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SECTIONS. 73 Fig. 133 shows in plan the circular section
made by a horizontal cutting plane at right angles to the axis. The
size of the section is determined by the size of the cone, the apex
angle, and by the distance that the cutting plane is from the apex of
the cone. In the elevation of the same figure is shown the section of
the cone when cut by a vertical plane MN, which passes through the
axis. The shape of the section is an isosceles I'ic 133. Fio, 134. The
outline of some of these conic sections may also be considered as
having been traced by a point moving along a curved path, and
having a fixed relationship to a given line, the directrix, and a given
point, the focus, or to two given points, the foci. The Ellipse has two
axes which bisect each other at right angles: the major, or
transverse axis which is the longer ; and the minor or conjugate
axis. Two points on the major axis are called fod, and an important
property of this figure is that the sum of any two straight lines drawn
from the foci to any point In the curve Is equal to the length of the
major axis, (a) The ellipse considered as a conic section. — Fig. 134
shows the elliptical section of the cone obtained by projection, v.t.
and h.t. are the traces of the cutting plane. The dotted ellipse
74 A MANUAL OF CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. shown in the
plan is the plan of the section, and gives the lengths of a number of
horizontal lines in the section, i.e. of the lines of intersection of the
cutting plane and horizontal sections taken at different heights. To
obtain the true shape of the section draw afi, parallel to v.t. and at a
distance from v.t. equal to the distance of ab below xy. The length of
the major axis is determined by drawing projectors from 1' and 2' at
right angles to v.t. until they meet afi, in 1,2,. To obtain the length of
the minor axis, bisect 1'2' in 3', project from this point, measure the
length of 3 3 in plan, and transfer to the section being drawn as at
3,3,. The two axes are now in position. Other points through which
the curve is drawn are obtained by projecting from 4', 5', 6', 7', then
obtaining the length of the horizontal line through these points as
shown in the plan at 4 4, 5 5, 6 6, 7 7, and transferring these
lengths to the required section as indicated in the figure. (b) The
ellipse curve considered as the path of a moving point. (I.) Example.
— To construct the curve of an ellipse, the lengths of the axes being
given. Let AB and CD (Fig. 135) be the given major and minor axes
respectively. With the point of intersection of the two axes as centre,
draw two concentric circles having radii equal to OA and OC
respectively. Draw equidistant diameters EE, FF, GG, HE, as shown.
Where these lines meet the large and small circles draw lines parallel
to CD and AB respectively, until they intersect as at efgh, etc. A
freehand curve drawn evenly through the points gives the required
curve. (II.) Example. — Given the axes of an ellipse, to determine
the foci and draw the curve. Let AB and CD (Fig. 13R) be the given
axes. Draw these so that they bisect each other at right angles at 0.
With C as Fig. 135.
THE ELLIPSE. 75 Fio. 136. centre and AO as radius, draw
the arcs intersecting A B at F and Fx. These points are the foci of the
required ellipse. The sum of any two straight lines drawn from the
foci to any point in the curve is equal to the length of the major axis.
Take any number, say 3, of points between F and 0 (nearest
together at F) and number them 1, 2, 3. With .41 as radius and with
F and Fx as centres draw arcs on each side of AB. With B\ as radius
and F&nd Fx as centres draw the arcs intersecting at a, aya, a ;
repeat the construction, having A2 and B2 as radii and F and Fx as
centres ; and .again with A3 and 2?3 as radii draw more intersecting
arcs. Through the points thus obtained draw the curve of the ellipse.
(III.) The workshop method of applying this construction is to get a
length of fine string and fasten one end to a pin at Fy twist it round
another pin at E with the intervening length stretched to C. Place the
pencil to move along the string as shown in Fig. 137. The moving
pencil point traces out the elliptical curve. (IY.) Example. — To
construct an elliptical curve by means of a trammel. Take two laths
of wood or other material, having a groove along the middle of the
length of each, and fix them so that they are at right angles to each
other, Obtain another lath of wood having near one end a hole
through which a lead pencil is placed. Place two small pegs in holes
in this rod, such that the distances from the pencil to these pegs are
equal to the lengths of half the major and half the minor axes
respectively. On Pig. 137.
76 A MANUAL OF CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. moving this
rod so that the pegs slide in the grooves as shown in Fig. 138, the
pencil traces out the elliptical curve. A modification of the trammel
method of drawing an ellipse is to use a strip of paper. Mark, on one
edge, OM equal to the length of half the major axis, and ON equal to
half the minor Pencil Fig. 138. axis. Draw the axes of the ellipse at
right angles to each other. On moving the strip so that the point M is
constantly on the minor axis line, and N on the major axis line, the
point 0 traces the elliptical curve. The Parabola. — The section
obtained when the cone is cut by a plane parallel to a generator is
named a parabola. Unlike the circular or elliptical sections the curve
of the parabola is not a closed curve, but extends indefinitely unless
terminated by the base of the cone. In Fig. 139 v.t. and h.t. are the
traces of a plane cutting the cone so that the resulting section
obtained by projection is a parabola. Draw afi/ parallel to v.t. and at
a distance from it equal to the distance of ab from xy. Circular
horizontal sections are drawn in the plan, and the lengths of the
horizontal lines of intersection of these planes with the inclined
cutting plane are obtained as shown at bb, cc, etc. Projectors from
a', &', c', etc., at right angles to v.t. are drawn, and the lengths bb,
cc, etc. transferred to the new projectors as shown at btbrt ctcn etc.
An evenly drawn curve through these points gives a parabola. The
Hyperbola. — Fig. 139 also shows the section made by a
The text on this page is estimated to be only 13.11%
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DEVELOPMENTS OF SOLIDS. plane cutting the cone parallel
to the axis. Its construction is exactly similar to that described for
the parabola, and will be easily understood by reference to the
lettering of Fig. 139. It is known as the hyperbola. DEVELOPMENTS
OF SOLIDS. is a branch of geometry which is specially important to
the carpenter and joiner. out surfaces so that the Q exact shape of
the cover- * ing material may be ascertained. Figs. 140 to 142 show
the development of the cube, a pentagonal pyramid, and a cone
respectively. p In the cube six squares are drawn to touch each
other as shown, and are Tin ;s of unfolding or spreadingtf=
78 A MANUAL OF CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. then folded
on the lines. If such a solid is made out of stiff paper or cardboard, it
is best to leave narrow strips on some of the sides, as shown by the
dotted lines, for gumming purposes. Fig. 141. In the pyramid, the
base, which is a pentagon, is first drawn, and on one side of this is
constructed an isosceles triangle the lengths of the sides of which
are equal to the slant edges of the required pyramid. With 0 as
centre, and radius OA, draw the arc as shown, and measure BC, CD,
DE, and EA, each equal to A B. The pyramid can be made by folding
the figure on the various lines, so that the corresponding letters
come together. The dotted lines indicate narrow strips by which Flo
142 the pyramid may be gummed together. The cone is made out of
stiff paper by first drawing the circle of diameter equal to the
required base, and then marking out the arc of another circle of
radius equal to the length of a generator of the cone, and a length
of arc equal to the circumference of the base. The teeth -like
projections around the circle are for gumming purposes.
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DEVELOPMENTS OF SOLIDS. 79 Example 1. — To draw the
development of a square prism when one end is cut obliquely. The
method of construction will be clear from an examinaFlG. 143. tion
of Fig. 143, in which the corresponding points of plan, elevation, and
developed surface are similarly lettered. Pio. 144. Example 2. — To
draw the development of a cylinder when one end is cut off at an
oblique angle with the axis. Fig. 144 shows the projections of the
cylinder. In this
80 A MANUAL OF CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. example the
"stretch-out" is equal to the length of the circumference of the circle,
the lower end is a straight line, while the upper end is represented
by a curved line, the shape of which is obtained by assuming a
number of vertical lines on the surface, and determining the length
of each of these and transferring it to the developed surface as
shown in the figure. Example 3. — To draw the development of a
truncated hexagonal pyr&mid, the top being cut off at an oblique
angle with the axis. Let Fig. 145 be the projections of the pyramid,
the part shown dotted being supposed to be removed. The base is a
regular hexagon, of size given in the plan. The six isosceles triangles
representing the inclined faces are obtained as shown in Fig. 145,
with the exception that the apex angle of each is cut off, the exact
length of each edge being obtained by treating each edge as a line,
and finding its true length. The top end is obtained by finding the
true shape of the section cutting the solid, in the manner indicated.
Example 4. — To draw the development of a truncated right cone.
Let Fig. 146 be the plan and elevation of the cone. The base, which
is of course a circle, is first drawn. Develop the conical surface as
shown in Fig. 146. On the plan and elevation, draw a number (say 6)
of equidistant generator's, determine the length of each of these by
turning it into, or parallel to, the v.p., and transfer these lengths to
the developed surface. A freehand curve drawn through the points
will give the upper end of the developed surface. The upper end of
the truncated
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DEVELOPMENT OF SOLIDS. 81 cone is of elliptical shape,
and can be obtained as previously explained (Fig. 146.) q The
application of this work to the determination of the covering of
peculiarly-shaped roof surfaces is illustrated in ' ' ' ' \ ^ yC / ^"VB
the following examples, which may be taken as typical : Fig. 147
shows a roof, the plan, abed, of which is a square, and the v 2i
vertical sections, through both A B and CD, are semicircles. In such a
roof the hips (p. 216) will be elliptical in outline. The shape of _ ,_
*v a i a • Fia m the developed covering surface is obtained by
dividing the semicircle (elevation) into a number of equal parts as
shown. Draw the plan of each of the M.G.J.
82 A MANUAL OF CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. horizontal
lines, of which these points are elevations, and thus obtain the
lengths across the surface at these places. Stretch out, on one side
of the plan, a length equal to the distance along the curve of the
elevation from A to 4, and place these horizontal lines on this
stretch-out as shown, projecting the length from the plan. Draw a
freehand curve through the points thus obtained. Fig. 147 shows
one quarter of the roof surface developed ; as the plan is a square,
and the sections taken either way are the same in this example, the
remaining three sides are of exactly the same shape as the one
shown. Fig. 148 shows a roof, the plan of which is a square, and the
elevation a curved surface known as an ogee. The development is
obtained in exactly the same manner as in the preceding example. It
is necessary to take a number of horizontal lines, as shown in the
figure by their plans and elevations, and then to obtain the stretch-
out of the curved surface as in Fig. 147. As the drawing is
numbered, an examination of it will make the method clear.
QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER III. 83 Questions on Chapter III.
1. Draw the plan and elevation of a square prism, of 3 in. edge, and
1 *75 in. high, when the base is inclined at 30° to the h. p. and one
edge of the base is in the H.i\, and perpendicular to -the v. p. Draw
a second elevation upon a vertical plane which is parallel to the
horizontal edges of the solid. 2. Draw the plan and elevation of a
right pentagonal pyramid (edge of base 1*25 in., length of axis 3 in.)
when the base is on the h.p., and one triangular face is
perpendicular to v. p. Draw a second plan of the solid, which will,
with the elevation, be the projections of the solid when a triangular
face is on h.p. 3. Draw the projections of a cylinder (base 2*5 in.
diameter, axis 1 in. long) when the axis is inclined to the h.p. at 45°
and is parallel to the vertical plane. 4. Draw the projections of a
straight line 3 in. long in each of the following positions : (a) inclined
to the u.r. at 45°, and parallel to the v. p. : (b) parallel to the h.p.,
and inclined to the v. p. at 30° : (e) parallel to the h.p., and inclined
to the v. p. at 60° : (d) inclined to the h.p. at 30°, and inclined to
the v. p. at 45° : [e) inclined to the h.p. at 20°, and inclined to the v.
p. at 70°. 5. The plan of a line 4 in. long is 2*5 in. What is its
inclination to tho h.p. ? 6. One end of a line is 3 in. from both planes
of projection, and the other end is in xy. The length of the line is 5
in. Draw the plan and elevation, and determine its inclination to the
h.p. 7. A sloping surface has an inclination of 45°. It is cut by a
vertical plane the plan of which makes an angle of 45° with the
horizontal edges of the sloping surface. Determine the inclination of
the line of intersection of the sloping surface and the vertical plane.
8. A square chimney shaft of 3 ft. side penetrates a roof surface
which is inclined at 30°. One diagonal of the shaft is parallel to the
ridge. Determine the shape and size of tho hole in the roof. 9. The
ir.T. of a plane is inclined at 60° to xy. The plane is inclined to the
h.p. at 45°. Determine the vertical trace, and convert tho plane into
a simple inclined plane. 10. The traces of a plane are parallel to xy.
Assuming the v.T. to Imj 2 in. above xy, and the inclination of the
plane to be 30° to tho ii. p., determine the distance of the h.t. from
xy.
84 A MANUAL OF CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 11. Draw the
plan and elevation of a hexagonal prism of 1J in. edge at ends, and
3 in. axis, when the axis is horizontal but inclined to the plane of
elevation at 40°. Make the section of this prism, when cut by a
plane, parallel to the plane of elevation. (C. and G. Prel., 1898.) 12.
A hexagon 1£ in. side is the base of a pyramid, the axis of which is 3
in. in height. Draw the plan and elevation, also a section parallel to
the axis and J inch from it. (C. and G. Prel., 1904.) 13. Draw the plan
and elevation of a right hexagonal pyramid, axis 4 in. in length and
base of 3 in. side ; also draw the section cut by a plane passing
through one of the sides of the base, and inclined at 60° to the axis.
(C. and G. Prel., 1901.) 14. Show by sketches, the manner in which
the several conic sections are obtained from a cone. Give rules for
approximately setting out an ellipse. (C. and G. Prel., 1897.) 15.
Construct an ellipse, having its major and minor axes 3 in. and 1£ in.
long respectively. (C. and G. Prel., 1903.) 16. Draw the plan and
elevation of a cone. The diameter of the base is to be 3 in., the
length of the axis 4£ in. Make a section parallel to the axis, and a
section which is an ellipse, whose major axis is 2J in. long. (C. and
G. Prel., 1902.)
CHAPTER IV. MENSURATION OF CARPENTRY AND
JOINERY. Calculations. — It is constantly necessary for the carpenter
and joiner to make calculations from the given dimensions of the
sizes of the materials used, the areas of surfaces, and the volumes,
or cubical contents, of solids. Although most of the methods used
involve only an elementary knowledge of arithmetic, it will be
advisable to work out in full a few typical examples which are
constantly occurring in practical work. Units of length. — The British
system of measurement is in yards, feet, inches, and sub-divisions of
the inch. These subdivisions may be given in decimals or in duo-
decimals. In the decimal system the unit is either multiplied or
divided by tens, and the working of such calculations is easily
accomplished by the use of the decimal point. Duo-decimal
measurement is expressed in feet, inches, and lines, the ratio of
increase or decrease being in twelfths. In most continental countries
the metric system is in general use. This system is gradually
increasing in favour in our own country. In the metric system the
unit of length is the metre, approximately equal to 39*37 inches.
This unit is divided into ten decimetres, the decimetre is divided into
ten centimetres, and the centimetre is divided into ten millimetres.
The multiples of the metre are : 10 Metres = 1 Dekametre = 3937
inches = 32' 9" lODekametres = 1 Hectometre = 3937 inches = 328'
1" 10 Hectometres = 1 Kilometre = 39370 inches = 3280' 10" 10
Kilometres = 1 Myriametre= 393700 inches = 32808' 4".
The text on this page is estimated to be only 27.22%
accurate
86 A MANUAL OF CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. The
subdivisions of the metre are : 1 millimetre = 003937 inches 10
millimetres = 1 centimetre = 03937 inches 10 centimetres = 1
decimetre = 3*937 inches 10 decimetres = 1 metre =39*37 inches
3' 3 J". It is frequently found necessary to convert the
measurements of one system to equivalent distances in the o'ther.
This is done as follows : Example 1. — H
MENSURATION OF CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. 87 Fia. 152.
that the inch is just over two and a half (2*54) times as long as the
centimetre. In square measure, which involves the multiplication of a
length by a breadth, the area of the square inch is 6*45 times the
area of the square centimetre; while in cubic measurement there are
16*38 cubic centimetres in a cubic inch. A consideration of Fig. 153
will serve to illustrate further the difference between linear, square,
and cubic measurement. First, it must be noticed that every solid
has three dimensions, namely length (in this example 24 inches),
breadth (1 2"), and thickness (6"). To obtain the area (surface
measure) of one of the largest faces, multiply the length by the
breadth, i.e. 24 x 12 = 288 sq. inches, or 2 sq. feet. The area of one
of the edges is obtained by multiplying the length by the thickness
— 24x6=144 sq. inches, or 1 sq. foot. The cubic content is obtained
by multiplying the three dimensions together thus :
24xl2x6=1728cub.ins. or if the measurements are in feet, the cubic
content is 2 x 1 x J = 1 cub. foot. Care must be taken to have all the
measurements in the same units — either feet or inches. When
making calculations it is always advisable to take a mental survey of
what is required and try to obtain an approximate result which may
serve as a guide and possibly prevent errors in the subsequent
calculation. Fia. 153.
88 A MANUAL OF CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. Squares and
Square Boot. — The square of a number is obtained by multiplying
the number by itself ; thus : 22=2x2=4. 102=10x10=100. 242 = 24
x 24=576. The square root of a number (indicated by the sign »J~)
is that quantity which when multiplied by itself is equal to the
number ; thus\/36=6; \/64 = 8. The rule for finding the square root
of a number is as follows : Example. — To find the square root of
529. — Mark off the number 529 into periods of two figures as
indicated, beginning #^ with the units figure. The nearest square to
5 is 2)529(23 4, the square root of which is 2. Put 2 in the _ answers
place. Square 2, place the result 4 under 43 129 5 and subtract.
Bring down the next period 29 ; *-*® place the double of 2 in the
left column. Divide all except the right-hand figure of 129 by 4, this
gives 3. Place 3 in the answer place and also to the right of 4.
Multiply 43 by 3 and place the result 129 under 129 and subtract. As
there is no remainder the work is completed and 23 is the square
root of 529. Test this by multiplying 23 by 23, the result is 529. A
knowledge of square root as well as of the following theorem is very
necessary to a successful working of a large number of the
questions to be considered. In a right angled triangle the square on
the side {the hypotenuse) opposite the right angle is equal in area to
the sum of the squares on the sides containing the right angle.
[Euclid I. 47.] Thus, in Fig. 154, which is a right angled triangle,
AC^AW+BC2. Assuming the sides to be 5", 4", and 3" long
respectively, then 5x5 = (4x4) + (3x3), Fio. 154. 25 = 16 + 9. This
example and the proportions of the sides of the triangle are of some
importance, since by an application of the proportions in it the
setting out of right angles can be easily and accurately determined
or tested without the aid of special appliances. Example 1. — What
is the length of the diagonal of a rectangular room whose sides are
12' and 9' long respectively? The length of the required diagonal is
the square root of the
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