school environments. She uses quanti-
tative and qualitative methods to explore topics such as racial discrimination,
multicultural education, and culturally relevant teaching. One area of research
focuses on adolescents’ perceptions of school climate for diversity, which
includes intergroup interactions and school ethnic-racial socialization, and
how perceptions are shaped by identity development and contextual factors.
A second area of research considers the motivational factors that promote stu-
dent engagement in diversity workshops, courses, and programs.
Stephanie H. Chang, Ph.D. (she/her/hers) is the Director of Student
Diversity & inclusion in the Division of Student Life at the University of
Delaware. She is responsible for deepening Student Life’s engagement
around equity, diversity, and inclusion. She leads the Division’s efforts in the
development of new curricular and co-curricular learning related to diversity.
Her research interests include campus culture, critical theories, Asian and
Asian American student experiences, leadership development, and social jus-
tice education.
Addrain Conyers, Ph.D. (he/him/his) is an Associate Professor and Chair
of Criminal Justice at Marist College. He is also the Director of Academic
Diversity and Inclusion. His teaching and research interests center on crim-
inology, deviant behavior, corrections, social psychology, and race relations.
He has authored and edited numerous articles, chapters, and readers in the
areas of deviance and criminology, and is the recipient of multiple teaching
and mentorship awards. Dr. Conyers is a member of several professional
organizations, including the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences (ACJS)
and Criminal Justice Educators Association of New York State (CJEANYS).
Elizabeth Devore (she/her/hers) received her Bachelor’s and Master’s
degrees in Electrical Engineering from Auburn University. She is a Woltosz
Fellow and PhD student in Electrical Engineering specializing in power sys-
tems at Auburn University. She holds a graduate teaching assistantship,
serving as an instructor for undergraduate level courses in the Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering. Ms. Devore also holds a graduate
certificate in College and University Teaching from Auburn University. Her
research interests lie in mentoring, STEM education, and retention of minor-
itized students in STEM.
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS ix

Erin R. Elliot (she/her/hers) is a P.h.D. student in Educational Studies

at University of Michigan. Her research interests include the experiences of
Black girls and imagining a Black girl epistemology in education.
Christina Wright Fields, Ph.D. (she/her/hers) is an Assistant Professor of
Education at Marist College. She is a higher education scholar whose research
agenda focuses on historically marginalized students’ experiences both in
K-12 and postsecondary education contexts, social justice, and the influence
of teacher and student cultural identities within the classroom. Fields pos-
sesses over a decade of experience with supervising student and professional
staff, developing student affairs and academic affairs partnerships, overseeing
college preparation programs, creating innovative multicultural and interna-
tional initiatives, and developing cultural competency courses and workshops.
She has presented at the Association for Study of Higher Education (ASHE),
Student Affairs Administrators in Higher Education (NASPA), College
Student Educators International (ACPA), and National Council on Race &
Ethnicity (NCORE) conferences. Fields has been recognized by the NASPA’s
Region II for Distinguished Excellence in Diversity Award, ACPA Supporting
Latino/a Student Success Award, and NASPA’s African American Knowledge
KUUMBA New Professionals Award.
Martha Lucia Garcia, Ph.D. (she/her/hers) teaches in the Social Work
Program at Marist College. At Pacific University, she helped create and
taught in the Master in Social Work Program. She was previously at CUNY
School of Law in the Clinical Program where she co-developed an innova-
tive interdisciplinary program, training legal interns in the practice of commu-
nity lawyering, collaboration, and client-focused legal representation. Before
acquiring her Ph.D., she practiced in a variety of capacities, settings, and issue
areas including gender violence, trauma and recovery, immigrant rights, cul-
turally relevant and appropriate practices, managing conflict, and interdisci-
plinary collaboration. She has been program developer, executive director,
grants officer, clinician in private practice, clinical supervisor to social workers,
and an organizational consultant. She brings this experience to her teaching,
providing her a wide range of contexts from which to draw to teach the prac-
tice of inclusive, socially conscious social work.
Alyssa Hadley Dunn, Ph.D. (she/her/hers) is an Assistant Professor of
Teacher Education at Michigan State University in East Lansing, Michigan.
A former high school English teacher, she now researches justice, race, and
equity in urban education; teacher preparation; and educational policy. In
addition to publishing in journals such as the American Educational Research
Journal, Teachers College Record, Journal of Teacher Education, and Urban
Education, she is the author of Teachers Without Borders? The Hidden
Consequences of International Teachers in U.S. Schools (Teachers College
Press, 2013).
x NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Eric Hall (he/him/his) received his Bachelor’s degree in Accounting and

Master’s degree in Higher Education and Administration from the University
of Alabama in Tuscaloosa. Mr. Hall is a Ph.D. student in the Administration
of Higher Education Program at Auburn University. He possesses student
affairs experience in housing, student conduct, career services, and diversity
initiatives. Currently, Eric serves as the Program Coordinator for Engineering
Academic Excellence Program at Auburn University. In this role, he focuses
on recruiting, retaining, and advising minoritized students pursuing an engi-
neering degree. His research interests lie in formal mentorship programs for
marginalized students, the relationship between career readiness competen-
cies and higher education’s core curriculum, and the experiences of minor-
itized STEM students at flagship institutions.
Daria Hanssen (she/her/hers) joined the BSW program at Marist College
in 1996 as a part-time faculty member and field liaison, as well as coordinat-
ing the adult BSW programs on Marist’s Goshen and Fishkill campuses. In
2001, Daria was offered a tenure track position as Director of the BSW pro-
gram and has held this position since. Prior to teaching at Marist, she taught
at Lyndon State College in Lyndonville, Vermont, as well as at SUNY New
Paltz. Daria practiced in the fields of mental health with children and fami-
lies, family preservation, hospice, and corrections. Currently, Daria continues
to consult with community agencies and serves on local boards of directors
for Hudson River Housing and the New York State Social Work Education
Association. She held committee positions on the national board of the
National Association of Social Workers and serves as an accreditation site visi-
tor for the Council on Social Work Education.
Aileen N. Hentz, Ph.D. (she/her/hers) is the Program Director of
Undergraduate Studies in the Department of Aerospace Engineering at the
University of Maryland. She is responsible for all aspects of student services
for the department. She also helps lead departmental assessment efforts
and curriculum development for non-technical courses. Her research inter-
ests include multiracial student experiences and identity development, lead-
ership development in engineering students, and diversity and inclusion in
engineering.
Payton D. Hoover (she/her/hers) is a Ph.D. student in the Educational
Psychology Program at Auburn University. She earned her Bachelor’s degree
in Psychology from Hanover College. Her research interests focus on social
justice and equity in education.
Jeffery L. Jackson Jr. (he/him/his) is a professional and creative writer
with research interests in teaching strategies and methods, curriculum and
instruction, critical pedagogy, diversity, usability testing, rhetoric, digital rhet-
oric, and entrepreneurship. He teaches first-year English composition and
serves as both instructor and writing coach in higher education. In addition
to co-writing this book chapter, Jeffery has created an academic plan for an
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 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xi

Introduction to Technical and Professional Communication course and is

currently working on research centered around student learning. Lastly,
Jeffery has earned a Master’s in Technical and Professional Communication
(MTPC) and a Graduate Certificate in College and University Teaching in
the Administration of Higher Education, and served as an Instructor and
Graduate Teaching Assistant during his time at Auburn University.
Christopher J. Kazanjian, Ph.D. (he/him/his) is Assistant Professor
of Educational Psychology at El Paso Community College. Dr. Kazanjian
focuses his research on fashioning culturally responsive pedagogies for pri-
mary and secondary educators. His research focuses on culturally relevant
pedagogies and humanistic psychological methods for facilitating the growth
of youth in diversifying educational settings.
Maryann Krikorian, Ph.D. (she/her/hers) serves as a Clinical Assistant
Professor at Loyola Marymount University (LMU) School of Education in
the Department of Teaching and Learning. In 2016, she earned a Doctor
of Philosophy in Education from Chapman University with an emphasis on
Culture and Curricular Studies as a first-generation student. In 2011, she
received her Master of Arts in Guidance and Counseling at LMU where
she was named Student of the Year for the LMU School of Education and
in 2008, earned her Bachelor of Arts in Psychology and Philosophy from
California State University, Long Beach. Dr. Krikorian comes from a multi-
racial family unit and strives to deepen understandings of diverse perspectives,
different forms of knowledge, and holistic approaches to education. Her per-
sonal and professional experiences position her well to advocate for students
as integrated whole beings and pedagogical philosophies that unionize the
mind, body, and inner-self.
Wilson S. Lester (he/him/his) is a graduate research assistant, student
director of the Educational Psychology Student Committee, and third-year
graduate student in the Educational Psychology Ph.D. program at Auburn
University. His research interests are in academic behaviors, identity forma-
tion, and motivation among the student-athlete population in higher edu-
cation. He has earned his Bachelor’s and Master’s in Psychology from the
University of Alabama in Huntsville.
Karla I. Loya, Ph.D. (she/her/ella) is an Assistant Professor of Educational
Leadership in Higher Education at the University of Hartford. She has a
M.S. in Higher Education Administration from the University of Kansas
and a Ph.D. in Higher Education with a minor in Women’s Studies from
Pennsylvania State University. Her research interests focus on higher educa-
tion issues and agents, in three areas: (1) faculty and student experiences and
success in colleges and universities, with particular attention to how identity,
social justice, and equity issues might play a role; (2) college teaching and
learning; and (3) research methods and assessment. Broadly, she is interested
in finding ways for colleges and universities to be more inclusive places for
xii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

everyone. At the University of Hartford, Karla teaches instructional develop-

ment, diversity in higher education, the professoriate, research methods, and
dissertation preparation courses. She also supervises doctoral dissertations in
Educational Leadership.
Claire Major, Ph.D. (she/her/hers) is a Professor of Higher Education
at the University of Alabama. Her teaching and research interests center on
instructional approaches and instructional technology. She has authored and
co-authored ten books, including four with Elizabeth Barkley: interactive
lecturing, learning assessment techniques, collaborative learning techniques,
and student engagement techniques. In addition to these, she has published
teaching for learning: 101 intentionally designed instructional activities to
put students on the path to success, with Michael Harris and Todd Zakrajsek,
and online learning: a guide to theory, research, and practice, as well as sev-
eral books on qualitative research methods. She has published her research in
­top-tier journals and presented it at national and international conferences.
Major has also presented public lectures and faculty workshops, as well as
online workshops and webinars, for dozens of colleges and universities in the
United States and abroad.
C. Casey Ozaki, Ph.D. (she/her/hers) is an Associate Professor in the
Department of Education, Health, and Behavior Studies at the University
of North Dakota. She has a M.Ed. in Student Affairs from the University of
Southern California and a Ph.D. in Higher Education from Michigan State
University. Her research bisects both the student affairs and teaching and
learning areas of college campus with a shared focus on diverse students, their
outcomes, and factors that influence those outcomes. As part of this focus,
she has explored the role of student affairs professionals at community col-
leges—the institutions that serve the most diverse and high-risk college stu-
dents. Dr. Ozaki also researches assessment of learning across creative arts
and a range of disciplines and professional fields. Her recent focus has been
on the integration of diversity, inclusion, and equity as a critical perspective
and framework in college teaching and learning. Dr. Ozaki also serves UND
as a Faculty Fellow for Inclusive Excellence where her role is to provide edu-
cation and consultation for faculty and departments on the development and
integration of inclusive and equitable practices in their teaching, curriculum,
programs, and overall relationships with students. She teaches courses related
to college teaching, learning, and student diversity and practices in higher
education.
Laura Parson, Ph.D. (she/her/hers) is an Assistant Professor of Higher
Education at North Dakota State University. Her Ph.D. is in Teaching and
Learning, Higher Education, from the University of North Dakota. She has
a M.Ed., Adult Education from Westminster College with a certification in
teaching English as a second language. Her research interests focus on effec-
tive teaching and learning in higher education, explored through a critical
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xiii

lens. Laura’s recent research has focused on the institutional factors that dis-
empower undergraduate women in STEM education. Additionally, she has
conducted research on the use of instructional technologies to validate and
empower women students, rigor in the curriculum design process, and crit-
ical discourse analysis in STEM in higher education. Dr. Parson has eight
years of teaching diverse student populations at both the undergraduate and
graduate levels and in face-to-face and online formats. In her current role,
she teaches graduate students and faculty how to effectively teach in higher
education settings, with a focus on critical pedagogy, effective curriculum and
program design, and authentic assessment. Laura has facilitated workshops on
active learning at Auburn University, the University of Louisville School of
Medicine, and the Delphi Center for Teaching and Learning.
Stefan A. Perun, Ph.D. (he/him/his) is an Assistant Teaching Professor of
Public Administration at Villanova University. He earned a Ph.D. in Higher
Education Leadership, Management, and Policy from Seton Hall University
and his research interests include understanding how the learning experiences
of students who are deemed underprepared for college shape their success
or failure in developmental English. Dr. Perun’s research is aimed at inform-
ing pedagogical and organizational development to achieve more equitable
outcomes in higher education. He has published his findings in Community
College Review and Community College Journal of Research and Practice.
Stephen John Quaye, Ph.D. (he/him/his) is an Associate Professor in the
Higher Education and Student Affairs Program at the Ohio State University.
His research concentrates on engaging students in difficult dialogues about
privilege, power, and oppression, and the strategies educators use to facili-
tate productive dialogues about these topics. Most recently, his current work
focuses on student and scholar activism, as well as the strategies Black student
affairs educators use to heal from racial battle fatigue. His work is published
in different venues, including Teachers College Record, Journal of College
Student Development, and The Review of Higher Education.
Ritika Rastogi (she/her/hers) is a Ph.D. student in the Developmental
Psychology program at the University of California, Los Angeles. She earned
her B.A. from Northwestern University in 2016. Her research examines the
various roles that youth of Color play in their school communities, with a
focus on the interpersonal, psychosocial, and academic outcomes associated
with their peer relationships.
Michele Rivas, Ph.D. (she/her/hers) is a New York State Licensed Mental
Health Counselor with a Ph.D. in Counseling and Counselor Education
from Syracuse University and a Master’s degree in Clinical Mental Health
Counseling from Long Island University. She also has a Certificate of
Advanced Studies in Disability Studies from Syracuse University. Dr. Rivas is
currently an Assistant Professor of Psychology and Counseling in the School
of Social and Behavioral Sciences at Marist College. Dr. Rivas is committed
xiv NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

to professional engagement that strengthens counseling, counselor education,

and clinical supervision of counselors. Her scholarly interests include multi-
cultural counseling competencies, disability counseling competencies, counse-
lor development, and disability rhetoric within the counseling discourse.
Cesar A. Rossatto, Ph.D. (he/him/his) is an Associate Professor at the
University of Texas at El Paso. His main research interests are the US and
Mexican border within the context of globalization and neoliberalism, social
relations and Brazilian identity formation in the United States and its implica-
tions to schooling, the phenomenon of fatalism and optimism in contrast to
social classes’ differences, the application of critical pedagogy, and the effects
of whiteness in Brazil and in the United States.
Sarah E. Schoper, Ph.D. (she/her/hers) is an instructor of higher educa-
tion at Lindenwood University in St. Charles, MO. Sarah has been a student
affairs practitioner within the areas of new student programming, first-year
experience, leadership development, fraternity and sorority life, and student
government advising, or a faculty member within a student affairs preparation
program for over 18 years. Sarah’s research focus includes the development of
emerging professionals, first-generation students, the experiences of students
with disabilities, and transformative learning. Furthermore, she has published
and presented in these areas numerous times. Sarah also serves as a consultant
and speaker to institutions, organizations, and groups regarding how to put
transformative learning into practice.
Beth L. Sondel, Ph.D. (she/her/hers) is the Director of Education at the
Women and Girls Foundation. In this position, she runs GirlGov, a civic
engagement and social justice advocacy program for high school-aged young
women from 62 high schools across Southwest Pennsylvania. She is passion-
ate about facilitating experiences for people to better understand their role in
disrupting systems of racism, sexism, and oppression; amplifying youth voice;
creating community; dancing; bright and bold colors; and being a mother.
Kamden K. Strunk, Ph.D. (he/him/his) is an Associate Professor of
Educational Research, coordinator of the Educational Psychology Ph.D. pro-
gram, and coordinator of the graduate minor in Critical Studies in Education
at Auburn University. At present, he teaches quantitative methodologies and
critical studies courses. His research focuses on intersections of sexual, gen-
der, and racial identities in education, particularly in higher education. He
earned his Ph.D. in Educational Psychology from Oklahoma State University.
He is an author of Design and Analysis in Educational Research: ANOVA
Designs in SPSS and Oppression and Resistance in Southern Higher and Adult
Education, and editor of Research Methods for Social Justice and Equity in
Education and three volumes of Queering the Deep South.
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xv

Jessica Weise (she/her/hers) is a doctoral student in the Administration

of Higher Education program at Auburn University. She is a gradu-
ate research assistant working with Air University on Maxwell Air Force
Base in Montgomery, Alabama. She has an M.Ed. in Higher Education
Administration and a minor in Sport Management from Auburn University
and a B.S. in Sociology from Northern Arizona University. Her research
interests focus on critical queer studies and examining inequitable power
structures in higher education that reinforce hetero-cisnormativity affecting
campus climate and LGBTQ student sense of belonging.
Patrick White (he/him/his) is the University Risk Manager at Auburn
University. He completed Masters of Education in Administration of Higher
Education from Auburn University in addition to receiving a Bachelor
of Business Administration in Risk Management and Insurance from the
University of Georgia. Patrick also holds the highest professional designation
in the commercial insurance industry, the Chartered Property and Casualty
Underwriter (CPCU) designation. Patrick’s research and professional interest
include workforce development, mentoring and apprenticeship programs, and
the efficacy of servant leadership in contemporary organizational models.
Stacy A. S. Williams, Ph.D. is an Associate Professor at Marist College. She
is also a Licensed Psychologist and Certified School Psychologist in New York
State. At the national level, Dr. Williams serves on the Trainers of School
Psychologists (TSP) executive board, where she co-chairs the Social Justice
Task Force and serves as membership coordinator. In addition, Dr. Williams
mentors students and early career faculty of color through the National
Association of School Psychologists (NASP) mentoring program. At the state
level, Dr. Williams has mentored school psychology candidates, and created
and managed content for the state association annual conference. At the last
conference (NYASP 2017), Dr. Williams and her students organized a Social
Justice Student strand. Dr. Williams provides training in social justice, inclu-
sive classrooms, academic and behavioral interventions, data-based decision
making, and university/school partnerships.
Elizabeth Laura Yomantas, Ph.D. (she/her/hers) earned a Ph.D. in
Education with an emphasis on cultural and curricular studies from Chapman
University. Currently, she is an Assistant Professor in the Teacher Preparation
Program at Pepperdine University in Malibu, CA. Elizabeth enjoys work-
ing alongside pre-service teachers, particularly in the context of profes-
sional development schools. Elizabeth serves on the board of the Fiji Kinde
Project, a nonprofit organization that aims to equip Fijian educators and pro-
vide essential resources to strengthen early childhood education in Fiji. Her
research interests include indigenous Fijian education, culturally responsive
experiential education, and core reflection in teacher education.
 List of Figures

Fig. 5.1 A learning environments framework for social justice education  84

Fig. 6.1 Stage one of the postcolonial competency-based curriculum
design framework  111
Fig. 8.1 Process model of learning and resistance in diversity experiences  138
Fig. 12.1 Enacting lesson plans that meet the needs of students
in diverse settings  230
Fig. 13.1 Race pedagogy and faculty preparation  244
Fig. 15.1 Mentoring structure for student  297
Fig. 15.2 Mentoring structure for faculty  297

xvii
 List of Tables

Table 3.1 Comparative lesson plan: Behaviorist vs Engaged pedagogy  48

Table 5.1 Learning environments in social justice education  86
Table 5.2 Structuring holistic content and process through learning
outcomes 90
Table 6.1 Stage one steps: Postcolonial approach to competency-based
curriculum design  108
Table 12.1 Sample lesson plan helping students develop mathematical
literacy 231
Table 12.2 Sample lesson plan using student texts alongside typical
college-level texts  232
Table 12.3 Guiding questions to develop learner-centered lesson plans  233
Table 13.1 Workshop outline to explore the hidden associations and biases  254
Table 14.1 Syllabi Exemplar  274
Table 15.1 Outstanding Graduate Mentor Award rubric  298

xix
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

C. Casey Ozaki and Laura Parson

As awareness of social inequity grows, higher education is often touted as a

way to promote social justice and equity in society. Research suggests that
higher education may reinforce societal inequity through teaching and learn-
ing practices that promote dominant ways of viewing and thinking about the
world, practices that are formalized and reinforced in a neoliberal environ-
ment (Giroux, 2005, 2010; Hager, Peyrefitte, & Davis, 2018; Lynch, 2006).
Similarly, the field of learning sciences (e.g., cognitive psychology, motivation
research) has advanced significantly in the last decade, yet many teaching and
learning practices are rooted in an outdated or incorrect understanding of
how learning occurs (e.g., learning styles, andragogy vs pedagogy, personality
tests). These outdated practices create a higher education environment that
struggles to promote learning equitably and may extend as far as to be harm-
ful to marginalized and underrepresented students (Howell & Tuitt, 2003).
This environment has led to calls for actionable approaches to teaching and
learning in higher education that promote social justice (Hager, Peyrefitte, &
Davis, 2018).
Building on the work of scholars who have called for critical pedagogical
approaches to the scholarship of teaching and learning (SoTL; Hager,
Peyrefitte, & Davis, 2018; Howell & Tuitt, 2003), the goal of this
­three-volume series is to provide a meaningful exploration of teaching and

C. C. Ozaki
University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
L. Parson (*)
North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, USA
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2020 1

L. Parson and C. C. Ozaki (eds.), Teaching and Learning
for Social Justice and Equity in Higher Education,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44939-1_1
2 C. C. OZAKI AND L. PARSON

learning for social justice and equity specifically in current classroom and
co-curricular contexts in higher education (see Adams, Bell, & Griffin, 2007).
Our experience in teaching courses in and designing curriculum for college/
university teaching courses has illustrated that faculty and graduate students
lack understanding about current research on effective teaching and learning
(Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, & Norman, 2010; Brown, Roediger,
& McDaniel, 2014; Carey & Bourret, 2014), how to apply teaching and
learning to promote social justice and equity (Adams, Bell, & Griffin, 2007;
hooks, 1994, 2009; Howell & Tuitt, 2003; Pulliam, Wininger, Derryberry, &
Redifer, 2017) in content-specific ways in the classroom, and the applica-
tion of SoTL in higher education but in co-curricular contexts to maximize
the effectiveness of student affairs programming. This series is designed to
address all three.
While Laura and I have had different walks through our education, we
have shared similar observations and disappointments about the presence of
higher education theory in our graduate programs and teaching. We both
have experienced graduate education that was theoretically grounded and
taught us how to apply theory and think theoretically. We also share experi-
ences where we were underwhelmed by a lack of theory in a program’s cur-
riculum and approach, feeling that perhaps the educational preparation we
were engaged in was strong in its focus on practice but hollow because of
a lack of critical, theoretical foundation. As a result, our belief in the impor-
tance of theory for graduate education in higher education was reinforced
and the desire to provide a resource that promotes and examines theory for
higher education in the current era of social justice and shedding light on
educational inequities. Volume One: Theory and Foundations is our response
to that desire. The purpose of this volume is to appraise the scholarship of
teaching and learning historically in the context of the modern university,
and present and promote theory that is advancing understanding of college
teaching and learning for diverse students, varied teaching modalities, and
­institutional settings with a goal of socially just education.
We believe that Volume One will be useful for a range of purposes. Higher
education and other educational program curricula would benefit from hav-
ing a text that can help students understand where we have theoretically
been and what current scholars are theoretically advocating for advance-
ment of teaching and learning. While faculty, instructors, and students are
the most obvious audience for this text, there are other professionals on the
college campus that both should and need to be current on the theoreti-
cal scholarship undergirding their work. Faculty development professionals,
administrators who provide faculty leadership (e.g., provosts, deans, chairs),
and, similarly, those accountable for student success are also responsible to
understand how teaching is tied to equitable success and the theoretical
underpinnings for best practice. Finally, many student services and student
affairs professionals span the work of co-curricular and academic services
 1 INTRODUCTION 3

in their work with students. Advising, tutoring, career services, and other
campus units rely on teaching and learning strategies without knowledge of
or access to their literatures.
The first three chapters of Volume One examine the history of teaching
and learning theory, its interdisciplinary character, and use a social justice lens
to critique its current application to higher education today. In Chapter 2,
Parson and Major review the theoretical biography of teaching and learn-
ing in higher education, arguing that they were both insufficient to explain
learning and concurrently contributors to a reproduction of inequities in
education. Similarly, in Chapter 3, White and Jackson examine behaviorism,
an early learning theory, in the context of a neoliberal society. And, Lester,
Strunk, and Hoover (Chapter 4) debunk myths about learning, grounded in
psychological theories, that are often pervasive in education. These chapters
lay the groundwork for the remainder of the book by demystifying the read-
er’s understanding of traditional teaching and learning theories.
In the remainder of the chapters, the authors present and propose theoret-
ical approaches to teaching and learning through critical and justice-oriented
perspectives. While not in chronological order, the chapters fall into two cate-
gories—diversity education and pedagogy and curriculum. First, four chapters
focus on models and theories that can (and often should) be part of efforts to
build and support students’ cultural competence. In Chapter 5, Buckley et al.
use a case study of intergroup dialogue (IGD) to propose a theoretical frame-
work for learning environments within social justice education that can serve
as heuristic for educators who work to facilitate well-designed learning oppor-
tunities for students, rooted in fostering holistic development and learning
for social justice. Chapter 13 also takes up diversity education as Conyers
et al. describe a faculty-led workshop designed to uncover students’ biases
in hopes of proactively changing their perspectives and advancing cultural
awareness. Not focused on a course but on learning through and from diver-
sity experiences, Byrd, Rastogi, and Elliot, in Chapter 8, propose the use of
a ­self-regulated learning perspective to examine how students respond to the
cognitive and emotional challenges of diversity experiences. Finally, Yomantas
(Chapter 16) describes an undergraduate elective course taught in rural Fiji
as an application of critical pedagogy coupled with an experiential education
framework for the purpose of fostering critical allyship.
The remaining chapters in the book are grouped by a shared focus on ped-
agogy and curriculum. Parson and Weise advocate for a postcolonial approach
to competency-based curriculum (re)design and propose a framework that
centers the knowledges and voices of marginalized people as a way to disman-
tle oppressive systems in higher education in Chapter 6. In Chapter 7, Loya
examines how faculty members might create classrooms that include some
voices and exclude others from a shared creation of knowledge and learn-
ing in the classroom, asserting that classrooms can become more inclusive
through the authentic granting of epistemic credibility, or the recognition
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Exploring the Variety of Random
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and residence; and was answered that his name was Kirkpatrick,
and that he lived at a cottage, which he pointed out. Whereupon the
gentleman expressed his surprise that he should be unknown to him,
since he fancied he had been acquainted with every man on his
estate. “It is odd you have never seen me before,” returned the old
man, “for I walk here every day.”
“How old are you?” asked the gentleman.
“I am one hundred and five,” answered the other; “and have
been here all my life.”
After a few more words, they parted; and the gentleman,
proceeding toward some laborers in a neighboring field, inquired if
they knew an old man of the name of Kirkpatrick. They did not; but
on addressing the question to some older tenants, they said, “Oh,
yes;” they had known him, and had been at his funeral; he had lived
at the cottage on the hill, but had been dead twenty years.
“How old was he when he died?” inquired the gentleman, much
amazed. “He was eighty-five,” said they: so that the old man gave
the age that he would have reached had he survived to the period of
this rencontre.
This curious incident is furnished by the gentleman himself and
all he can say is, that it certainly occurred, and that he is quite
unable to explain it. He was in perfect health at the time, and had
never heard of this man in his life, who had been dead several years
before the estate came into his possession.
The following is another curious story. The original will be found
in the register of the church named, from which it has been copied
for my use:—

EXTRACT FROM THE REGISTER IN BRISLEY CHURCH, NORFOLK.

“December 12, 1706.—I, Robert Withers, M. A., vicar of Gately, do

insert here a story which I had from undoubted hands; for I have all
the moral certainty of the truth of it possible:—
“Mr. Grose went to see Mr. Shaw on the 2d of August last. As
they sat talking in the evening, says Mr. Shaw: ‘On the 21st of the
last month, as I was smoking a pipe, and reading in my study,
between eleven and twelve at night, in comes Mr. Naylor (formerly
fellow of St. John’s college, but had been dead full four years). When
I saw him, I was not much affrighted, and I asked him to sit down,
which accordingly he did for about two hours, and we talked
together. I asked him how it fared with him. He said, “Very
well.”—“Were any of our old acquaintances with him?”—“No!” (at
which I was much alarmed), “but Mr. Orchard will be with me soon,
and yourself not long after.” As he was going away, I asked him if he
would not stay a little longer, but he refused. I asked him if he would
call again. “No;” he had but three days’ leave of absence, and he
had other business.’
“N. B.—Mr. Orchard died soon after. Mr. Shaw is now dead: he
was formerly fellow of St. John’s college—an ingenious, good man. I
knew him there; but at his death he had a college-living in
Oxfordshire, and here he saw the apparition.”

An extraordinary circumstance occurred some years ago, in which

a very pious and very eminent Scotch minister, Ebenezer Brown of
Inverkeithing, was concerned. A person of ill character in the
neighborhood having died, the family very shortly afterward came to
him to complain of some exceedingly unpleasant circumstances
connected with the room in which the dissolution had taken place,
which rendered it uninhabitable, and requesting his assistance. All
that is known by his family of what followed, is that he went and
entered the room alone; came out again, in a state of considerable
excitement and in a great perspiration; took off his coat and re-
entered the room; a great noise and I believe voices were then
heard by the family, who remained the whole time at the door; when
he came out finally, it was evident that something very extraordinary
had taken place; what it was, he said, he could never disclose; but
that perhaps after his death some paper might be found upon the
subject. None, however, as far as I can learn, has been discovered.
A circumstance of a very singular nature is asserted to have
occurred, not very many years back, in regard to a professor in the
college of A⁠——, who had seduced a girl and married another
woman. The girl became troublesome to him; and being found
murdered, after having been last seen in his company, he was
suspected of being some way concerned in the crime. But the
strange thing is, that, from that period, he retired every evening at a
particular hour to a certain room, where he stayed a great part of
the night, and where it was declared that her voice was distinctly
heard in conversation with him: a strange, wild story, which I give as
I have it, without pretending to any explanation of the belief that
seems to have prevailed, that he was obliged to keep this fearful
tryst.
Visitations of this description—which seem to indicate that the
deceased person is still, in some way incomprehensible to us, an
inhabitant of the earth—are more perplexing than any of the stories
I meet with. In the time of Frederick II. of Prussia, the cook of a
catholic priest residing at a village named Quarrey, died, and he took
another in her place; but the poor woman had no peace or rest from
the interference of her predecessor, insomuch that she resigned her
situation, and the minister might almost have done without any
servant at all. The fires were lighted, and the rooms swept and
arranged, and all the needful services performed, by unseen hands.
Numbers of people went to witness the phenomena, till at length the
story reached the ears of the king, who sent a captain and a
lieutenant of his guard to investigate the affair. As they approached
the house, they found themselves preceded by a march, though they
could see no musicians; and when they entered the parlor and
witnessed what was going on, the captain exclaimed: “If that
doesn’t beat the devil!” upon which he received a smart slap on the
face, from the invisible hand that was arranging the furniture.
In consequence of this affair, the house was pulled down, by the
king’s orders, and another residence built for the minister at some
distance from the spot.
Now, to impose on Frederick II. would have been no slight
matter, as regarded the probable consequences; and the officers of
his guard would certainly not have been disposed to make the
experiment; and it is not likely that the king would have ordered the
house to be pulled down without being thoroughly satisfied of the
truth of the story.
 One of the most remarkable stories of this class I know—
excepting indeed the famous one of the Grecian bride—is that which
is said to have happened at Crossen, in Silesia, in the year 1659, in
the reign of the Princess Elizabeth Charlotte. In the spring of that
year, an apothecary’s man, called Christopher Monig—a native of
Serbest, in Anhalt—died, and was buried with the usual ceremonies
of the Lutheran church. But, to the amazement of everybody, a few
days afterward, he, at least what seemed to be himself, appeared in
the shop, where he would sit himself down, and sometimes walk,
and take from the shelves boxes, pots, and glasses, and set them
again in other places; sometimes try and examine the goodness of
the medicines, weigh them with the scales, pound the drugs with a
mighty noise—nay, serve the people that came with bills to the shop,
take their money and lay it up in the counter: in a word, do all
things that a journeyman in such cases used to do. He looked very
ghostly upon his former companions, who were afraid to say
anything to him, and his master being sick at that time, he was very
troublesome to him. At last he took a cloak that hung in the shop,
put it on and walked abroad, but minding nobody in the streets; he
entered into some of the citizen’s houses, especially such as he had
formerly known, yet spoke to no one but to a maid-servant, whom
he met with hard by the church-yard, whom he desired to go home
and dig in a lower chamber of her master’s house, where she would
find an inestimable treasure. But the girl, amazed at the sight of
him, swooned away; whereupon he lifted her up, but left a mark
upon her, in so doing, that was long visible. She fell sick in
consequence of the fright, and having told what Monig had said to
her, they dug up the place indicated, but found nothing but a
decayed pot with a hemarites or bloodstone in it. The affair making
a great noise, the reigning princess caused the man’s body to be
taken up, which being done, it was found in a state of putrefaction,
and was reinterred. The apothecary was then recommended to
remove everything belonging to Monig—his linen, clothes, books, &c.
—after which the apparition left the house and was seen no more.
The fact of the man’s reappearance in this manner was
considered to be so perfectly established at the time, that there was
actually a public disputation on the subject in the academy of
Leipsic. With regard to the importance the apparition attached to the
bloodstone, we do not know but that there may be truth in the
persuasion that this gem is possessed of some occult properties of
much more value than its beauty.
The story of the Grecian bride is still more wonderful, and yet it
comes to us so surprisingly well authenticated, inasmuch as the
details were forwarded by the prefect of the city in which the thing
occurred, to the proconsul of his province, and by the latter were
laid before the emperor Hadrian—and as it was not the custom to
mystify Roman emperors—we are constrained to believe that what
the prefect and proconsul communicated to him, they had good
reason for believing themselves.
It appears that a gentleman, called Demostrates, and Charito, his
wife, had a daughter called Philinnion, who died; and that about six
months afterward, a youth named Machates, who had come to visit
them, was surprised on retiring to the apartments destined to
strangers, by receiving the visits of a young maiden who eats and
drinks and exchanges gifts with him. Some accident having taken
the nurse that way, she, amazed by the sight, summons her master
and mistress to behold their daughter, who is there sitting with the
guest.
Of course, they do not believe her; but at length, wearied by her
importunities, the mother follows her to the guest’s chamber; but
the young people are now asleep, and the door closed; but looking
through the keyhole, she perceives what she believes to be her
daughter. Still unable to credit her senses, she resolves to wait till
morning before disturbing them; but when she comes again the
young lady had departed; while Machates, on being interrogated,
confesses that Philinnion had been with him, but that she had
admitted to him that it was unknown to her parents. Upon this, the
amazement and agitation of the mother were naturally very great;
especially when Machates showed her a ring which the girl had
given him, and a bodice which she had left behind her; and his
amazement was no less, when he heard the story they had to tell.
He, however, promised that if she returned the next night, he would
let them see her; for he found it impossible to believe that his bride
was their dead daughter. He suspected, on the contrary, that some
thieves had stripped her body of the clothes and ornaments in which
she had been buried, and that the girl who came to his room had
bought them. When, therefore, she arrived, his servant having had
orders to summon the father and mother, they came; and perceiving
that it was really their daughter, they fell to embracing her, with
tears. But she reproached them for the intrusion, declaring that she
had been permitted to spend three days with this stranger, in the
house of her birth; but that now she must go to the appointed
place; and immediately fell down dead, and the dead body lay there
visible to all.
The news of this strange event soon spread abroad, the house
was surrounded by crowds of people, and the prefect was obliged to
take measures to avoid a tumult. On the following morning, at an
early hour, the inhabitants assembled in the theatre, and thence
they proceeded to the vault, in order to ascertain if the body of
Philinnion was where it had been deposited six months before. It
was not; but on the bier there lay the ring and cap which Machates
had presented to her the first night she visited him; showing that
she had returned there in the interim. They then proceeded to the
house of Democrates, where they saw the body, which it was
decreed must now be buried without the bounds of the city.
Numerous religious ceremonies and sacrifices followed, and the
unfortunate Machates, seized with horror, put an end to his own life.
The following very singular circumstance occurred in this country
toward the latter end of the last century, and excited, at the time,
considerable attention; the more so, as it was asserted by everybody
acquainted with the people and the locality, that the removal of the
body was impossible by any recognised means; besides, that no one
would have had the hardihood to attempt such a feat:—
“Mr. William Craighead, author of a popular system of arithmetic,
was parish-schoolmaster of Monifieth, situate upon the estuary of
the Tay, about six miles east from Dundee. It would appear that Mr.
Craighead was then a young man, fond of a frolic, without being
very scrupulous about the means, or calculating the consequences.
There being a lykewake in the neighborhood, according to the
custom of the times, attended by a number of his acquaintance,
Craighead procured a confederate, with whom he concerted a plan
to draw the watchers from the house, or at least from the room
where the corpse lay. Having succeeded in this, he dexterously
removed the dead body to an outer house, while his companion
occupied the place of the corpse in the bed where it had lain. It was
agreed upon between the confederates, that when the company
were reassembled Craighead was to join them, and, at a concerted
signal the impostor was to rise, shrouded like the dead man, while
the two were to enjoy the terror and alarm of their companions. Mr.
Craighead came in, and, after being some time seated, the signal
was made, but met no attention; he was rather surprised; it was
repeated, and still neglected. Mr. Craighead, in his turn, now became
alarmed; for he conceived it impossible that his companion could
have fallen asleep in that situation; his uneasiness became
insupportable; he went to the bed, and found his friend lifeless! Mr.
Craighead’s feelings, as may well be imagined, now entirely
overpowered him, and the dreadful fact was disclosed. Their
agitation was extreme, and it was far from being alleviated when
every attempt to restore animation to the thoughtless young man
proved abortive. As soon as their confusion would permit, an inquiry
was made after the original corpse, and Mr. Craighead and another
went to fetch it in, but it was not to be found. The alarm and
consternation of the company were now redoubled; for some time a
few suspected that some hardy fellow among them had been
attempting a Rowland for an Oliver, but when every knowledge of it
was most solemnly denied by all present, their situation can be more
easily imagined than described; that of Mr. Craighead was little short
of distraction. Daylight came without relieving their agitation; no
trace of the corpse could be discovered, and Mr. Craighead was
accused as the primum mobile of all that had happened: he was
incapable of sleeping, and wandered several days and nights in
search of the body, which was at last discovered in the parish of
Tealing, deposited in a field, about six miles distant from the place
whence it was removed.
 “It is related that this extraordinary affair had a strong and
lasting effect upon Mr. Craighead’s mind and conduct; that he
immediately became serious and thoughtful, and ever after
conducted himself with great prudence and sobriety.”
Among what are called superstitions, there are a great many
curious ones attached to certain families; and from some members
of these families I have been assured that experience has rendered
it impossible for them to forbear attaching importance to these
persuasions.
A very remarkable circumstance occurred lately in this part of the
world, the facts of which I had an opportunity of being well
acquainted with.
One evening, somewhere about Christmas, of the year 1844, a
letter was sent for my perusal, which had been just received from a
member of a distinguished family, in Perthshire. The friend who sent
it me, an eminent literary man, said, “Read the enclosed; and we
shall now have an opportunity of observing if any event follows the
prognostics.” The information contained in the letter was to the
following effect:—
Miss D⁠——, a relative of the present Lady C⁠——, who had been
staying some time with the earl and countess, at their seat near
Dundee, was invited to spend a few days at C⁠—— castle, with the
earl and countess of A⁠——. She went: and while she was dressing
for dinner, the first evening of her arrival, she heard a strain of music
under her window, which finally resolved itself into a well-defined
sound of a drum. When her maid came up stairs, she made some
inquiries about the drummer that was playing near the house; but
the maid knew nothing on the subject. For the moment, the
circumstance passed from Miss D⁠——’s mind; but recurring to her
again during the dinner, she said, addressing Lord A⁠——, “My lord,
who is your drummer?”—upon which his lordship turned pale, Lady
A⁠—— looked distressed, and several of the company (who all heard
the question) embarrassed; while the lady, perceiving that she had
made some unpleasant allusion, although she knew not to what
their feelings referred, forbore further inquiry till she reached the
drawing-room, when, having mentioned the circumstance again to a
member of the family, she was answered, “What! have you never
heard of the drummer-boy?”—“No,” replied Miss D⁠——; “who in the
world is he?”—“Why,” replied the other, “he is a person who goes
about the house playing his drum whenever there is a death
impending in the family. The last time he was heard was shortly
before the death of the last countess (the earl’s former wife), and
that is why Lord A⁠—— became so pale when you mentioned it. ‘The
drummer’ is a very unpleasant subject in this family, I assure you!”
Miss D⁠—— was naturally much concerned, and, indeed, not a
little frightened at this explanation, and her alarm being augmented
by hearing the sounds on the following day, she took her departure
from C⁠—— castle and returned to Lord C⁠——’s, stopping on her way
to call on some friends, where she related this strange circumstance
to the family, through whom the information reached me.
This affair was very generally known in the north, and we
awaited the event with interest. The melancholy death of the
countess about five or six months afterward, at Brighton, sadly
verified the prognostic. I have heard that a paper was found in her
desk after her death, declaring her conviction that the drum was for
her; and it has been suggested that probably the thing preyed upon
her mind and caused the catastrophe: but in the first place, from the
mode of her death, that does not appear to be the case; in the
second, even if it were, the fact of the verification of the prognostic
remains unaffected; besides which, those who insist upon taking
refuge in this hypothesis must admit that, before people living in the
world like Lord and Lady A⁠——, could attach so much importance to
the prognostic as to entail such fatal effects, they must have had
very good reason for believing in it.
The legend connected with “the drummer” is, that either himself,
or some officer whose emissary he was, had become an object of
jealousy to a former Lord A⁠——, and that he was put to death by
being thrust into his own drum and flung from the window of the
tower in which Miss D⁠——’s room was situated. It is said that he
threatened to haunt them if they took his life; and he seems to have
been as good as his word, having been heard several times in the
memory of persons yet living.
 There is a curious legend attached to the family of G⁠——, of
R⁠——, to the effect that, when a lady is confined in that house, a
little old woman enters the room when the nurse is absent, and
strokes down the bed-clothes; after which the patient, according to
the technical phrase, “never does any good,” and dies. Whether the
old lady has paid her visits or not I do not know, but it is remarkable
that the results attending several late confinements there have been
fatal.
There was a legend, in a certain family, that a single swan was
seen on a particular lake before a death. A member of this family
told me that on one occasion, the father, being a widower, was
about to enter into a second marriage. On the wedding-day, his son
appeared so exceedingly distressed, that the bridegroom was
offended, and, expostulating with him, was told by the young man
that his low spirits were caused by his having seen the swan. He
(the son) died that night quite unexpectedly.
Besides Lord Littleton’s dove, there are a great many very curious
stories recorded in which birds have been seen in a room when a
death was impending; but the most extraordinary prognostic I know
is that of “the black dog,” which seems to be attached to some
families:—
A young lady of the name of P⁠——, not long since was sitting at
work, well and cheerful, when she saw, to her great surprise, a large
black dog close to her. As both door and window were closed, she
could not understand how he had got in; but when she started up to
put him out, she could no longer see him.
Quite puzzled, and thinking it must be some strange illusion, she
sat down again and went on with her work, when, presently, he was
there again. Much alarmed, she now ran out and told her mother,
who said she must have fancied it, or be ill. She declared neither
was the case; and, to oblige her, the mother agreed to wait outside
the door, and if she saw it again, she was to call her. Miss P⁠—— re-
entered the room, and presently there was the dog again; but when
she called her mother, he disappeared. Immediately afterward, the
mother was taken ill and died. Before she expired, she said to her
daughter, “Remember the black dog!”
 I confess I should have been much disposed to think this a
spectral illusion, were it not for the number of corroborative
instances; and I have only this morning read in the review of a work
called “The Unseen World,” just published, that there is a family in
Cornwall who are also warned of an approaching death by the
apparition of a black dog: and a very curious example is quoted, in
which a lady newly married into the family, and knowing nothing of
the tradition, came down from the nursery to request her husband
would go up and drive away a black dog that was lying on the child’s
bed. He went up, and found the child dead!
I wonder if this phenomenon is the origin of the French phrase
“bête noir,” to express an annoyance, or an augury of evil?
Most persons will remember the story of Lady Fanshawe, as
related by herself—namely, that while paying a visit to Lady Honor
O’Brien, she was awakened the first night she slept there by a voice,
and, on drawing back the curtain, she saw a female figure standing
in the recess of the window, attired in white, with red hair and a
pale and ghastly aspect. “She looked out of the window,” says Lady
Fanshawe, “and cried in a loud voice, such as I never before heard,
‘A horse!—a horse!—a horse!’ and then with a sigh, which rather
resembled the wind than the voice of a human being, she
disappeared. Her body appeared to me rather like a thick cloud than
a real solid substance. I was so frightened,” she continues, “that my
hair stood on end, and my night-cap fell off. I pushed and shook my
husband, who had slept all the time, and who was very much
surprised to find me in such a fright, and still more so when I told
him the cause of it, and showed him the open window. Neither of us
slept any more that night, but he talked to me about it, and told me
how much more frequent such apparitions were in that country than
in England.”
This was, however, what is called a banshee: for in the morning
Lady Honor came to them, to say that one of the family had died in
the night, expressing a hope that they had not been disturbed: “for,”
said she, “whenever any of the O’Briens is on his death-bed, it is
usual for a woman to appear at one of the windows every night till
he expires; but when I put you into this room, I did not think of it.”
This apparition was connected with some sad tale of seduction and
murder.
I could relate many more instances of this kind, but I wish as
much as possible to avoid repeating cases already in print; so I will
conclude this chapter with the following account of “Pearlin Jean,”
whose persevering annoyances, at Allanbank, were so thoroughly
believed and established, as to have formed at various times a
considerable impediment to letting the place. I am indebted to Mr.
Charles Kirkpatrick Sharpe for the account of Jean, and the anecdote
that follows.
A housekeeper, called Bettie Norrie, that lived many years at
Allanbank, declared she and various other people had frequently
seen Jean, adding that they were so used to her, as to be no longer
alarmed at her noises.
“In my youth,” says Mr. Sharpe, “Pearlin Jean was the most
remarkable ghost in Scotland, and my terror when a child. Our old
nurse, Jenny Blackadder, had been a servant at Allanbank, and often
heard her rustling in silks up and down stairs, and along the
passage. She never saw her—but her husband did.
“She was a French woman, whom the first baronet of Allanbank
(then Mr. Stuart) met with at Paris, during his tour to finish his
education as a gentleman. Some people said she was a nun, in
which case she must have been a sister of charity, as she appears
not to have been confined to a cloister. After some time, young
Stuart became either faithless to the lady, or was suddenly recalled
to Scotland by his parents, and had got into his carriage, at the door
of the hotel, when his Dido unexpectedly made her appearance, and
stepping on the fore-wheel of the coach to address her lover, he
ordered the postillion to drive on; the consequence of which was,
that the lady fell, and one of the wheels going over her forehead,
killed her!
“In a dusky autumnal evening, when Mr. Stuart drove under the
arched gateway of Allanbank, he perceived Pearlin Jean sitting on
the top, her head and shoulders covered with blood.
“After this, for many years, the house was haunted: doors shut
and opened with great noise at midnight; and the rustling of silks,
and pattering of high-heeled shoes, were heard in bed-rooms and
passages. Nurse Jenny said there were seven ministers called
together at one time, to lay the spirit; ‘but they did no mickle good,
my dear.’
“The picture of the ghost was hung between those of her lover
and his lady, and kept her comparatively quiet; but when taken
away, she became worse-natured than ever. This portrait was in the
present Sir J⁠—— G⁠——’s possession. I am unwilling to record its
fate.
“The ghost was designated ‘Pearlin,’ from always wearing a great
quantity of that sort of lace.[4]
“Nurse Jenny told me that when Thomas Blackadder was her
lover (I remember Thomas very well), they made an assignation to
meet one moonlight night in the orchard at Allanbank. True Thomas,
of course, was the first comer; and, seeing a female figure, in a
light-colored dress, at some distance, he ran forward with open arms
to embrace his Jenny. Lo, and behold! as he neared the spot where
the figure stood, it vanished; and presently he saw it again, at the
very end of the orchard, a considerable way off. Thomas went home
in a fright; but Jenny, who came last, and saw nothing, forgave him,
and they were married.
“Many years after this, about the year 1790, two ladies paid a
visit at Allanbank—I think the house was then let—and passed a
night there. They had never heard a word about the ghost; but they
were disturbed the whole night with something walking backward
and forward in their bed-chamber. This I had from the best authority.
“Sir Robert Stuart was created a baronet in the year 1687.
“Lady Stapleton, grandmother of the late Lord le Despencer, told
me that the night Lady Susan Fane (Lord Westmoreland’s daughter)
died in London, she appeared to her father, then at Merriworth, in
Kent. He was in bed, but had not fallen asleep. There was a light in
the room; she came in, and sat down on a chair at the foot of the
bed. He said to her, ‘Good God, Susan! how came you here? What
has brought you from town?’ She made no answer; but rose directly,
and went to the door, and looked back toward him very earnestly:
then she retired, shutting the door behind her. The next morning he
had notice of her death. This, Lord Westmoreland himself told to
Lady Stapleton, who was by birth a Fane, and his near relation.”

[4] “A species of lace made of thread.”—Jamieson.

 C H A P T E R X V.
APPARITIONS SEEKING THE PRAYERS OF THE LIVING.

With regard to the appearance of ghosts, the frequency of

haunted houses, presentiments, prognostics, and dreams, if we
come to inquire closely, it appears to me that all parts of the world
are much on an equality—only, that where people are most engaged
in business or pleasure, these things are, in the first place, less
thought of and less believed in, consequently less observed; and
when they are observed, they are readily explained away: and in the
second place—where the external life, the life of the brain, wholly
prevails—either they do not happen, or they are not perceived—the
rapport not existing, or the receptive faculty being obscured.
But, although the above phenomena seem to be equally well
known in all countries, there is one peculiar class of apparitions of
which I meet with no records but in Germany. I allude to ghosts,
who, like those described in the “Seeress of Prevorst,” seek the
prayers of the living. In spite of the positive assertions of Kerner,
Eschenmayer, and others, that after neglecting no means to
investigate the affair, they had been forced into the conviction that
the spectres that frequented Frederica Hauffe were not subjective
illusions, but real outstanding forms, still, as she was in the
somnambulic state, many persons remain persuaded that the whole
thing was delusion. It is true, that as those parties were not there,
and as all those who did go to the spot came to a different
conclusion, this opinion being only the result of preconceived notions
or prejudices, and not of calm investigation, is of no value whatever;
nevertheless, it is not to be denied that these narrations are very
extraordinary; but, perplexing as they are, they by no means stand
alone. I find many similar ones noticed in various works, where there
has been no somnambule in question. In all cases, these
unfortunate spirits appear to have been waiting for some one with
whom they could establish a rapport, so as to be able to
communicate with them; and this waiting has sometimes endured a
century or more. Sometimes they are seen by only one person, at
other times by several, with varying degrees of distinctness,
appearing to one as a light, to another as a shadowy figure, and to a
third as a defined human form. Other testimonies of their presence—
as sounds, footsteps, lights, visible removing of solid articles without
a visible agent, odors, &c.—are generally perceived by many; in
short, the sounds seem audible to all who come to the spot, with the
exception of the voice, which in most instances is only heard by the
person with whom the rapport is chiefly established. Some cases are
related, where a mark like burning is left on the articles seen to be
lifted. This is an old persuasion, and has given rise to many a joke.
But, upon the hypothesis I have offered, the thing is simple enough:
the mark will probably be of the same nature as that left by the
electrical fluid;—and it is this particular, and the lights that often
accompany spirits, that have caused the notion of material flames,
sulphur, brimstone, &c., to be connected with the idea of a future
state. According to our views, there can be no difficulty in conceiving
that a happy and blessed spirit would emit a mild radiance; while
anger or malignity would necessarily alter the character of the
effulgence.
As whoever wishes to see a number of these cases may have
recourse to my translation of the “Seeress of Prevorst,” I will here
only relate one, of a very remarkable nature, that occurred in the
prison of Weinsberg, in the year 1835.
Dr. Kerner, who has published a little volume containing a report
of the circumstances, describes the place where the thing happened
to be such a one as negatives at once all possibility of trick or
imposture. It was in a sort of block-house or fortress—a prison
within a prison—with no windows but what looked into a narrow
passage, closed with several doors. It was on the second floor; the
windows were high up, heavily barred with iron, and immovable
without considerable mechanical force. The external prison is
surrounded by a high wall, and the gates are kept closed day and
night. The prisoners in different apartments are of course never
allowed to communicate with each other, and the deputy-governor
of the prison and his family, consisting of a wife, niece, and one
maid-servant, are described as people of unimpeachable
respectability and veracity. As depositions regarding this affair were
laid before the magistrates, it is on them I found my narration.
On the 12th September, 1835, the deputy-governor or keeper of
the jail, named Mayer, sent in a report to the magistrates that a
woman called Elizabeth Eslinger was every night visited by a ghost,
which generally came about eleven o’clock, and which left her no
rest, as it said she was destined to release it, and it always invited
her to follow it; and as she would not, it pressed heavily on her neck
and side till it gave her pain. The persons confined with her
pretended also to have seen this apparition.
Signed “Mayer.”
A woman named Rosina Schahl, condemned to eight days’
confinement for abusive language, deposed, that about eleven
o’clock, Eslinger began to breathe hard as if she was suffocating;
she said a ghost was with her, seeking his salvation. “I did not
trouble myself about it, but told her to wake me when it came again.
Last night I saw a shadowy form, between four and five feet high,
standing near the bed; I did not see it move. Eslinger breathed very
hard, and complained of a pressure on the side. For several days she
has neither ate nor drank anything.
Signed “Schahl.”
“COURT RESOLVES,
“That Eslinger is to be visited by the prison physician, and a
report made as to her mental and bodily health.
“Signed by the magistrates,
“Eckhardt,
“Theurer,
“Knorr.”
“REPORT.
 “Having examined the prisoner, Elizabeth Eslinger, confined here
since the beginning of September, I found her of sound mind, but
possessed with one fixed idea, namely, that she is and has been for
a considerable time troubled by an apparition, which leaves her no
rest, coming chiefly by night, and requiring her prayers to release it.
It visited her before she came to the prison, and was the cause of
the offence that brought her here. Having now, in compliance with
the orders of the supreme court, observed this woman for eleven
weeks, I am led to the conclusion that there is no deception in this
case, and also that the persecution is not a mere monomaniacal idea
of her own, and the testimony not only of her fellow-prisoners, but
that of the deputy-governor’s family, and even of persons in distant
houses, confirms me in this persuasion.
“Eslinger is a widow, aged thirty-eight years, and declares that
she never had any sickness whatever, neither is she aware of any at
present; but she has always been a ghost-seer, though never till
lately had any communication with them; that now, for eleven weeks
that she has been in the prison, she is nightly disturbed by an
apparition, that had previously visited her in her own house, and
which had been once seen also by a girl of fourteen—a statement
which this girl confirms. When at home, the apparition did not
appear in a defined human form, but as a pillar of cloud, out of
which proceeded a hollow voice, signifying to her that she was to
release it, by her prayers, from the cellar of a woman in
Wimmenthal, named Singhaasin, whither it was banished, or whence
it could not free itself. She (Eslinger) says that she did not then
venture to speak to it, not knowing whether to address it as Sie, Ihr,
or Du (that is, whether she should address it in the second or third
person)—which custom among the Germans has rendered a very
important point of etiquette. It is to be remembered that this woman
was a peasant, without education, who had been brought into
trouble by treasure-seeking, a pursuit in which she hoped to be
assisted by this spirit. This digging for buried treasure is a strong
passion in Germany.
“The ghost now comes in a perfect human shape, and is dressed
in a loose robe, with a girdle, and has on its head a four-cornered
cap. It has a projecting chin and forehead, fiery, deep-set eyes, a
long beard, and high cheek-bones, which look as if they were
covered with parchment. A light radiates about and above his head,
and in the midst of this light she sees the outlines of the spectre.
“Both she and her fellow-prisoners declare, that this apparition
comes several times in a night, but always between the evening and
morning bell. He often comes through the closed door or window,
but they can then see neither door nor window, nor iron bars; they
often hear the closing of the door, and can see into the passage
when he comes in or out that way, so that if a piece of wood lies
there they see it. They hear a shuffling in the passage as he comes
and goes. He most frequently enters by the window, and they then
hear a peculiar sound there. He comes in quite erect. Although their
cell is entirely closed, they feel a cool wind[5] when he is near them.
All sorts of noises are heard, particularly a crackling. When he is
angry, or in great trouble, they perceive a strange mouldering,
earthy smell. He often pulls away the coverlet, and sits on the edge
of the bed. At first the touch of his hand was icy cold, since he
became brighter it is warmer; she first saw the brightness of his
finger-ends; it afterward spread further. If she stretches out her
hand she can not feel him, but when he touches her she feels it. He
sometimes takes her hands and lays them together, to make her
pray. His sighs and groans are like a person in despair; they are
heard by others as well as Eslinger. While he is making these
sounds, she is often praying aloud, or talking to her companions, so
they are sure it is not she who makes them. She does not see his
mouth move when he speaks. The voice is hollow and gasping. He
comes to her for prayers, and he seems to her like one in a mortal
sickness, who seeks comfort in the prayers of others. He says he
was a catholic priest in Wimmenthal, and lived in the year 1414.”
(Wimmenthal is still catholic; the woman Eslinger herself is a
Lutheran, and belongs to Backnang.)
“He says, that among other crimes, a fraud committed conjointly
with his father, on his brothers, presses sorely on him; he can not
get quit of it; it obstructs him. He always entreated her to go with
him to Wimmenthal, whither he was banished, or consigned, and
pray there for him.
“She says she can not tell whether what he says is true; and
does not deny that she thought to find treasures by his aid. She has
often told him that the prayers of a sinner, like herself, can not help
him, and that he should seek the Redeemer; but he will not forbear
his entreaties. When she says these things, he is sad, and presses
nearer to her, and lays his head so close that she is obliged to pray
into his mouth. He seems hungry for prayers. She has often felt his
tears on her cheek and neck; they felt icy cold; but the spot soon
after burns, and they have a bluish red mark. (These marks are
visible on her skin.)
“One night this apparition brought with him a large dog, which
leaped on the beds, and was seen by her fellow-prisoners also, who
were much terrified, and screamed. The ghost, however, spoke, and
said, ‘Fear not; this is my father.’ He had since brought the dog with
him again, which alarmed them dreadfully, and made them quite ill.
“Both Mayer and the prisoners asserted, that Eslinger was
scarcely seen to sleep, either by night or day, for ten weeks. She ate
very little, prayed continually, and appeared very much wasted and
exhausted. She said she saw the spectre alike, whether her eyes
were opened or closed, which showed that it was a magnetic
perception, and not seeing by her bodily organs. It is remarkable
that a cat belonging to the jail, being shut up in this room, was so
frightened when the apparition came, that it tried to make its escape
by flying against the walls; and finding this impossible, it crept under
the coverlet of the bed, in extreme terror. The experiment was made
again, with the same result; and after this second time the animal
refused all nourishment, wasted away, and died.
“In order to satisfy myself,” says Dr. Kerner, “of the truth of these
depositions, I went to the prison on the night of the 15th of October,
and shut myself up without light in Eslinger’s cell. About half-past
eleven I heard a sound as of some hard body being flung down, but
not on the side where the woman was, but the opposite; she
immediately began to breathe hard, and told me the spectre was
there. I laid my hand on her head, and adjured it as an evil spirit to
depart. I had scarcely spoken the words when there was a strange
rattling, crackling noise, all round the walls, which finally seemed to
go out through the window; and the woman said that the spectre
had departed.
“On the following night it told her that it was grieved at being
addressed as an evil spirit, which it was not, but one that deserved
pity; and that what it wanted was prayers and redemption.
“On the 18th of October, I went to the cell again, between ten
and eleven, taking with me my wife, and the wife of the keeper,
Madame Mayer. When the woman’s breathing showed me the
spectre was there, I laid my hand on her, and adjured it, in gentle
terms, not to trouble her further. The same sort of sound as before
commenced, but it was softer, and this time continued all along the
passage, where there was certainly nobody. We all heard it.
“On the night of the 20th I went again, with Justice Heyd. We
both heard sounds when the spectre came, and the woman could
not conceive why we did not see it. We could not; but we distinctly
felt a cool wind blowing upon us when, according to her account, it
was near, although there was no aperture by which air could enter.”
On each of these occasions Dr. Kerner seems to have remained
about a couple of hours.
Madame Mayer now resolved to pass a night in the cell, for the
purpose of observation; and she took her niece, a girl aged
nineteen, with her: her report is as follows:—
“It was a rainy night, and, in the prison, pitch dark. My niece
slept sometimes; I remained awake all night, and mostly sitting up in
bed.
“About midnight I saw a light come in at the window; it was a
yellowish light, and moved slowly; and though we were closely shut
in, I felt a cool wind blowing on me. I said to the woman, ‘The ghost
is here, is he not?’ She said ‘Yes,’ and continued to pray, as she had
been doing before. The cool wind and the light now approached me;
my coverlet was quite light, and I could see my hands and arms;
and at the same time I perceived an indescribable odor of
putrefaction; my face felt as if ants were running over it. (Most of
the prisoners described themselves as feeling the same sensation
when the spectre was there.) Then the light moved about, and went
up and down the room; and on the door of the cell I saw a number
of little glimmering stars, such as I had never before seen. Presently,
I and my niece heard a voice which I can compare to nothing I ever
heard before. It was not like a human voice. The words and sighs
sounded as if they were drawn up out of a deep hollow, and
appeared to ascend from the floor to the roof in a column; while this
voice spoke, the woman was praying aloud: so I was sure it did not
proceed from her. No one could produce such a sound. They were
strange, superhuman sighs and entreaties for prayers and
redemption.
“It is very extraordinary that, whenever the ghost spoke, I always
felt it beforehand. [Proving that the spirit had been able to establish
a rapport with this person. She was in a magnetic relation to him.]
We heard a crackling in the room also. I was perfectly awake, and in
possession of my senses; and we are ready to make oath to having
seen and heard these things.”
On the 9th of December, Madame Mayer spent the night again in
the cell, with her niece and her maid-servant; and her report is as
follows:—
“It was moonlight, and I sat up in bed all night, watching
Eslinger. Suddenly I saw a white shadowy form, like a small animal,
cross the room. I asked her what it was; and she answered, ‘Don’t
you see it’s a lamb? It often comes with the apparition.’ We then saw
a stool, that was near us, lifted and set down again on its legs. She
was in bed, and praying the whole time. Presently, there was such a
noise at the window that I thought all the panes were broken. She
told us it was the ghost, and that he was sitting on the stool. We
then heard a walking and shuffling up and down, although I could
not see him; but presently I felt a cool wind blowing on me, and out
of this wind the same hollow voice I had heard before, said, ‘In the
name of Jesus, look on me!’
“Before this, the moon was gone, and it was quite dark; but
when the voice spoke to me, I saw a light around us, though still no
form. Then there was a sound of walking toward the opposite
window, and I heard the voice say, ‘Do you see me now?’ And then,
for the first time, I saw a shadowy form, stretching up as if to make
itself visible to us, but could distinguish no features.
“During the rest of the night, I saw it repeatedly, sometimes
sitting on the stool, and at others moving about; and I am perfectly
certain that there was no moonlight now, nor any other light from
without. How I saw it, I can not tell; it is a thing not to be described.
“Eslinger prayed the whole time, and the more earnestly she did
so, the closer the spectre went to her. It sometimes sat upon her
bed.
“About five o’clock, when he came near to me, and I felt the cool
air, I said, ‘Go to my husband, in his chamber, and leave a sign that
you have been there!’ He answered distinctly, ‘Yes.’ Then we heard
the door, which was fast locked, open and shut; and we saw the
shadow float out (for he floated rather than walked), and we heard
the shuffling along the passage.
“In a quarter of an hour we saw him return, entering by the
window; and I asked him if he had been with my husband, and what
he had done. He answered by a sound like a short, low, hollow
laugh. Then he hovered about without any noise, and we heard him
speaking to Eslinger, while she still prayed aloud. Still, as before, I
always knew when he was going to speak. After six o’clock, we saw
him no more. In the morning, my husband mentioned, with great
surprise, that his chamber door, which he was sure he had fast
bolted and locked, even taking out the key when he went to bed, he
had found wide open.”
On the 24th, Madame Mayer passed the night there again; but
on this occasion she only saw a white shadow coming and going,
and standing by the woman, who prayed unceasingly. She also
heard the shuffling.
Between prisoners and the persons in authority who went to
observe, the number of those who testify to this phenomenon is
considerable; and, although the amount of what was perceived
varied according to the receptivity of the subject in each case, the
evidence of all is perfectly coincident as to the character of the
phenomena. Some saw only the light; others distinguished the form
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