TPO 15 Mass Extinctions

Cases in which many species become extinct within a geologically short interval of
time are called mass extinctions. There was one such event at the end of
the Cretaceous period (around 70 million years ago). There was
another, even larger, mass extinction at the end of the Permian period (around 250
million years ago). The Permian event has attracted much less attention than
other mass extinctions because mostly unfamiliar species perished at that time.

1.Paragraph 1 supports which of the following statements about mass extinctions?

A. They take place over a period of 70 million years.
B. They began during the Cretaceous period.
C. They eliminate many animal species that exist at the time they occur.
D. They occur every 250 million years.

The fossil record shows at least five mass extinctions in which many families
of marine organisms died out. The rates of extinction happening today are as great as
the rates during these mass extinctions. Many scientists have therefore concluded that
a sixth great mass extinction is currently in progress.

2.According to paragraph 2, scientists base their belief that a mass extinction is going
on at present on which of the following?
A. The speed with which mass extinctions are happening today is similar to the speed
of past extinctions.
B. The number of species that have died out since the last extinction event is
extremely large.
C. Mass extinctions occur with regularity and it is time for another one.
D. Fossil records of many marine species have disappeared.

What could cause such high rates of extinction? There are several hypotheses,
including warming or cooling of Earth, changes in seasonal fluctuations or ocean
currents, and changing positions of the continents. Biological hypotheses
include ecological changes brought about by the evolution of cooperation between
insects and flowering plants or of bottom-feeding predators in the oceans. Some of the
proposed mechanisms required a very brief period during which all extinctions
suddenly took place; other mechanisms would be more likely to have taken place
more gradually, over an extended period, or at different times on different
continents. Some hypotheses fail to account for simultaneous extinctions on land and
in the seas. Each mass extinction may have had a different cause. Evidence points to
hunting by humans and habitat destruction as the likely causes for
the current mass extinction.

3.The word "extended" in the passage is closest in meaning to

A. specific
B. unlimited
C. reasonable
D. long

4.According to paragraph 3, each of the following has been proposed as a possible

cause of mass extinctions EXCEPT
A. habitat destruction
B. continental movement
C. fierce interspecies competition
D. changes in Earth's temperature

5.Paragraph 3 supports which of the following ideas about mass extinctions?

A. Scientists know the exact causes of most mass extinctions.
B. Mass extinctions are unlikely to happen again in the future.
C. Insects, flowering plants, and bottom-feeding predators in the oceans tend to be the
first organisms to disappear during episodes of mass extinctions.
D. Some mass extinctions occurred on land and in the seas at the same time.

American paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski, who have

studied extinction rates in a number of fossil groups, suggest that episodes of
increased extinction have recurred periodically, approximately every 26 million years
since the mid-Cretaceous period. The late Cretaceous extinction of the dinosaurs and
ammonoids was just one of the more drastic in a whole series of such
recurrent extinction episodes. The possibility that mass extinctions
may recur periodically has given rise to such hypotheses as that of a companion star
with a long-period orbit deflecting other bodies from their normal orbits, making
some of them fall to Earth as meteors and causing widespread devastation
upon impact.

6.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the
highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in
important ways or leave out essential information.
A. Based on their studies of extinction rates of numerous fossil groups,
paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski have determined that mass extinctions
occur about every 26 million years.
B. David Raup and John Sepkoski studied extinction rates of numerous fossil groups
and suggest that mass extinctions during the Cretaceous period continued for 26
million years.
C. Studies that paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski conducted of various
fossil groups have revealed that extinction rates have increased over the past 26
million years.
D. The studies conducted by paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski of the
fossil remains of species suggest that the extinction rate of species started to increase
by the middle of the Cretaceous period.
7.According to paragraph 4, what aspect of extinction episodes does the companion-
star hypothesis supposedly clarify?
A. Their location
B. Their frequency
C. Their duration
D. Their severity

Of the various hypotheses attempting to account for the late Cretaceous extinctions,
the one that has attracted the most attention in recent years is the asteroid-
impact hypothesis first suggested by Luis and Walter Alvarez. According to
this hypothesis, Earth collided with an asteroid with an estimated diameter of 10
kilometers, or with several asteroids, the combined mass of which
was comparable. The force of collision spewed large amounts of debris into
the atmosphere, darkening the skies for several years before the finer particles
settled. The reduced level of photosynthesis led to a massive decline in plant life of all
kinds, and this caused massive starvation first of herbivores and subsequently of
carnivores. The mass extinction would have occurred very suddenly under
this hypothesis.

8.The phrase "account for" in the passage is closest in meaning to

A. describe
B. challenge
C. explain
D. test

One interesting test of the Alvarez hypothesis is based on the presence of the rare-
earth element iridium (Ir). Earth’s crust contains very little of this element, but most
asteroids contain a lot more. Debris thrown into the atmosphere by
an asteroid collision would presumably contain large amounts of iridium,
and atmospheric currents would carry this material all over the globe. A search
of sedimentary deposits that span the boundary between
the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods shows that there is a dramatic increase in
the abundance of iridium briefly and precisely at
this boundary. This iridium anomaly offers strong support for the
Alvarez hypothesis even though no asteroid itself has ever been recovered.

Search
Research 研究= study

9.According to paragraph 6, what made iridium a useful test of the Alvarez

hypothesis?
A. Its occurrence in a few locations on Earth against several locations on other planets
B. Its occurrence in limited quantities on Earth against its abundance in asteroids
C. Its ability to remain solid at extremely high temperatures
D. Its ease of detection even in very small amounts

10.In stating that "no asteroid itself has ever been recovered", the author emphasizes
which of the following?
A. The importance of the indirect evidence for a large asteroid
B. The fact that no evidence supports the asteroid impact hypothesis
C. The reason many researchers reject the Alvarez hypothesis
D. The responsibility of scientists for not making the effort to discover the asteroid
itself

An asteroid of this size would be expected to leave an immense crater, even if

the asteroid itself was disintegrated by the impact. The intense heat of
the impact would produce heat-shocked quartz in many types of rock. Also, large
blocks thrown aside by the impact would form secondary craters surrounding the
main crater. To date, several such secondary craters have been found along Mexico’s
Yucatan Peninsula, and heat-shocked quartz has been found both in Mexico and in
Haiti. A location called Chicxulub, along the Yucatan coast, has been suggested as
the primary impact site.

11.The word "intense" in the passage is closest in meaning to

A. sudden
B. unusual
C. immediate
D. extreme

12.What is the purpose of paragraph 7 in the passage?

A. It proposes a decisive new test of the Alvarez hypothesis.
B. It presents additional supporting evidence for the Alvarez hypothesis.
C. It explains why evidence relating to the Alvarez hypothesis is hard to find.
D. It shows how recent evidence has raised doubts about the Alvarez hypothesis.

13.Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be
added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?
In general, it is believed that these two extinctions resulted from drastic
environmental changes that followed meteorite impacts or massive volcanic
eruptions..

[■]Cases in which many species become extinct within a geologically short interval of
time are called mass extinctions. [■]There was one such event at the end of
the Cretaceous period (around 70 million years ago). [■]There was
another, even larger, mass extinction at the end of the Permian period (around 250
million years ago). [■]The Permian event has attracted much less attention than
other mass extinctions because mostly unfamiliar species perished at that time.
14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is
provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that
express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the
summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor
ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.
There have been many attempts to explain the causes of mass extinctions.

A.Asteroid impacts, evolutionary developments, and changes in Earth's climate and in

the positions of the continents have all been proposed as possible causes of mass
extinctions.
B.Researchers have observed 26-million-year cycles in extinction rates of a number of
fossil groups that could all be attributed to the same cause.
C.According to the Alvarez hypothesis, much of the iridium originally present on
Earth was thrown into the atmosphere as a result of an asteroid impact that also
caused a mass extinction.
D.The unusual distribution of iridium on Earth and the presence of craters and heat-
shocked quartz are central to the theory that an asteroid impact caused the late
Cretaceous event.
E.The collision between Earth and a large asteroid resulted in massive damage and
generated enough heat to cause irreversible changes in Earth's atmosphere.
F.There was a particularly large mass extinction that occurred around 250 million
years ago at the end of the Permian period, whose cause could not be determined.