CHAPTER 01

INTRODUCTION

Soil nailing consists of the passive reinforcement of existing ground by installing closely
spaced steel bars (i.e., nails), which may be subsequently encased in grout.

As construction proceeds from the top to bottom, shotcrete or concrete is also applied on the
excavation face to provide continuity. In a soil-nailed retaining wall, the properties and material
behaviour of three components the native soil the reinforcement nails) and the facing element
and their mutual interactions significantly affect the performance of the structure,

Soil railing is typically used to stabilize existing slopes or excavations where top-to-bottom
construction is advantageous compared to other retaining wall systems. For certain conditions,
soil nailing offers a viable alternative from the viewpoint of technical feasibility, construction
costs, and construction duration when compared to ground anchor walls, which is another
popular top-to bottom retaining system.

An alternative application of passive reinforcement in soil is sometimes used to stabilize

landslides. In this case, the reinforcement (sometimes also called "nails") is installed almost
vertically and perpendicular to the base of the slide. In this alternative application, nails are
also passive, installed in a closely spaced pattern approximately perpendicular to the nearly
horizontal sliding surface, and subjected predominantly to shear forces arising from the
landslide movement.

1.1 Origin and development:

Tunnelling Method in the 1960's. One of the first applications of soil nailing was in 1972 for a
railroad widening project near Versailles, France, where an 18 m (59 ft) high

The origin of soil nailing can be traced to a support system for underground excavations in rock
referred to as the New Austrian cut-slope in sand was stabilized using soil nails.
In Germany, the first use of a soil nail wall was in 1975 (Stocker et al 1979).

The United States first used soil nailing in 1976 for the support of a 13.7 m deep foundation
excavation in dense silty sands.

In India use of soil nailing technology is gradually increasing and guidelines have been made
by IRC with the help of Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.

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1.2 Objectives of soil nailing :
Enhancing Slope Stability

One of the foremost objectives of soil nailing is to improve the stability of natural and man-
made slopes. Slopes can become unstable due to various factors, including rainfall infiltration,
seismic activity, erosion, and changes in groundwater levels. Soil nails act as tensile
reinforcement within the soil mass, increasing its shear strength and resistance to failure along
potential slip surfaces. By creating a reinforced zone, soil nailing effectively increases the
factor of safety against slope instability, mitigating the risk of landslides and ensuring the long-
term stability of embankments, cuttings, and natural hillsides.

Providing Excavation Support

Soil nailing is extensively used to provide temporary and permanent support for excavations.
In urban environments and construction sites with limited space, vertical or near-vertical
excavations are often necessary for basements, underground parking structures, tunnels, and
other subsurface facilities. Soil nailing allows for the safe creation of steep or vertical cut slopes
by reinforcing the soil mass and preventing it from collapsing into the excavation. The nails
transfer the lateral earth pressures from the unstable soil behind the excavation face to the more
stable reinforced zone, ensuring the stability of the excavation and protecting adjacent
structures and utilities. This top-down construction method facilitated by soil nailing is often
more cost-effective and faster than traditional shoring systems.

Repairing and Stabilizing Existing Retaining Walls

Existing retaining walls may deteriorate over time due to factors such as weathering,
inadequate drainage, and increased earth pressures. Soil nailing offers an effective solution for
repairing and stabilizing these structures, extending their service life and enhancing their load-
bearing capacity. By installing soil nails through the existing wall and into the backfill soil, the
stability of the entire system is improved. The nails help to redistribute the earth pressures and
prevent further movement or failure of the wall, providing a cost-effective alternative to
complete reconstruction.

Preventing Landslides and Soil Erosion

In regions prone to landslides, soil nailing is a crucial technique for preventing soil movement
and erosion. By reinforcing vulnerable slopes, soil nails help to maintain the integrity of the
soil mass, reducing the likelihood of catastrophic failures. The reinforced soil is more resistant
to the effects of rainfall and surface runoff, minimizing erosion and protecting infrastructure
and property located on or near the slopes. This proactive application of soil nailing is essential
for mitigating the risks associated with unstable ground conditions

Enhancing the Load-Bearing Capacity of Soil

Beyond slope stability and excavation support, soil nailing can also be employed to enhance
the overall load-bearing capacity of soil masses. By creating a reinforced soil composite, the
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ground's ability to support vertical loads from foundations or other structures is improved. The
nails act as reinforcing elements, increasing the stiffness and strength of the soil, which can be
particularly beneficial in areas with weak or compressible soils

Providing Long-Term Stability

When properly designed and installed with appropriate corrosion protection measures, soil
nailing provides a long-term and durable solution for ground reinforcement. The grouted nails
create a strong bond with the surrounding soil, ensuring the continued stability and
performance of the reinforced structure over an extended period. This long-term reliability
makes soil nailing a preferred technique for permanent earth retention and slope stabilization
applications.

Minimizing Environmental Impact

Compared to some traditional earth retention methods that involve extensive excavation and
the use of large quantities of concrete, soil nailing can have a relatively lower environmental
impact. The technique typically requires less excavation and generates less waste. Furthermore,
the ability to work in confined spaces and on steep slopes with smaller equipment reduces
disruption to the surrounding environment and minimizes the need for extensive site
preparation.

1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages :

Advantages:

• Allow in-situ strengthening on existing slope surface with minimum excavation and
backfilling, particularly very suitable for uphill widening, thus environmental friendly,
• Allow excellent working space in front of the excavation face,
• Sub-vertical cut surface reducing loss of space,
• Avoid unnecessary temporary works,
• Only requires light machinery and equipment,
• Flexible at constraint site and excavation shape,
• Can be used for strengthening of either natural slope, natural or man-made cut slopes,
• Robust and higher system redundancy,
• Thinner facing requirement.

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Disadvantages:

• Nail encroachment to retained ground rendering unusable underground space,

• Generally larger lateral soil strain during removal of lateral support and ground surface
cracking may appear,
• Tendency of high ground loss due to drilling technique, particularly at course grained.
soil,
• Less suitable for course grained soil and soft clayey soil, which have short self support
time, and soils prone to creeping,
• Lower mobilised nail strength at lower rows of nailing,
• Suitable only for excavation above groundwater.

1.4 Components of soil nailing:

Fig 1.1: Main Components of a Typical Soil Nail

The components of a soil nailed wall are shown above in the (Fig. 1.1) they are as follows:

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• Nail Bars: Steel reinforcing bars used for soil mils are commonly threaded and may be
either solid or hollow. Bars generally have a nominal tensile strength of 420 MPa
(Grade 60) or 520 MPa (Grade 75). Bars with a tensile strength of 665 MPa (Grade 95)
and as high as 1,035 MPa (Grade 150) may be considered for soil railing, but their use
should be restrictive. Bars with lower grades are preferred because they are more
ductile, less susceptible to corrosion and readily available. Grade 150 bars should not
be used because they are more brittle under shear and more susceptible to stress
corrosion than steel at lower grades. Threaded bars applications are available in 19-,
22-, 25-, 29-, 32-, 36-, and 43-mm diameter (Na. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 14 in English
units) up to approximately 18 m (59 ft) in length.

• Nail Head: The nail head comprises two main components, the bearing-plate, hex nut,
and washers; and the headed-stud. The bearing plate is made of Grade 250 MPa (Grade
36) steel and is typically square 200- to 250-mm (8-to 10-in.) side dimension and 19-
mm (3/4-in.) thick. The purpose of the bearing plate is to distribute the force at the nail
end to the temporary shotcrete facing and the ground behind the facing. Washers and
nuts are steel with a grade consistent with that of the nail bar commonly of 420 or 520
MPa (Grade 60 or 75).

• Grout: Grout for soil nails is commonly a neat cement grout, which fills the annular
space between the nail bar and the surrounding ground. Sand-cement grout can also be
used in conjunction with open hole-drilling (i.e. for non-caving conditions) for
economic reasons. Cement Type 1 (normal) is recommended for most applications.
Cement Type III is grounded finer, hardens faster, and can be used when target grout
strength is required to be achieved faster than for typical project conditions. Cement
Type 11 hardens at a slower rate, produces less heat, and is more resistant to the
corrosive action of sulphates than Cement Type 1. The water/cement ratio for grout
used in soil nailing applications typically ranges from 0.4 to 0.5.

Fig 1.2: Grout is being placed with the help of pipes.

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• Centralizers: Centralizers are devices made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or other
synthetic materials that are installed at various locations along the length of each nail
bar to ensure that a minimum thickness of grout completely covers the nail bar. They
are installed at regular intervals, typically not exceeding 2.5 m (8 ft), along the length
of the nail and at a distance of about 0.5 m (1.5 ft) from each end of the nail.

Fig 1.3: Typical PVC Centralizers

• Corrosion Protection Elements: In addition to the cement grout, this provides both
physical and chemical protection to the nail bars. Protective sheathings made of
corrugated synthetic material [HDPE (High Density Polyethylene) or PVC tube)
surrounding the nail bar are usually used to provide additional corrosion protection.

• Wall Facing: Nails are connected at the excavation surface (or slope face) to a facing
system, which most commonly consists of a first-stage, temporary facing of shotcrete
during construction and, a second-stage, permanent facing of CIP concrete. The purpose
of the temporary facing is to support the soil exposed between the nails during
excavation, provide initial connection among nails, and provide protection against
erosion and sloughing of the soil at the excavation face. The purpose of the permanent
facing is to provide connection among nails, a more resistant erosion protection, and an
aesthetic finish. Temporary facing typically consists of shotcrete and WWM and
additional shorter reinforcement bars (referred to as waler bars) around the nail heads.
Permanent facing is commonly constructed of CIP reinforced concrete and WWM-
reinforced shotcrete.

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 • Drainage System: To prevent water pressure from developing behind the wall facing,
vertical geo-composite strip drains are usually installed between the temporary facing
and the excavation. The drainage system also includes a footing drain and weep holes
to convey collected drainage water away from the wall face.

1.5 Types of nails used:

The types of nails used in the construction of soil nailed walls are as follows:

1. Drilled and grouted soil nail

2. Driven soil nails
3. Self-drilling soil nails
4. Jet-grouted soil nails
5. Launched soil nails.

These are explained as follows:

Drilled and grouted soil nail: These are approximately 100- and 200-mm (4- to 8-in.) diameter
nail holes drilled in the foundation soils. These holes are typically spaced about 1.5 m (5 ft)
apart. Steel bars are placed, and the holes are grouted. Grouted soil nails are the most commonly
used soil nails for FHWA projects, and they can be used as temporary and permanent
applications, provided that appropriate corrosion protection is in place.
Driven soil nails: These soil nails are relatively small in diameter [19 to 25 mm (% to 1 in.)]
and are mechanically driven into the ground. They are usually spaced approximately 1 to 1.2
m (3 to 4 ft) apart. The use of driven soil nails allows for a faster installation as compared to
drilled and grouted soil nails.

Self-drilling soil nails: These soil nails consist of hollow bars that can be drilled and grouted
in one operation. In this technique, the grout is injected through the hollow bar simultaneously
with the drilling. This soil nail type allows for a faster installation than that for drilled grouted
nails and, unlike, driven soil nails, some level of corrosion protection with grout is provided.
Jet-grouted soil nails: Jet grouting is performed to erode the ground and allow the hole for the
nail to be advanced to the final location. The grout provides corrosion protection to the central
bar. In a second step, the bars are typically installed using vibro-percussion drilling methods.

Launched soil nails: In this method, bare bars are "launched" into the soil at extremely high
speeds using a firing mechanism involving compressed air. Bars are 19 to 25 mm (% to 1 in.)
in diameter and up to 8 m (25 ft) in length. This technique allows for a fast installation with
minor impact to project site.

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 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
1. Kouji Tei, et al. (1998) The centrifuge tests on nailed slopes and vertical walls showed
that nails primarily failed by pulling out rather than breaking, suggesting a gradual
collapse process. The observed failure surfaces resembled logarithmic spirals,
indicating a consistent pattern of failure. Additionally, comparisons with traditional
methods like Coulomb's analysis revealed reasonable agreement in measured earth
pressures, supporting the reliability of conventional techniques. Furthermore, the tests
highlighted the importance of support mechanisms in minimizing displacements
during simulated excavation. Despite limitations in scaling down to model size, the
results provided confidence in their validity through comparisons with full-scale
prototype tests. Overall, these findings offer valuable insights into the behaviour of
nailed slopes and vertical walls, aiding in their design and construction for practical
applications.

2. G.L. Sivakumar Babu and Vikas Pratap Singh (2009) The paper focuses on
establishing reliability-based load and resistance factors for soil-nail walls, targeting
six key strength limit states. By explicitly considering variability and individual limit
state vulnerability, it rationalizes proposed factors. The study showcases the practical
application of these factors in designing soil-nail walls under similar loading
conditions and configurations, suggesting potential expansion to encompass more
material parameters and variable types for a comprehensive reliability analysis. Key
aspects covered include the identification of six failure modes of soil-nail walls,
ranging from global stability to facing punching shear failure. The reliability analysis
process involves steps such as identifying failure modes, determining random
variables, establishing performance functions, analysing stability, and obtaining design
points and factors. These factors, influenced by material parameters and determined
for different variability levels, are derived through a reliability-based approach,
underscoring their importance in ensuring the structural integrity and safety of soil-
nail wall designs.

3. Sanat Pokharel, et al. (2011) The research paper delves into the utilization of flexible
facing for soil nail walls, offering valuable insights into their behaviour and
performance. It emphasizes the importance of employing finite difference modelling
and physical testing to accurately predict soil behaviour and deformations. The
conclusions and recommendations provided serve as practical guidance for designing
soil nail walls, particularly in high-plasticity clay. Additionally, the inclusion of case
studies and parametric studies enriches the research, making it a comprehensive
resource for professionals in geotechnical engineering. Over the past four decades,
large-scale tests on soil nail walls have been conducted, with soil nailing finding
popularity in various regions such as France, Germany, and select cities in the United
States. These tests have revealed failure mechanisms stemming from factors like soil
saturation. Physical testing methods employed, such as strain gages, string pots, and
geofoam panels, have aided in gathering crucial data. Figures presented in the
document, including compaction curves, test results, and wall failures under surcharge

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 applications, further enhance understanding and provide visual support for the research
findings.

4. Siavash Zamiran, et al. (2012) The paper delves into the behaviour of soil nail walls
under seismic conditions, offering valuable insights into their performance. The study
underscores the significance of cable reinforcement in enhancing soil mass parameters
and stress states, crucial for seismic resilience. Through numerical analysis utilizing
the Mohr-Coulomb constitutive model, the research investigates various aspects such
as earthquake input direction impact and comparison between static and seismic
behaviour of soil nail walls Key findings reveal that soil nail walls exhibit superior
performance compared classical retaining walls in seismic-prone areas. The inclusion
of cable reinforcement proves beneficial in improving soil mass parameters and stress
states. Moreover, dynamic analysis showcases substantial differences in wall
displacement and nail forces between static and seismic conditions, highlighting the
necessity for dynamic assessment in earthquake scenarios. Overall, the study
contributes significantly to understanding soil nail wall behaviour under seismic
conditions, laying groundwork for further research in this domain.

5. S. Rawat and A.K. Gupta (2016) The paper investigates slope stability through soil
nailing, employing both experimental and analytical approaches to study reinforced
slopes at different angles. Utilizing model testing and finite element analysis with
PLAXIS 3D, the authors examine the impacts of nail inclinations on load capacities
and failure patterns. Key findings highlight the pivotal role of nail orientation and
length in bolstering slope stability, offering valuable insights applicable to
geotechnical engineering practices. Experimental methods involved surcharge load
testing using a Universal Testing Machine, alongside analysis of soil and nail material
properties. Conclusions drawn from the study emphasize the effectiveness of
reinforced slopes in enhancing stability and load capacity, with nail inclination
identified as a significant factor influencing load carrying capacity. Overall, the
research contributes valuable insights into the behaviour of reinforced soil slopes
across varying conditions, aiding in informed decision-making for geotechnical
engineering projects.

6. W.R. Azzam and A. Basha (2017) The research paper explores the application of soil
nailing as a method to bolster the shear strength of cohesive soil and mitigate
settlement. By incorporating vertical nails as reinforcing elements in clay samples, the
study aims to enhance shear strength and control deformation. Laboratory experiments,
such as unconfined compression and direct shear tests, are performed to evaluate the
effectiveness of this method. Findings indicate that the inclusion of vertical nails leads
to increased shear stress, reduced settlement, and improved subgrade stiffness.
Moreover, the depth and number of inclusions are identified as crucial factors in
augmenting clay stiffness and redirecting shear failure. Overall, the research
underscores the potential of soil nailing as a cost-effective strategy for enhancing clay
shear strength and addressing settlement concerns.

7. Mohammad Farhad Ayazi, et al. (2020) research paper offers a comprehensive

examination of soil nailing as a technique for stabilizing slopes and structures. The
paper initiates with a detailed introduction, tracing the technique's origins from the
New Austrian Tunnelling method and its widespread adoption globally over the past
three decades. It effectively outlines the methodology of embedding steel bars into

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 slopes and highlights key components involved in the process, including facings, grout,
centralizers, drainage, and connection components. One of the paper's notable
strengths is its comprehensive examination of the benefits and drawbacks of soil
nailing. It adeptly discusses the environmental benefits, economic efficiency, and
seismic stability of the technique while acknowledging challenges related to site
compatibility, labour requirements, and material durability. This balanced assessment
provides readers with a nuanced understanding of the benefits and complexities
associated with soil nailing. Moreover, the discussion on soil nailing facing is
particularly informative, categorizing facings into hard, flexible, and soft types and
illustrating diverse strategies employed to address specific slope conditions and
environmental factors. Supported by evidence from previous research and project data,
the paper's conclusions offer valuable insights into the effectiveness of soil nailing in
various contexts, providing practical recommendations for researchers, practitioners,
and stakeholders involved in slope stabilization and infrastructure development
projects.

8. Divya Jyothi Bathini and V Ramya Krishna (2022) The study provides a
comprehensive analysis of soil nailing, examining its characteristics through
laboratory studies, field investigations and numerical modelling. It discusses the
construction process, advantages, and disadvantages of soil-nailed walls, emphasizing
their ease of construction and space efficiency compared to conventional retaining
walls. Field investigations illustrate the versatility of soil nailing in stabilizing failed
slopes and protecting historical structures, while numerical modelling demonstrates
the technique's effectiveness in enhancing slope stability. Despite its advantages such
as flexibility, cost-effectiveness, and suitability for various applications including
roadway cuts and tunnel roof stabilization, challenges such as the need for permanent
underground supports and limitations in certain soil types are acknowledged. Overall,
the study provides valuable insights into the practical application and limitations of
soil nailing, serving as a valuable resource for geotechnical engineers and researchers
alike.

9. R. Neil Taylor, George W.E. Milligan (1998) A series of centrifuge model test of
soil nail slopes with vertical and near vertical faces were conducted. The resultant
200mm high wall was exposed to 30g acceleration. If it did not result into failure,
acceleration was increased to a maximum of 80g. Pullout of nails resulted into failure
in all the cases rather than breakage and significant bending of nails occurred only after
failure of slope. Measured earth pressure on back of the wall facing prior to failure was
similar to that calculated by coulomb’s method but the resulting pressure post failure
was lower than the calculated value. Also, line of action of resultant force was
somewhat high.

10. Jian-Hua Yin, Cheng Yu Hong, Wan Huan Zhou (2012) the motive of this research
is calculation of maximum shear stress at soil nail interface, a parametrical study was
conducted which took whole radius, overburden pressure, dilation angle and grouting
pressure into consideration for analysis of their effects. It was observed that in the
absence of grouting pressure, maximum shear stress increased with increasing
overburden pressure, dilation angle or decreased drill hole radius Also, larger grouting
pressure values resulted in greater influence of overburden pressure and consequently,
larger was the maximum shear stress at soil nail interface.

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11. Sanvilate N. Simonini P, Bisson A, Cola S. (2013) Soil nails of several types of
facings, stiffness variations and continuity were made to undergo some test which
resulted into a conclusion that if facing lacks continuity during excavation, its flexural
stiffness gets hindered. Horizontal displacement of front can be controlled if facing is
characterized by low axial deformability, though is flexurally deformable.

12. Veerabhadra M. Rotte, Bhamidipati V.S Viswanadham (2014) Studies on

centrifuge model regarding the necessity of slope facing and its effect on performance
of soil nailed slopes subjected to seepage were indicated in this paper. Soil nail slope
without facing and those with flexible, stiff facing had a maximum crest settlement at
1.63m and 0.145m respectively. Local failure at edges was shown by slope reinforced
with flexible facing whereas stability for seepage time more than 21 days was observed
for slope reinforced with rigid facing.

13. Marek Kulczykowski, Jaroslaw Przewlocki, Boguslawa Konarzewska (2017)

Slope stabilizing technique was being studied in two cases via soil nailing in Poland
which actively worked at the stabilization of slopes beneath old buildings. In first case,
the retaining walls supporting base of the dam at hydroelectric power plant in Rutki
was being repaired and the second case involved improvement of Castle Hill slope in
Sandomierz. Soil nailing in both the cases quite evidently lead to cost reduction of
about 30% as compared to classical method and also ensured long run stability without
the need for demolition and rebuilding cost. So, soil nailing was found to be an
excellent technique for protection of buildings of historic importance.

14. S. Loghu Prasath, P. Malini, Mohanchandru, N. Nataraj, M. Mohanraj (2019)

The aim of this research was to observe the stability and behavior of less cohesive soil
with and without Nails. Soil Nails of 10mm diameter were embedded at 10 and 20
inclination with horizontal in (2H:1V) slopes. It was observed that the slope model
sustained at any force not more than 6.7 KN and the same model with nails installed
at 20 couldn’t withstand force >11.2 KN and that inclined at 20 failed at 20.22 KN.
With this it was clearly concluded that nails embedded at 10ᵒ can withstand higher
loads.

15. Junaideen et. al., (2004) considered that various sorts of tests are actualized on three
kinds of nails embedded into the dirt. A pullout test has been directed to decide the
quality of these steel bars embedded into the free fill material. From the heap removal
bend, it has been seen that its values decline quickly with the diminishing in the pullout
power. The typical pressure change has been thought about that assists with estimating
exact boundaries.

16. Turner et al., (2005) contemplated that the utilization of soil nail dividers for the
equilibrium of dynamic avalanches may expand the utilization of the dirt nailing for
the ordinary inclusion and predominantly for shaky inclines. From the exploratory
powers alongside the strain of soil nails have been determined that show that the plan
methods dependent on existing decisions are adequate for the organization of soil nail
dividers utilized for steadiness of the incline.

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17. Niroumand et. al., (2012) considered that the geosynthetics are the materials which
are sinewy in nature what's more, they are predominantly comprised of particles
which are exceptionally long and extremely slender in width or having little cross
areas. Also, these particles are singular tissues, strings, strings, lines; and so on these
particles must have high rigidity. These particles must be exceptionally tough in
nature in ordinary condition and furthermore in an unfriendly condition. Geotextiles
have numerous principle capacities like Waste, Filtration, Separation, Tension
Member and Tensile Member. There are numerous elements of geosynthetics like
geotextile fills in as channel for balancing out inclines and furthermore functions as
fortification which invigorate ductile to the dirt.

18. Jadeja Rajveer et al., (2017) have considered the dirt unfaltering quality in a zone
where torrential slides might be an issue by embeddings carbon shafts rather than steel
stronghold bars in yellow sort soil. . Tumble down of any structure is basically because
of the disappointment of its establishment. It's hard and costly to fix the
imperfections of establishment of any structure. So before any development works
begin on any site, it's essential to examine or decipher all the potential reasons for
establishment disappointment which makes a difference us in future to keep away from
any sort of deformities in the specific establishment. Carbon fiber fortified polymer
(CFRP) or carbon fiber strengthened thermoplastic is an incredibly strong and light
fiber-invigorated plastic that comprises of carbon strands. So in this paper, it describes
the utilization of carbon posts for yellow soil or then again soil catch.

19. Surender Singh and Amit Shrivastava, (2017) examined that driving nails at
0° to an adjusted plane is much important for the dirt steadiness followed by the nails
which are driven at 15° and 30° individually. The strength of slant is additionally
getting influenced by the request for soil nails or you may state that how the nails are
masterminded. Submitting nails in the amazed request shows the best outcome than
the nails organized in square and jewel request. The highest nail has the most elevated
strain which is come after the center and base most nail separately.

20. Farshchi Iman, (2018) examined that distinctive customary procedures are embraced
to improve the slant dependability and surface disintegration. These strategies have
advantages and misfortunes too. Then again usage of vegetation will have
numerous favorable circumstances. A few points of interest are tree root doesn't
disintegrate; roots are selfrecuperating, reviving and ecologically natural. The creator
discover that when the Lime tree was situated at the loe of the slant, the wellbeing
factor increments by 8.75%. On the other hand, by utilizing the Vetiver grass, the factor
of security at the toe of the incline demonstrated just a 2.4% expansion contrast with
the circumstance with no impact of vegetation. This can be because of the impact of
the heaviness of the lime tree which is a lot heavier than the heaviness of the Vetiver
grass on the slant. It has been seen that the impact of the heaviness of the tree can be
switched when the Lime tree situated at the peak of the slant and shows the decrease

12
 in the security factor. Then again at the center of the slant, both the Vetiver grass and
Lime tree have a similarly beneficial outcome on the incline adjustment and the factor
of security has expanded by roughly 3%.

21. Chee-Ming C. and Muhammad H. A. Raman, (2017) studied about the effect of
screw nail on the slope on a lab based model. Dimension of physical model is
400mm breadth, 300mm length and 300mm height. A soil mixture is prepared for this
test which is named as SKW mixture, which is actually Sand-kaolin-water mixture.
In this research paper, they deal with mainly three things which are improved shear
resistance of soil, angular distortion ratio of the slope and third are volumetric
deformation index of the soil mass. Angle of slope is 70.35° is used. At last they find
out that, there were 37 percentage angular-distortion-reductions and 33 percentage
improvements in volumetric-deformation’s terms.

22. Sabermahani et. al., (2017) examined about the effect of centrifuge modeling on
soil nailing. For that purpose they construct a physical model for testing which of
140mm in height, 500mm in length and 180mm in width and scale factor of 1: 50 is
applied in this test. Vertical to horizontal spacing of nails is 30mm from one and
other. Nails of 120mm length are used and they are inclined at 10° to horizontal in
downward direction.

13
CHAPTER 03
METHODOLOGY

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3.1 Excavation:
Prior to any excavation, surface water controls should be constructed to prevent surface water
from flowing into the excavation, as this condition will adversely affect construction and
potentially cause instability of the excavated face. Collector trenches behind the limits of the
excavation usually intercept and divert surface water.

Initial excavation is carried out to a depth for which the face of the excavation may remain
unsupported for a brief period of time, e.g. 24 to 48 hours. The depth for each excavation
reaches slightly below the elevation where nails will be installed. The width of the excavated
platform or bench is such that it can provide sufficient access to the installation equipment. The
initial lift is typically taken as 1 to 1.2 m (3 to 4 feet) high. The excavated face profile should
be reasonably smooth and not too irregular to minimize excessive shotcrete quantities. Soil
profiles containing cobbles and/or boulders may require hand excavation. A level working
bench on the order of 10-m (30-ft) wide is required to accommodate the conventional drilling
equipment used for nail installation. Track drills smaller than the conventional drilling
equipment can work on benches as narrow as 5 m (15 ft.) and with headroom clearance as low
as 3 m (9 ft.).

Soil-nailed excavation is usually carried out in stages (Fig. 6.1). The height of the exposed
slope face is determined on the basis of its temporary stability. After installation of a row of
soil nails, subsequent excavation should progress only when the temporary stability of the
excavation is adequate. Soil-nail heads and facing should be constructed before the next stage
of excavation, unless the temporary stability of the soil-nailed excavation in the absence of
soil-nail head is adequate. The sequence and timing of installing soil nails, constructing soil
nail heads and facing, and excavation should be monitored and controlled to fulfil these
requirements. Soil excavation is performed using conventional earth-moving equipment from
a platform, and final trimming of the excavation face is typically carried out using a backhoe
or excavator from a platform. Some of the equipment’s are named below.

• Backhoe

• Bucket wheel excavator.

• Cable excavator

• Hydraulic excavator

• Motor scraper

• Trencher
• Wheel loader

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Detail of these equipment’s is discussed in subsequent sections of this chapter.

If the temporary excavation involves use of structural lateral support, soil nails can serve as
tiebacks. Soil nails may be modelled as structural elements providing external forces to the
stem wall of the lateral support system. Because the experience of using soil nails in temporary
excavation in cohesive soils is limited, particular care should be exercised about the effect of
creeping on the stability and serviceability of the excavation, in particular if the soil nails are
designed to carry sustained loads. If the excavation face becomes unstable at any point of time,
soil nail wall construction is suspended, and the face is temporarily stabilized by immediately
placing an earth berm against the unstable face.

Dump trucks or production trucks are are used for transporting loose material such as sand,
dirt, and gravel for construction. The typical dump truck is equipped with a hydraulically
operated open box with bed hinged at the rear, with the front being able to be lifted up to allow
the contents to fall.

Fig. 3.1 Excavation of small cut

3.2 Drilling Nail Holes:

There are two types of processes which can be carried out after excavation for putting the nails.
The nail can be directly pushed into the soil using suitable equipment (Fig. 6.2), in which the
nail itself makes its way forward. Alternatively, a hole can be drilled prior to putting the nail
by using some drilling equipment. The latter process is discussed here in detail, as this is the
one which is commonly used. Some of the drilling equipment’s used for this method are listed
below.

• Drill bit machine.

• Rope core drill

• Air leg rock drill

• Horizontal drill machine

Detail of these equipment’s is discussed in subsequent sections of this chapter.

16
 Drilling can be done by either air-flushed percussion drilling, auguring, or rotary wash boring
depending on the ground conditions. The size of drilled hole shall be as per the designed
dimension. Use of drilling mud such as Bentonite slurry to assist in drill cutting removal is not
allowed, but air may be used. Flushing with air or water before nail insertion is necessary in
order to remove any possible collapsed materials, which can potentially reduce the grout-
ground interface resistance.

The used drill bit must allow cutting through different type of soil conditions. Drill bits shall
be provided with venturi holes to allow for proper tremie grouting. Centralizers are not used
with self-drilling hollow core bar. It is advisable to use drilling rigs capable of drilling through
whatever materials are encountered to the dimensions and orientations required for the soil nail
wall design. Drill hole locations and inclinations are required to be within 6” (150 mm) and 2
degrees precision, respectively. The drill holes may be stabilized with temporary casings if they
are unstable. Caving or sloughing material is anticipated or encountered when drill holes
become unstable. If caving ground is encountered, use of cased drilling methods is suggested
to support the sides of drillholes. Where hard drilling conditions such as rock, cobbles or
boulders are encountered, percussion or other suitable drilling equipment capable of drilling
and maintaining stable drillholes through such materials may be used.

The correctness of the alignment of drill holes is important in preventing clash of soil nails, in
particular for closely spaced or long soil nails, or soil nails with different inclinations and
bearings. It is imperative to control and check the initial inclination and bearing of drill holes.
If accurate measurements of the inclination and bearing of the drillhole along its length are
needed, special equipment such as an Eastman camera may be employed.

The drill hole diameter is selected such that it can develop the specified pullout resistance and
also allow encapsulation of encapsulated nails. Typically, the hole size can range from 100 mm
to150 mm. In order to contain the grout, the typical inclination of the drill hole is kept at 15º
downward from horizontal. The water, dust, fumes and noise generated during drilling
operation should be sufficiently diverted, controlled, suppressed and muffled. One must also
ensure that.

• The drilling equipment (type, diameter of drill bit, total length of drill rods,
flushing medium, etc.) are checked.

• There are no freshly grouted soil nails near the drillhole to be drilled.

• The drill hole diameter, length, inclination and bearing are in accordance with
the contract requirements.

For drilling of long soil nails, the drill rate should be suitably controlled to minimize the
eccentricity produced by the dip of the drill rods, which may otherwise cause misalignment of
the drill hole or may unduly enlarge the diameter of the drillhole and cause hole collapse. Drill
holes in soil should be kept open only for short periods of time. The longer the hole is left open,

17
the greater is the risk of collapse. Before the drilling works in a reinforced concrete wall is
carried out, safety precautions should be implemented to avoid damage to steel bars in the
reinforced concrete wall, such as using metal detector to determine locations of steel bars.
Drilling and preparation of cement grout is performed simultaneously allowing soil nail
installation and grouting in a single operation.

Fig. 3.2 Drilling nail

holes

3.3 Nail Installation and Grouting:

Nail bars are placed in the pre-drilled holes. Centralizers are placed around the nails prior the
insertion of nails to maintain proper alignment within the hole and also to allow sufficient
protective grout coverage over the nail bar. Grout pipe is also inserted in the drill hole at this
stage. A grouting pipe is normally attached with the nail reinforcement while inserting the nail
into the drilled hole. Sometimes additional correctional protection is used by introducing
corrugated plastic sheathing. In additional to this, galvanization and pre-grouted nail
encapsulated with corrugated pipe can be considered for durability. The drill hole is then filled
with cement grout throughout the pipe. The normal range of water/cement ratio of the typical
grout mix is from 0.45 to 0.5. The grout is commonly placed under gravity or low pressure.
The grouting is from bottom up until fresh grout return is observed from the hole. If hollow
self-drilling bars are used, the drilling and grouting takes place in one operation. Geocomposite
drainage strips are installed on the excavation face approximately midway between each set of
adjacent nails prior to the placement of facing (Fig. 6.3). The drainage strips are then unrolled
to the next wall lift. The drainage strips extend to the bottom of the excavation where collected
water is conveyed via a toe drain away from the soil nail wall.

In case of self-drilling hollow core bars being used, grouting shall be done continuously during
the drilling operation through a rotary injection adapter attached to the end of the anchor. Grout
will flow through the hollow core hole exiting through the drill bit holes. When self-drilling
hollow core bar is used, ground cuts can be mixed with cement grout. Soil nails shall be grouted
full length. In case of the solid reinforcing steel, grout shall be injected at the low end of the
drilled hole. The grout shall fill the entire drilled hole with a dense grout free of voids or
inclusion of foreign material.
18
 It is imperative that oil, rust inhibitors, residual drilling fluids and similar foreign materials are
removed from holding tanks/hoppers, stirring devices, pumps, lines, tremie pipes and all other
equipment in contact with grout before use. The grout is injected at the lowest point of drill
holes through a tremie pipe, e.g., grout tube, casing, hollow-stem auger or drill rod, in one
continuous operation. The drill holes are filled progressively from the bottom to top and the
tremie pipe is withdrawn at a slow even rate as the hole is filled to prevent voids in the grout.
The tremie pipe is extended into grout by a minimum of 5 ft (1.5 m) at all times except when
grout is initially placed in a drill hole.

The grout is expected to be free of segregation, intrusions, contamination, structural damage

or inadequate consolidation (honeycombing). Cold joints in grout are not allowed except for
soil nails that are tested. The temporary casings are pulled out progressively as the grout is
placed in. The grout volumes must be monitored and recorded during placement. When using
threaded reinforcing steel, the length of drilled hole shall be monitored before and during
grouting.

Fig. 3.3: Installation of nails and grouting process (Includes strip drain installation)

3.4 Construction of Temporary Shotcrete Facing:

The temporary shotcrete facing is placed to temporarily restrain the exposed soil in cut face
(Fig. 6.4). It consists of 3-4 inches of shotcrete reinforced with a single layer of welded wire
mesh. The temporary shotcrete facing is placed concurrently with each excavation lift. The
reinforcement typically consists of welded wire mesh (WWM), which is placed at
approximately the middle of the facing thickness. The mesh is placed in such a manner that the
at least one full mesh cell overlaps with subsequent WWM panels. After proper curing of
temporary facing (for at least 24 hours), steel bearing plate is placed over the nail head and the
bar is lightly pressed into the first layer of fresh shotcrete. Hex nut and washers are
subsequently installed to hold the nail head against the bearing plate. Before proceeding with
subsequent excavation lifts, the shotcrete must be cured for at least 72 hours, or it should have
attained at least the specified 3-day compressive strength.

19
3.5 Shotcrete Application:

For shotcrete mixtures, there are two opposing requirements: “shootability” and “pumpability”.
Shootability is the ability of a mix to stick to a surface, build up thickness, and resist sloughing.
Pumpability is the ability of a mix to flow like a viscous fluid. For shooting, a high flow
resistance and high viscosity are ideal, whereas for pumping, a low flow resistance and low
viscosity are ideal. Once it is applied, a shotcrete mix with high flow resistance and high
viscosity will tend to “stick” and remain there, as the layers of facing are formed. With the
proper mix design, shootability to a thickness of 300 mm (12 in.) can readily be achieved
without sloughing or sag cracks below rebar.

Two types of shotcrete methods are commonly used: dry mix and wet mix. In the dry mix
method, the aggregate and cement are blended in the dry and fed into the shotcrete gun while
the mix water is added at the nozzle. Depending on their features, admixtures can be added at
the mix plant or with the water. The addition of water at the nozzle allows the plasticity of the
shotcrete to be adjusted at the nozzle, if required. In the wet mix method, the aggregate, cement,
water, and admixtures are mixed in a batch plant and conveyed to the nozzle by a hydraulic
pump. The plastic mix is applied at higher velocities by compressed air. Both shotcrete methods
produce a mix suitable for wall facings. Dry mix and wet mix shotcrete use a water-cement
ratio of about 0.4 and produce roughly the same mix quality, although shotcrete obtained with
the wet mix process yields a slightly greater flexural strength.

Fig. 3.4: Placing the temporary facing. (Including shotcrete, reinforcement, bearing
plate, hex nut and washers’ installation)

3.6 Shotcrete Reinforcement:

Welded wire mesh is commonly used as reinforcement for temporary facing, but occasionally
it is also used in permanent facing. The cross-sectional area and mesh opening of the WWM
are selected to satisfy structural requirements (i.e., flexural and punching shear capacities) and
constructability constraints. The selected WWM must have a width that is consistent with the
excavation lift height (equivalent to the vertical nail spacing), plus an overlap of at least 0.2 m

20
(8 in). For example, if the selected nail vertical spacing were 1.5 m (4.5 ft), the ideal width of
the WWM panel would be approximately 1.70 m (5.5 ft). Additional reinforcement (“waler
bars”) may be placed around nail heads to provide additional flexural capacity at these
locations. The waler bars consist of two vertical (one bar at each side of the nail head) and two
horizontal bars.

3.7 Construction of Subsequent Levels:

At each excavation stage, the vertical drainage strip is unrolled downward to the subsequent
stage. A new panel of WWM is then placed overlapping at least one full mesh cell. The
temporary shotcrete is continued with a cold joint with the previous shotcrete lift. At the bottom
of the excavation, the drainage strip is tied to a collecting toe drain.

Fig. 3.5- Construction of subsequent levels

3.8 Construction of Permanent Facing:

The final facing is constructed after the bottom of the excavation is reached and nails are
installed (Fig. 6.6). Final facing consists of cast-in-place (CIP) reinforced concrete, reinforced
shotcrete, or prefabricated panels. Generally, conventional concrete bars or WWM is provided
as reinforcement in permanent facing. When CIP concrete and shotcrete are used for the
permanent facing, horizontal joints between excavation stages are avoided to the maximum
extent possible.

Shotcrete facing and wall drainage work consists of furnishing all materials and labour
required for placing and securing geocomposite drainage material, connection pipes, footing
drains, weepholes and horizontal drains (if required), drainage gutter, reinforcing steel and
shotcrete for the permanent shotcrete facing and nail head bearing plates and nuts for the soil
nail walls. The work shall include any preparatory trimming and cleaning of soil/rock surfaces
and shotcrete cold joints to receive new shotcrete. Shotcrete shall consist of an application of
one or more layers of concrete conveyed through a hose and pneumatically projected at a high
velocity against a prepared surface.

21
3.9 Proportioning and use of admixtures:

The proportion of shotcrete is done in such a way that it is pumpable with the concrete pump
furnished for the work. The cementing material content should be at least 390 kilograms per
cubic meter (660 lbs. per cubic yard) and water/cement ratio should not be greater than 0.45.
The admixtures are thoroughly mixed into the shotcrete at the rate specified by the
manufacturer. Accelerators (if used) shall be compatible with the cement used, be noncorrosive
to steel and not promote other detrimental effects such as cracking or excessive shrinkage. The
maximum allowable chloride ion content of all the ingredients shall not exceed 0.10%.

3.10 Wall Drainage:

The drainage network shall consist of installing geocomposite drain strips, PVC connection
pipes and wall footing drains. Exclusive of the wall footing drains, all elements of the drainage
network shall be installed prior to shotcreting. Unanticipated subsurface drainage features
exposed in the excavation cut face shall be captured independent of the wall drainage network
and shall be mitigated prior to shotcrete application.

Fig. 3.6 Placement of final facing on permanent wall (Including construction of toe
drain)

3.11 Machineries used in soil nailing:

The following tools or machineries are used for soil nailing:

1. Drilling Equipment’s
2. Grout Mixing Equipment’s
3. Shotcreting /Guniting Equipments
4. Compressor
They can be broadly explained further as follows:

Drilling Equipments: It's a rotary air-flushed and water-flushed system. It consists of a down
the hole hammer with a tri-cone bit (Fig 6.1). It is important to procure drilling equipment with
sufficient power and rigid drill rods.

22
 Fig 3.7: Typical Drilling equipment

Grout Mixing Equipments: In order to produce uniform grout mix, high speed shear colloidal
mixer should be considered. Powerful grout pump is essential for uninterrupted delivery of
grout mix (Fig 6.2). If fine aggregate is used as filler for economy, special grout pump shall be
used.

Fig 3.8: Grout Mixing instrument.

Shotcreting / Guniting Equipments: Dry mix method will require a valve at the nozzle outlet
to control the amount of water injecting into the high pressurized flow of sand/cement mix (Fig
6.3). For controlling the thickness of the shotcrete, measuring pin shall be installed at fixed
vertical and horizontal intervals to guide the nozzle man.

Fig 3.9: Shotcreting is done with the help of a pipe with nozzle.

23
Compressor: The compressor shall have minimum capacity to delivered shotcrete at the
minimum rate of 9m³/min. Sometimes, the noise of compressor can be an issue if the work is
at close proximity to residential area, hospital and school.

3.12 Materials used in soil nailing:

This presents information on construction materials used for the construction of a soil nailed
wall. They are:

1. Steel Reinforcements: Steel reinforcements are used in the construction of soil nailed
walls. For corrosion protection; all steel components shall be galvanized. If machine
threading after galvanization is unavoidable, then proper zinc-based coating shall be
applied onto the thread. For double corrosion protection, the PVC corrugated pipe used
shall be of superior quality and adequate thickness.

Fig 3.10: Reinforcements used in Soil Nailing

2. Grout Mix: For conventional soil nail, the water cement ratio of the grout mix ranges
from 0.4 to 0.5. As most cementitious grout will experience some grout shrinkage, non-
shrink additive can be used to reduce breeding and grout shrinkage. The resistance at
grout-soil interface of nail will significantly reduce when the grout shrinks.

Fig 3.11: Grout Mix is being formed in the Grout Mixing Machine

24
3. Shotcrete/Gunite: Shotcrete or gunite can be continuous flow of mortal or concrete
mixes projected at high speed perpendicularly onto the exposed ground surface by
means of pneumatic air blowing for dry mix or spraying for wet mix.

Fig 3.12: Shotcreting is being done on the wire mesh.

25
 CHAPTER 04
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

4.1 Soil Nail Spacing: Key Considerations for Stability and Efficiency:

While the design of soil nails involves multiple factors, proper spacing is one of the
most critical aspects. The distance between soil nails directly impacts structural
integrity, load distribution, and overall project cost. Achieving the right balance ensures
effective reinforcement while optimizing material usage.

4.1.1 Horizontal Spacing: Adjusting for Soil Strength The horizontal distance between
soil nails varies depending on soil conditions and project requirements. The spacing
ranges from 3 to 6 feet (1 to 2 meters) between nails.

➢ Dense, compact soils—Allow for broader spacing of 5 to 6 feet, as these soils

provide better natural support and higher shear strength.
➢ Weak or loose soils – Require closer spacing of around 3 to 4 feet to ensure
sufficient reinforcement and prevent failure.

By adjusting horizontal spacing based on soil characteristics, engineers can balance

safety with cost-effectiveness, ensuring that enough nails are used without
unnecessary material waste.

4.1.2 Vertical Spacing: Adapting to Excavation Depth Similar to horizontal spacing,

vertical spacing between rows of soil nails typically ranges from 3 to 6 feet (1 to 2
meters). The depth of the excavation influences how closely the nails should be placed.

➢ Shallow excavations – Can accommodate wider vertical spacing since the loads
are lower, and soil movement is minimal.
➢ Deep excavations – Closer nail spacing is required to ensure uniform load
distribution and prevent localized failure zones.

Spacing adjustments are crucial for effectively managing soil pressure in deeper
excavations. If the distance between rows is too vast, the system may not provide
adequate support, leading to excessive ground movement.

4.1.3 Placement: Optimizing Load Transfer

In addition to spacing, the placement angle, length, and pattern of soil nails significantly
impact performance.

26
 ➢ Installation angle: Soil nails are typically installed 10° to 20° below horizontal
to maximize load transfer and anchoring efficiency.
➢ Nail length – Usually ranges between 70% and 100% of the excavation height,
ensuring the nails extend into stable ground for secure reinforcement.
➢ Grid pattern – A staggered layout is commonly used to prevent weak planes
from forming, enhancing overall soil stability.

Proper nail placement ensures the system functions as intended, resisting soil
movement while evenly distributing loads across the excavation.

4.1.4 Industry Standards and Guidelines

To ensure safety and effectiveness, soil nail spacing and placement follow established
engineering guidelines.
➢ FHWA (Federal Highway Administration) – Provides recommendations based
on soil shear strength, nail tensile capacity, and expected loads.
➢ BS 8006 (British Standards) – Offers specific guidelines for soil nailing in
cohesive vs. granular soils, helping engineers select the appropriate spacing and
reinforcement strategy.

By adhering to these standards, geotechnical engineers can design soil nailing systems
that meet safety requirements and project demands.

Fig 4.1 Soil nailing system

27
4.2 Key Factors Influencing Soil Nail Spacing:

Determining the optimal spacing for soil nails is not a one-size-fits-all process. Various
site-specific factors are crucial in defining the appropriate distance between nails to
ensure structural stability and cost-effectiveness. Engineers must carefully evaluate
multiple considerations from soil composition to environmental conditions, to design
an effective soil nailing system.

4.2.1 Soil Properties: Strength and Density

The characteristics of the soil being reinforced significantly impact how closely soil
nails should be placed.
➢ Cohesion and Friction Angle—Weak soils with low cohesion, such as clay or
loose sand, require closer nail spacing to enhance stability. The lower the soil’s
internal friction, the more reinforcement is needed to prevent shifting.
➢ Soil Density – Loose or granular soils, such as poorly compacted sand or gravel,
may require a denser reinforcement grid to ensure the nails can effectively bind
the soil together. Denser soils with higher shear strength can accommodate
wider spacing.

Proper evaluation of soil properties through geotechnical testing ensures that the soil
nail system is designed to handle the site’s specific conditions]

4.2.2 Groundwater Conditions: Impact on Soil Strength

The presence of groundwater can significantly affect soil stability and, in turn, influence
the required spacing of soil nails.
➢ High Water Table – Excess moisture reduces soil strength and increases the
likelihood of soil movement. In such cases, closer nail spacing or additional
drainage measures may be necessary to maintain structural integrity.
➢ Waterlogged Soils – Saturated soils, such as silts or clays with poor drainage,
require reinforcement strategies that mitigate water pressure and potential soil
weakening.
➢ Engineers may need to integrate drainage solutions, such as weep holes or
subsurface drainage systems, to improve soil conditions in areas with persistent
groundwater issues before installing soil nails.

4.2.3 Project Constraints: Practical Limitations

Construction site conditions and logistical factors also influence how soil nails are
spaced.
➢ Site Access—Drilling equipment may have limited mobility in congested urban
environments or confined spaces, making it challenging to implement wider
spacing. Engineers may need to adjust nail placement to accommodate
equipment constraints.

28
 ➢ Budget Considerations – Closer spacing improves stability but increases
material and labour costs. Project teams must balance structural requirements
with financial feasibility, ensuring the design meets safety standards while
staying within budget.

Optimizing soil nail spacing while considering practical limitations helps streamline
construction without compromising performance.

4.2.4 Load Requirements: External Forces Affecting Stability

The amount and type of load acting on a soil-nailed structure directly impact spacing
decisions.
➢ Surcharge Loads – Additional weight from nearby buildings, road traffic, or
construction equipment exerts greater lateral pressure on the soil, necessitating
closer nail spacing to counteract the increased stress.
➢ Seismic Activity – In earthquake-prone regions, dynamic loads from ground
movement require redundant reinforcement to prevent soil failure. Soil nails in
these areas are often spaced closer together to provide additional strength
against seismic forces.

Layer Cohesion, Angel of Unit

C (Kpa) Friction weight γ
(degrees) (KN/m3)

Soft yellow sandy clay 0 34 18.34

Firm reddish yellow 4.5 34.5 18.84

sandy clay

Very stiff brownish yellow 2 35 18.84

sandy silt

Table 4.1 Properties of soils

Parameter Unit Angel of Cohesion, C Nail

Weight, γ friction (KN/m2) Inclination
(KN/m3) (Ø)

Value 18.34 34o 0 40o

Table 4.2 Soil properties of the slope

29
Nail 15o 20o 25o 30o 35o
inclination
(Degrees)

FOS using 1.244 1.364 1.457 1.668 1.644

Slope/W
2007

Table 4.3 FOS Values for various soil nailing inclinations

Table 4.4 Properties of soil profile

Table 4.5 Inclinations and FOS with nailing

30
 CHAPTER 05
CONCLUSION

➢ Slopes with soil nails are more stable and have less deformation than slopes without
nailing, and according to many performed projects soil nailing provides well stability
to slopes.

➢ Inclination of nails in soil nailing technique can affect directly the stability of slopes,
and 10 inclination can sustain more loads
.
➢ The previous projects in conventional method that conventional design of soil
nailing through FHWA provides safe design.

➢ Soil nailing method is more economical than other classical method for
improvement and repairing of old slopes and can reduce cost up to 30%.

➢ Flexible facing performs well against loads and has acceptable strength, but has
commendable horizontal and vertical deformation. It’s better to use Rigid facing
in comparison to flexible facing in areas with large deformations specially in clay
soil.

➢ Finite element method shows soil nailing is more effective in greater slopes, and slopes
with 60 inclination has more load carrying capacity than 45 .

➢ Inclusions can increase shear strength in soil nailing slopes, and reduce horizontal
deformation. Vertical inclusion should be extended to a depth zone in sufficient
numbers

31
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34
35