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Essential Mathematical Methods for the Physical Sciences
Riley K.F. Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Riley K.F., Hobson M.P.
ISBN(s): 9780521761147, 052176114X
Edition: draft
File Details: PDF, 6.04 MB
Year: 2011
Language: english
 ESSENTIAL ESSENTIAL

RILEY | HOBSON
MATHEMATICAL MATHEMATICAL
METHODS
for the Physical Sciences
METHODS
for the Physical Sciences

for the Physical Sciences

METHODS
MATHEMATICAL
ESSENTIAL
The mathematical methods that physical scientists need for solving substantial
HOBSON: ESSENTIAL MATHEMATICAL METHODS PPC C M Y BLK

problems in their fields of study are set out clearly and simply in this tutorial-style
textbook. Students will develop problem-solving skills through hundreds of worked
examples, self-test questions and homework problems.

Each chapter concludes with a summary of the main procedures and results. All
assumed prior knowledge is summarized in one of the appendices so students
can remind themselves of important definitions, results and formulae. Hints
and outline answers to the odd-numbered problems are given at the end of each
chapter, with fully worked solutions to these problems given in the accompanying
Student Solution Manual.

Over 300 worked examples show how to use the techniques

Around 100 self-test questions in the footnotes act as checkpoints
to build student confidence
Nearly 400 end-of-chapter problems combine ideas from the chapter
to reinforce the concepts and let students apply what they have
learned

www.cambridge.org/essential
K. F. RILEY | M. P. HOBSON
• Fully worked solutions to all the end-of-chapter
problems, password-protected for instructors
Essential Mathematical Methods for the Physical Sciences

The mathematical methods that physical scientists need for solving substantial problems in their
fields of study are set out clearly and simply in this tutorial-style textbook. Students will develop
problem-solving skills through hundreds of worked examples, self-test questions and homework
problems. Each chapter concludes with a summary of the main procedures and results and all
assumed prior knowledge is summarized in one of the appendices. Over 300 worked examples show
how to use the techniques and around 100 self-test questions in the footnotes act as checkpoints to
build student confidence. Nearly 400 end-of-chapter problems combine ideas from the chapter to
reinforce the concepts. Hints and outline answers to the odd-numbered problems are given at the end
of each chapter, with fully worked solutions to these problems given in the accompanying Student
Solution Manual. Fully worked solutions to all problems, password-protected for instructors, are
available at www.cambridge.org/essential.

K . F . R i l e y read mathematics at the University of Cambridge and proceeded to a Ph.D. there

in theoretical and experimental nuclear physics. He became a Research Associate in elementary
particle physics at Brookhaven, and then, having taken up a lectureship at the Cavendish Laboratory,
Cambridge, continued this research at the Rutherford Laboratory and Stanford; in particular he was
involved in the experimental discovery of a number of the early baryonic resonances. As well as
having been Senior Tutor at Clare College, where he has taught physics and mathematics for over
40 years, he has served on many committees concerned with the teaching and examining of these
subjects at all levels of tertiary and undergraduate education. He is also one of the authors of 200
Puzzling Physics Problems (Cambridge University Press, 2001).
M . P . H o b s o n read natural sciences at the University of Cambridge, specializing in theoretical
physics, and remained at the Cavendish Laboratory to complete a Ph.D. in the physics of star
formation. As a Research Fellow at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and subsequently an Advanced Fellow
of the Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council, he developed an interest in cosmology, and
in particular in the study of fluctuations in the cosmic microwave background. He was involved in
the first detection of these fluctuations using a ground-based interferometer. Currently a University
Reader at the Cavendish Laboratory, his research interests include both theoretical and observational
aspects of cosmology, and he is the principal author of General Relativity: An Introduction for
Physicists (Cambridge University Press, 2006). He is also a Director of Studies in Natural Sciences
at Trinity Hall and enjoys an active role in the teaching of undergraduate physics and mathematics.
Essential Mathematical Methods
for the Physical Sciences

K. F. RILEY
University of Cambridge

M. P. HOBSON
University of Cambridge
cambridge university press
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,
São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo, Mexico City

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/essential


C K. Riley and M. Hobson 2011

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2011

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

Riley, K. F. (Kenneth Franklin), 1936–
Essential mathematical methods for the physical sciences : a tutorial guide / K.F. Riley, M.P. Hobson.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-521-76114-7
1. Mathematics – Textbooks. I. Hobson, M. P. (Michael Paul), 1967– II. Title.
QA37.3.R55 2011
510 – dc22 2010041509

ISBN 978-0-521-76114-7 Hardback

Additional resources for this publication at www.cambridge.org/essential

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or

accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in
this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is,
or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
 Contents

Preface page xiii

Review of background topics xvi

1 Matrices and vector spaces 1

1.1 Vector spaces 2
1.2 Linear operators 5
1.3 Matrices 7
1.4 Basic matrix algebra 8
1.5 Functions of matrices 13
1.6 The transpose of a matrix 13
1.7 The complex and Hermitian conjugates of a matrix 14
1.8 The trace of a matrix 16
1.9 The determinant of a matrix 17
1.10 The inverse of a matrix 21
1.11 The rank of a matrix 25
1.12 Simultaneous linear equations 27
1.13 Special types of square matrix 36
1.14 Eigenvectors and eigenvalues 40
1.15 Determination of eigenvalues and eigenvectors 45
1.16 Change of basis and similarity transformations 49
1.17 Diagonalization of matrices 51
1.18 Quadratic and Hermitian forms 53
1.19 Normal modes 58
1.20 The summation convention 67
Summary 68
Problems 72
Hints and answers 83

2 Vector calculus 87
2.1 Differentiation of vectors 87
2.2 Integration of vectors 92
2.3 Vector functions of several arguments 93
2.4 Surfaces 94
2.5 Scalar and vector fields 96

v
vi Contents

2.6 Vector operators 96

2.7 Vector operator formulae 103
2.8 Cylindrical and spherical polar coordinates 107
2.9 General curvilinear coordinates 113
Summary 119
Problems 121
Hints and answers 126

3 Line, surface and volume integrals 128

3.1 Line integrals 128
3.2 Connectivity of regions 134
3.3 Green’s theorem in a plane 135
3.4 Conservative fields and potentials 138
3.5 Surface integrals 141
3.6 Volume integrals 147
3.7 Integral forms for grad, div and curl 149
3.8 Divergence theorem and related theorems 153
3.9 Stokes’ theorem and related theorems 158
Summary 161
Problems 163
Hints and answers 168

4 Fourier series 170

4.1 The Dirichlet conditions 170
4.2 The Fourier coefficients 172
4.3 Symmetry considerations 174
4.4 Discontinuous functions 175
4.5 Non-periodic functions 176
4.6 Integration and differentiation 179
4.7 Complex Fourier series 180
4.8 Parseval’s theorem 181
Summary 183
Problems 185
Hints and answers 189

5 Integral transforms 191

5.1 Fourier transforms 191
5.2 The Dirac δ-function 197
5.3 Properties of Fourier transforms 202
5.4 Laplace transforms 210
5.5 Concluding remarks 217
Summary 218
vii Contents

Problems 219
Hints and answers 226

6 Higher-order ordinary differential equations 228

6.1 General considerations 229
6.2 Linear equations with constant coefficients 233
6.3 Linear recurrence relations 237
6.4 Laplace transform method 242
6.5 Linear equations with variable coefficients 244
6.6 General ordinary differential equations 258
Summary 262
Problems 264
Hints and answers 271

7 Series solutions of ordinary differential equations 273

7.1 Second-order linear ordinary differential equations 273
7.2 Ordinary and singular points of an ODE 275
7.3 Series solutions about an ordinary point 277
7.4 Series solutions about a regular singular point 280
7.5 Obtaining a second solution 286
7.6 Polynomial solutions 290
Summary 292
Problems 293
Hints and answers 297

8 Eigenfunction methods for differential equations 298

8.1 Sets of functions 300
8.2 Adjoint, self-adjoint and Hermitian operators 303
8.3 Properties of Hermitian operators 305
8.4 Sturm–Liouville equations 308
8.5 Superposition of eigenfunctions: Green’s functions 312
Summary 315
Problems 316
Hints and answers 320

9 Special functions 322

9.1 Legendre functions 322
9.2 Associated Legendre functions 333
9.3 Spherical harmonics 339
9.4 Chebyshev functions 341
viii Contents

9.5 Bessel functions 347

9.6 Spherical Bessel functions 360
9.7 Laguerre functions 361
9.8 Associated Laguerre functions 366
9.9 Hermite functions 369
9.10 The gamma function and related functions 373
Summary 377
Problems 380
Hints and answers 385

10 Partial differential equations 387

10.1 Important partial differential equations 387
10.2 General form of solution 392
10.3 General and particular solutions 393
10.4 The wave equation 405
10.5 The diffusion equation 408
10.6 Boundary conditions and the uniqueness of solutions 411
Summary 413
Problems 414
Hints and answers 419

11 Solution methods for PDEs 421

11.1 Separation of variables: the general method 421
11.2 Superposition of separated solutions 425
11.3 Separation of variables in polar coordinates 433
11.4 Integral transform methods 455
11.5 Inhomogeneous problems – Green’s functions 460
Summary 476
Problems 479
Hints and answers 486

12 Calculus of variations 488

12.1 The Euler–Lagrange equation 489
12.2 Special cases 490
12.3 Some extensions 494
12.4 Constrained variation 496
12.5 Physical variational principles 498
12.6 General eigenvalue problems 501
12.7 Estimation of eigenvalues and eigenfunctions 503
12.8 Adjustment of parameters 506
Summary 507
ix Contents

Problems 509
Hints and answers 514

13 Integral equations 516

13.1 Obtaining an integral equation from a
differential equation 516
13.2 Types of integral equation 517
13.3 Operator notation and the existence of solutions 518
13.4 Closed-form solutions 519
13.5 Neumann series 526
13.6 Fredholm theory 528
13.7 Schmidt–Hilbert theory 529
Summary 532
Problems 534
Hints and answers 538

14 Complex variables 540

14.1 Functions of a complex variable 541
14.2 The Cauchy–Riemann relations 543
14.3 Power series in a complex variable 547
14.4 Some elementary functions 549
14.5 Multivalued functions and branch cuts 551
14.6 Singularities and zeros of complex functions 553
14.7 Conformal transformations 556
14.8 Complex integrals 559
14.9 Cauchy’s theorem 563
14.10 Cauchy’s integral formula 566
14.11 Taylor and Laurent series 568
14.12 Residue theorem 573
Summary 576
Problems 578
Hints and answers 580

15 Applications of complex variables 582

15.1 Complex potentials 582
15.2 Applications of conformal transformations 587
15.3 Definite integrals using contour integration 590
15.4 Summation of series 597
15.5 Inverse Laplace transform 599
15.6 Some more advanced applications 602
Summary 605
x Contents

Problems 606
Hints and answers 610

16 Probability 612
16.1 Venn diagrams 612
16.2 Probability 617
16.3 Permutations and combinations 627
16.4 Random variables and distributions 633
16.5 Properties of distributions 638
16.6 Functions of random variables 642
16.7 Generating functions 646
16.8 Important discrete distributions 654
16.9 Important continuous distributions 666
16.10 The central limit theorem 681
16.11 Joint distributions 683
16.12 Properties of joint distributions 685
Summary 691
Problems 695
Hints and answers 703

17 Statistics 705
17.1 Experiments, samples and populations 705
17.2 Sample statistics 706
17.3 Estimators and sampling distributions 713
17.4 Some basic estimators 721
17.5 Data modeling 730
17.6 Hypothesis testing 735
Summary 755
Problems 759
Hints and answers 764

A Review of background topics 766

A.1 Arithmetic and geometry 766
A.2 Preliminary algebra 768
A.3 Differential calculus 770
A.4 Integral calculus 771
A.5 Complex numbers and hyperbolic functions 773
A.6 Series and limits 774
A.7 Partial differentiation 777
A.8 Multiple integrals 778
A.9 Vector algebra 779
A.10 First-order ordinary differential equations 781
xi Contents

B Inner products 782

C Inequalities in linear vector spaces 784

D Summation convention 786

E The Kronecker delta and Levi–Civita symbols 789

F Gram–Schmidt orthogonalization 793

G Linear least squares 795

H Footnote answers 797

Index 810
 Preface

Since Mathematical Methods for Physics and Engineering (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1998) by Riley, Hobson and Bence, hereafter denoted by MMPE, was
first published, the range of material it covers has increased with each subsequent edition
(2002 and 2006). Most of the additions have been in the form of introductory material cov-
ering polynomial equations, partial fractions, binomial expansions, coordinate geometry
and a variety of basic methods of proof, though the third edition of MMPE also extended
the range, but not the general level, of the areas to which the methods developed in the
book could be applied. Recent feedback suggests that still further adjustments would be
beneficial. In so far as content is concerned, the inclusion of some additional introductory
material such as powers, logarithms, the sinusoidal and exponential functions, inequalities
and the handling of physical dimensions, would make the starting level of the book better
match that of some of its readers.
To incorporate these changes, and others to increase the user-friendliness of the text,
into the current third edition of MMPE would inevitably produce a text that would be too
ponderous for many students, to say nothing of the problems the physical production and
transportation of such a large volume would entail. It is also the case that for students for
whom a course on mathematical methods is not their first engagement with mathematics
beyond high school level, all of the additional introductory material, as well as some
of that presented in the early chapters of the original MMPE, would be ground already
covered. For such students, typically those who have already taken two or three semesters
of calculus, and perhaps an introductory course in ordinary differential equations, much
of the first half of such an omnibus edition would be redundant.
For these reasons, we present under the current title, Essential Mathematical Methods
for the Physical Sciences, an alternative edition of MMPE, one that focuses on the core of a
putative extended third edition, omitting, except in summary form, all of the “mathematical
tools” at one end, and some of the more specialized topics that appear in the third edition
at the other. The emphasis is very much on developing the methods required by physical
scientists before they can apply their knowledge of mathematical concepts to significant
problems in their chosen fields.
For the record, we note that the more advanced topics in the third edition of MMPE
that have fallen victim to this approach are quantum operators, tensors, group and rep-
resentation theory, and numerical methods. The chapters on special functions, and the
applications of complex variables have both been reduced to some extent, as have those
on probability and statistics.
At the other end of the spectrum, the excised introductory material has not been
altogether lost. Indeed, Appendix A of the present text consists entirely of summaries,
in the style described in the penultimate paragraph of this Preface, of the material that
xiii
 xiv Preface

is presumed to have been previously studied and mastered by the student. Clearly it can
be used both as a reference/reminder and as an indicator of some missing background
knowledge.
One aspect that has remained constant throughout the three editions of MMPE, is
the general style of presentation of a topic – a qualitative introduction, physically based
wherever possible, followed by a more formal presentation or proof, and finished with
one or two full-worked examples. This format has been well received by reviewers, and
there is no reason to depart from its basic structure.
In terms of style, many physical science students appear to be more comfortable with
presentations that contain significant amounts of verbal explanation and comment, rather
than with a series of mathematical equations the last line of which implies “job done”. We
have made changes that move the text in this direction. As is explained below, we also
feel that if some of the advantages of small-group face-to-face teaching could be reflected
in the written text, many students would find it beneficial.
One of the advantages of an oral approach to teaching, apparent to some extent in the
lecture situation, and certainly in what are usually known as tutorials,1 is the opportunity
to follow the exposition of any particular point with an immediate short, but probing,
question that helps to establish whether or not the student has grasped that point. This
facility is not normally available when instruction is through a written medium, without
having available at least the equipment necessary to access the contents of a storage disc.
In this book we have tried to go some way towards remedying this by making a non-
standard use of footnotes. Some footnotes are used in traditional ways, to add a comment or
a pertinent but not essential piece of additional information, to clarify a point by restating
it in slightly different terms, or to make reference to another part of the text or an external
source. However, about half of the nearly 300 footnotes in this book contain a question
for the reader to answer or an instruction for them to follow; neither will call for a lengthy
response, but in both cases an understanding of the associated material in the text will be
required. This parallels the sort of follow-up a student might have to supply orally in a
small-group tutorial, after a particular aspect of their written work has been discussed.
Naturally, students should attempt to respond to footnote questions using the skills and
knowledge they have acquired, re-reading the relevant text if necessary, but if they are
unsure of their answer, or wish to feel the satisfaction of having their correct response
confirmed, they can consult the specimen answers given in Appendix H. Equally, footnotes
in the form of observations will have served their purpose when students are consistently
able to say to themselves “I didn’t need that comment – I had already spotted and checked
that particular point”.
One further feature of the present volume is the inclusion at the end of each chapter,
just before the problems begin, of a summary of the main results of that chapter. For some
areas, this takes the form of a tabulation of the various case types that may arise in the
context of the chapter; this should help the student to see the parallels between situations
which in the main text are presented as a consecutive series of often quite lengthy pieces
of mathematical development. It should be said that in such a summary it is not possible
to state every detailed condition attached to each result, and the reader should consider
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

1 But in Cambridge are called “supervisions”!

xv Preface

the summaries as reminders and formulae providers, rather than as teaching text; that is
the job of the main text and its footnotes.
Finally, we note, for the record, that the format and number of problems associated
with the various remaining chapters have not been changed significantly, though problems
based on excised topics have naturally been omitted. This means that hints or abbreviated
solutions to all 200 odd-numbered problems appear in this text, and fully worked solutions
of the same problems can be found in an accompanying volume, the Student Solution
Manual for Essential Mathematical Methods for the Physical Sciences. Fully worked solu-
tions to all problems, both odd- and even-numbered, are available to accredited instructors
on the password-protected website www.cambridge.org/essential. Instructors wishing to
have access to the website should contact [email protected] for registration details.
 Review of background topics

As explained in the Preface, this book is intended for those students who are pursuing
a course in mathematical methods, but for whom it is not their first engagement with
mathematics beyond high school level. Typically, such students will have already taken two
or three semesters of calculus, and perhaps an introductory course in ordinary differential
equations. The emphasis in the text is very much on developing the methods required by
physical scientists before they can apply their knowledge of mathematical concepts to
significant problems in their chosen fields; the basic mathematical “tools” that the student
is presumed to have mastered are therefore not discussed in any detail.
However this introductory note and the associated appendix (Appendix A) are included
both to act as a reference (or reminder) and to be an indicator of any presumed, but missing,
topics in the student’s background knowledge. The appendix consists of summary pages
for ten major topic areas, ranging from powers and logarithms at one extreme to first-order
ordinary differential equations at the other. The style they adopt is identical to that used
for the chapter summary pages in the 17 main chapters of the book. It should be noted
that in such summaries it is not possible to state every detailed condition attached to each
result. In the areas covered in Appendix A, there are very few subtle situations to consider,
but the reader should be aware that they may exist.
Naturally, being only summaries, the various sections of the appendix will not be
sufficient for the student who needs to catch up in some area, to learn the particular topics
from scratch. A more elementary text will clearly be needed; Foundation Mathematics for
the Physical Sciences written by the current authors would be one such possibility.

xvi
1 Matrices and vector spaces

In so far as vector algebra is concerned (see the summary in Section A.9 of Appendix A),
a vector can be considered as a geometrical object which has both a magnitude and a
direction, and may be thought of as an arrow fixed in our familiar three-dimensional
space. This space, in turn, may be defined by reference to, say, the fixed stars. This
geometrical definition of a vector is both useful and important since it is independent of
any coordinate system with which we choose to label points in space.
In most specific applications, however, it is necessary at some stage to choose a
coordinate system and to break down a vector into its component vectors in the
directions of increasing coordinate values. Thus for a particular Cartesian coordinate
system (for example) the component vectors of a vector a will be ax i, ay j and azk and the
complete vector will be

a = ax i + ay j + azk. (1.1)

Although for many purposes we need consider only real three-dimensional space, the
notion of a vector may be extended to more abstract spaces, which in general can have
an arbitrary number of dimensions N. We may still think of such a vector as an “arrow”
in this abstract space, so that it is again independent of any (N-dimensional) coordinate
system with which we choose to label the space. As an example of such a space, which,
though abstract, has very practical applications, we may consider the description of a
mechanical or electrical system. If the state of a system is uniquely specified by assigning
values to a set of N variables, which could include angles or currents, for example, then
that state can be represented by a vector in an N-dimensional space, the vector having
those values as its components.1
In this chapter we first discuss general vector spaces and their properties. We then go
on to consider the transformation of one vector into another by a linear operator. This
leads naturally to the concept of a matrix, a two-dimensional array of numbers. The
properties of matrices are then developed and we conclude with a discussion of how to
use these properties to solve systems of linear equations and study some oscillatory
systems.

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

1 This is an approach often used in control engineering.

1
2 Matrices and vector spaces

1.1 Vector spaces

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

A set of objects (vectors) a, b, c, . . . is said to form a linear vector space V if:

(i) the set is closed under commutative and associative addition, so that

a + b = b + a, (1.2)
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c); (1.3)

(ii) the set is closed under multiplication by a scalar (any complex number) to form a
new vector λa, the operation being both distributive and associative so that

λ(a + b) = λa + λb, (1.4)

(λ + μ)a = λa + μa, (1.5)
λ(μa) = (λμ)a, (1.6)

where λ and μ are arbitrary scalars;

(iii) there exists a null vector 0 such that a + 0 = a for all a;
(iv) multiplication by unity leaves any vector unchanged, i.e. 1 × a = a;
(v) all vectors have a corresponding negative vector −a such that a + (−a) = 0. It
follows from (1.5) with λ = 1 and μ = −1 that −a is the same vector as (−1) × a.

We note that if we restrict all scalars to be real then we obtain a real vector space (an
example of which is our familiar three-dimensional space); otherwise, in general, we
obtain a complex vector space. We note that it is common to use the terms “vector space”
and “space”, instead of the more formal “linear vector space”.
The span of a set of vectors a, b, . . . , s is defined as the set of all vectors that may be
written as a linear sum of the original set, i.e. all vectors

x = αa + βb + · · · + σ s (1.7)

that result from the infinite number of possible values of the (in general complex) scalars
α, β, . . . , σ . If x in (1.7) is equal to 0 for some choice of α, β, . . . , σ (not all zero), i.e. if

αa + βb + · · · + σ s = 0, (1.8)

then the set of vectors a, b, . . . , s, is said to be linearly dependent. In such a set at least one
vector is redundant, since it can be expressed as a linear sum of the others. If, however,
(1.8) is not satisfied by any set of coefficients (other than the trivial case in which all the
coefficients are zero) then the vectors are linearly independent, and no vector in the set
can be expressed as a linear sum of the others.
If, in a given vector space, there exist sets of N linearly independent vectors, but
no set of N + 1 linearly independent vectors, then the vector space is said to be N-
dimensional. In this chapter we will limit our discussion to vector spaces of finite
dimensionality.
3 1.1 Vector spaces

1.1.1 Basis vectors

If V is an N-dimensional vector space then any set of N linearly independent vectors
e1 , e2 , . . . , eN forms a basis for V . If x is an arbitrary vector lying in V then it can be
written as a linear sum of these basis vectors:

N
x = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + · · · + xN eN = xi ei , (1.9)
i=1

for some set of coefficients xi . Since any x lying in the span of V can be expressed in
terms of the basis or base vectors ei , the latter are said to form a complete set.
The coefficients xi are called the components of x with respect to the ei -basis. They are
unique, since if both


N 
N 
N
x= xi ei and x= yi ei , then (xi − yi )ei = 0. (1.10)
i=1 i=1 i=1

Since the ei are linearly independent, each coefficient in the final equation in (1.10) must
be individually zero and so xi = yi for all i = 1, 2, . . . , N.
It follows from this that any set of N linearly independent vectors can form a basis for
an N-dimensional space.2 If we choose a different set ei , i = 1, . . . , N then we can write
x as

N
x = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + · · · + xN eN = xi ei , (1.11)
i=1

but this does not change the vector x. The vector x (a geometrical entity) is independent
of the basis – it is only the components of x that depend upon the basis.

1.1.2 The inner product

This subsection contains a working summary of the definition and properties of inner
products; for a fuller mathematical treatment the reader is referred to Appendix B.
To describe how two vectors in a vector space “multiply” (as opposed to add or subtract)
we define their inner product, denoted in general by a|b. This is a scalar function of
vectors a and b, though it is not necessarily real. Alternative notations for a|b are (a, b),
or simply a · b.
The scalar or dot product, a · b ≡ |a||b| cos θ, of two vectors in real three-dimensional
space (where θ is the angle between the vectors) is an example of an inner product. In
effect the notion of an inner product a|b is a generalization of the dot product to more
abstract vector spaces. The inner product has the following properties (in which, as usual,

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

2 All bases contain exactly N base vectors. A (putative) alternative base with M (< N ) vectors would imply that
there is no set of more than M linearly independent vectors – but the original base is just such a set, giving
a contradiction. Equally, M > N would imply the existence of a linearly independent set with more than N
members – contradicting the specification for the original base set. Hence M = N .
Another Random Scribd Document
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 8.43 8.44 8.45 8.46 8.43 NAMES, TERMS, AND TITLES OF
WORKS Physical characteristics. Terms describing groups or
individuals according to a physical characteristic or a disability are
usually lowercased. wheelchair users blind persons deaf children
Some writers capitalize deaf when referring to people who identify
themselves as members of the distinct linguistic and cultural group
whose primary language is ASL—the Deaf community—and
lowercase it when referring to people who have a hearing loss or to
those deaf people who prefer oral methods of communication. See
also 11.125. Names of Places Names of places—additional resources.
For the spelling of place-names, consult the geographical listings in
Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (bibliog. 3.1) or
Encyclopaedia Britannica (bibliog. 4.3) or, for names not listed there,
the United States Board on Geographic Names or one of the other
resources listed in the bibliography (bibliog. 4.2). Since names of
countries and cities often change, frequently updated online
resources should be preferred over print for modern place-names.
For country names, the US Central Intelligence Agency’s World
Factbook is a good place to start (bibliog. 4.2). For historical works,
writers and editors should attempt to use the form of names
appropriate to the period under discussion. Parts of the World
Continents, countries, cities, oceans, and such. Entities that appear
on maps are always capitalized, as are adjectives and nouns derived
from them. An initial the as part of a name is lowercased in running
text, except in the rare case of an initial the in the name of a city.
Asia; Asian South China Sea Ireland; Irish the North Pole California;
Californian the Netherlands; Dutch Chicago; Chicagoan but Atlantic
Ocean; Atlantic The Hague Points of the compass. Compass points
and terms. derived from them are lowercased if they simply indicate
direction or location. But see 8.47.
 8.47 Names of Places 8.47 pointing toward the north; a
north wind; a northern climate to fly east; an eastward move; in the
southwest of France; southwesterly Regions of the world and
national regions. Terms that denote regions of the world or of a
particular country are often capitalized, as are a few of the
adjectives and nouns derived from such terms. The following
examples illustrate not only the principles sketched in 8.1 but also
variations based on context and usage. For terms not included here
or for which no suitable analogy can be made, consult Webster’s or
an encyclopedia: if an otherwise generic term is not listed there
(either capitalized or, for dictionary entries, with the indication
capitalized next to the applicable subentry), opt for lowercase. Note
that exceptions based on specific regional, political, or historical
contexts are inevitable (a few that are generally applicable are
included below) and that an author’s strong preference should
usually be respected. See also 8.46. the Swiss Alps; the Australian
Alps; the Alps; an Alpine village (ifin the European or Australian
Alps); Alpine skiing; but alpine pastures in the Rockies (see also
8.53) Antarctica; the Antarctic Circle; the Antarctic Continent the
Arctic; the Arctic Circle; Arctic waters; a mass of Arctic air (but
lowercased when used metaphorically, as in “an arctic stare”; see
8.61) Central America, Central American countries; central Asia;
central Illinois; central France; central Europe (but Central Europe
when referring to the political division of World War I) the
continental United States; the continent of Europe; but on the
Continent (used to denote mainland Europe); Continental cuisine;
but continental breakfast the East, eastern, an easterner (referring
to the eastern part of the United States or other country); the
Eastern Seaboard (or Atlantic Seaboard), East Coast (referring to the
eastern United States); eastern Massachusetts (but East Tennessee);
the East, the Far East, Eastern (referring to the Orient and Asian
culture); the Middle East (or, formerly more common, the Near
East), Middle Eastern (referring to Iran, Iraq, etc.); the Eastern
Hemisphere; eastern Europe (but Eastern Europe when referring to
the post-World War II division of Europe); east, eastern, eastward,
to the east (directions) the equator; equatorial climate; the
Equatorial Current; Equatorial Guinea (formerly Spanish Guinea); the
forty-second parallel north (of the equator) the Great Plains; the
northern plains; the plains (but Plains Indians) the Midwest,
midwestern, a midwesterner (as of the United States); the middle of
Texas (but Middle Tennessee) the North, northern, a northerner (of a
country); the North, Northern, Northerner (in American Civil War
contexts); northern Ohio (but Northern California); North Africa,
North African countries, in northern Africa; North America, North
American, the North American continent; the North Atlantic,
 8.48 8.48 NAMES, TERMS, AND TITLES OF WORKS a
northern Atlantic route; the Northern Hemisphere; the Far North;
north, northern, northward, to the north (directions) the Northeast,
the Northwest, northwestern, northeastern, a northwesterner, a
northeasterner (as of the United States); the Pacific Northwest; the
Northwest Passage the poles; the North Pole; the North Polar ice
cap; the South Pole; polar regions (seealso Antarctica; the Arctic)
the South, southern, a southerner (of a country); the South,
Southern, a Southerner (in American Civil War contexts); the Deep
South; southern Minnesota (but Southern California); the South of
France (region); Southeast Asia; South Africa, South African
(referring to the Republic of South Africa); southern Africa (referring
to the southern part of the continent); south, southern, southward,
to the south (directions) the Southeast, the Southwest,
southeastern, southwestern, a southeasterner, a southwesterner (as
of the United States) the tropics, tropical; the Tropic of Cancer; the
Neotropics, Neotropical (of the New World biogeographical region);
the subtropics, subtropical the Upper Peninsula (of Michigan); the
upper reaches of the Thames the West, western, a westerner (of a
country); the West Coast; western Arizona (but West Tennessee);
the West, Western (referring to the culture of the Occident, or
Europe and the Western Hemisphere; but westernize); west,
western, westward, to the west (directions) Popular place-names or
epithets. Popular names of places, or epithets, are usually
capitalized. Quotation marks are not needed. Some of the following
examples may be used of more than one place. None should be
used in contexts where they will not be readily understood. See also
8.34. Back Bay the Fertile Crescent Silicon Valley the Badger State
the Gaza Strip Skid Row the Badlands the Gulf the South Seas the
Bay Area the Holy City the South Side the Beltway the Jewish
Quarter the Sun Belt the Bible Belt the Lake District the Twin Cities
the Big Island the Left Bank the Upper West Side the Cape the Loop
(Chicago) the Village (Greenwich City of Light Midtown (Manhattan)
Village) the Delta the Old World the West End the East End the
Panhandle the Wild West the Eastern Shore the Promised Land the
Windy City the Eternal City the Rust Belt
 8.49 8.50 8.51 Names ofPlaces 8.51 Certain terms
considered political rather than geographical need not be capitalized.
Some editorial discretion is advisable, however. In reference to
Soviet-era global politics, for example, the following terms might be
suitably capitalized: the iron curtain or Iron Curtain the third world
or Third World Urban areas. Generic terms used for parts of urban
areas are not capitalized. the business district the inner city the
metropolitan area; the greater Chicago metropolitan area;
Chicagoland the tristate area but Greater London (an official
administrative region) On the other hand, a work that treats a
specific local culture may choose to favor an established local usage
(e.g., Greater Boston). Real versus metaphorical names. Mecca is
capitalized when referring to the Islamic holy city, as is Utopia when
referring to Thomas More’s imaginary country. Both are lowercased
when used metaphorically. See also 8.61. Stratford-upon-Avon is a
mecca for Shakespeare enthusiasts. She is trying to create a utopia
for her children. Political Divisions Political divisions—capitalization.
Words denoting political divisions— from empire, republic, and state
down to ward and precinct—are capitalized when they follow a name
and are used as an accepted part of the name. When preceding the
name, such terms are usually capitalized in names of countries but
lowercased in entities below the national level (but see 8.52). Used
alone, they are usually lowercased, though reasonable exceptions
based on specific regional, political, or historical contexts should be
respected. See also 9.46. the Ottoman Empire; the empire the
British Commonwealth; Commonwealth nations; the Commonwealth
(but a commonwealth)
 8.52 8.52 NAMES, TERMS, AND TITLES OF WORKS the
United States; the republic; the Union (Civil War era); the
Confederacy (Civil War era) the United Kingdom; Great Britain;
Britain (not the kingdom) the Russian Federation (formerly the Union
of Soviet Socialist Republics; the Soviet Union); Russia; the
federation the Republic of South Africa (formerly the Union of South
Africa); South Africa; the republic the Fifth Republic (France) the
Republic of Indonesia; the republic the Republic of Lithuania; the
republic the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia; the republic;
the State of the Gambella Peoples; the state the Commonwealth of
Australia; the commonwealth; the state of New South Wales; the
Australian Capital Territory the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico
Washington State; the state of Washington the New England states
the province of Ontario Jiangxi Province Massachusetts Bay Colony;
the colony at Massachusetts Bay the British colonies; the thirteen
colonies the Indiana Territory; the territory of Indiana the Northwest
Territory; the Old Northwest the Western Reserve Lake County; the
county of Lake; the county; county Kildare (Irish usage) New York
City; the city of New York the City (the old city of London, now the
financial district, always capitalized) Shields Township; the township
the Eleventh Congressional District; the congressional district the
Fifth Ward; the ward the Sixth Precinct; the precinct A generic term
that is capitalized as part of the name of an official body remains
capitalized when it is used in the plural to refer to two or more
names and applies to both. Lake and Cook Counties the Republics of
Indonesia and South Africa Governmental entities. In contexts where
a specific governmental body rather than the place is meant, the
words state, city, and the like are usually capitalized when used as
part of the full name of the body. See also 8.51.
 8.53 8.54 Names of Places 8.54 She works for the Village of
Forest Park. That is a City of Chicago ordinance. but Residents of the
village of Forest Park enjoy easy access tothe city of Chicago.
Topographical Divisions Mountains, rivers, and the like. Names of
mountains, rivers, oceans, islands, and soforthare capitalized. The
generic term (mountain etc.) is also capitalized when used as part of
the name. In the plural, it is capitalized when itis part of a single
name (Hawaiian Islands) and whenitisused with two or more names,
whether beginning with the generic term (Mounts Washington and
Rainier) or when the generic term comes second and applies to two
or more names (e.g., the Illinois and the Chicago Rivers). Walden
Pond Silver Lake Lake Michigan; Lakes Michigan and Erie; the Great
Lakes the Illinois River; the Illinois and the Chicago Rivers the Nile
River valley; the Nile valley; the Nile delta; the Mississippi River
valley; the Mississippi delta (where river forms part of the proper
names but valley and delta do not; see also 8.54) the Bering Strait
the Mediterranean Sea; the Mediterranean the Pacific Ocean; the
Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans the Great Barrier Reef the Hawaiian
Islands; Hawaii; but the island of Hawaii (the Big Island) the
Windward Islands; the Windwards the Iberian Peninsula Cape Verde
the Black Forest Stone Mountain Mount Washington; Mount Rainier;
Mounts Washington and Rainier the Rocky Mountains; the Rockies
(see also 8.47) Death Valley; the Valley of Kings the Continental
Divide the Horn of Africa; the Horn (to avoid confusion with a
different kind of horn) the Indian subcontinent (a descriptive rather
than proper geographical name) Generic terms for geographic
entities. When a generic term is used descriptively (or in apposition;
see 8.21) rather than as part of a name, or when used alone, it is
lowercased.
 8.55 8.56 8.57 8.55 NAMES, TERMS, AND TITLES OF
WORKS the Amazon basin along the Pacific coast (but the West
Coast; see 8.47) the California desert the river Thames the Hudson
River valley Non-English terms for geographic entities. When a
generic term froma language other than English forms part of a
geographic name, the equivalent English term should not be
included. See also 11.4. the Rio Grande (not the Rio Grande River)
Fujiyama (not Mount Fujiyama) Mauna Loa (not Mount Mauna Loa)
the Sierra Nevada (not the Sierra Nevada Mountains) Public Places
and Major Structures Thoroughfares and the like. The names of
streets, avenues, squares, parks, and so forth are capitalized. The
generic term is lowercased when used alone but capitalized when
used as part of a plural name. Broadway Fifty-Fifth Street; Fifty-
Seventh and Fifty-Fifth Streets Hyde Park Boulevard; the boulevard
Interstate 80; I-80; an interstate highway; the interstate the Ishtar
Gate; the gate Jackson Park; the park London Bridge; the bridge the
Mall (in London) Park Lane Pennsylvania Avenue; Carnegie and
Euclid Avenues Piccadilly Circus the Spanish Steps; the steps
Tiananmen Square; the square US Route 66; Routes 1 and 2; a state
route See also 9.50-52. Buildings and monuments. The names of
buildings and monuments are generally capitalized. The generic term
is usually lowercased when used alone but capitalized when used as
part of a plural name (as in the fifth example).
 8.58 8.59 Names of Places 8.59 the Babri Mosque; the
mosque the Berlin Wall; the wall Buckingham Fountain; the fountain
the Capitol (where the US Congress meets, as distinct from the
capital city) the Chrysler Building; the building; the Empire State and
Chrysler Buildings the Houses of Parliament the Jefferson Memorial;
the memorial the Leaning Tower of Pisa the Pyramids (but the
Egyptian pyramids) Shedd Aquarium; the aquarium the Stone of
Scone Symphony Center; the center Tribune Tower; the tower the
Washington Monument; the monument Westminster Abbey; the
abbey the White House Though major works of art are generally
italicized (see 8.198), some massive works of sculpture are regarded
primarily as monuments and therefore not italicized. the Statue of
Liberty; the statue Mount Rushmore National Memorial; Mount
Rushmore the Colossus of Rhodes; the colossus Rooms, offices, and
such. Official names of rooms, offices, and the like are capitalized.
the Empire Room (butroom 421) the Amelia Earhart Suite (but suite
219) the Lincoln Bedroom the Oval Office the West Wing of the
White House Non-English names for places and structures. Non-
English names of thoroughfares and buildings are not italicized and
may be preceded by English the if the definite article would appear
in the original language. See also 11.4. the Champs-Elysées Unter
den Linden (never preceded by the) the Bibliotheque nationale the
Marktstrasse the Bois de Boulogne the Piazza delle Terme
 8.60 8.61 8.60 NAMES, TERMS, AND TITLES OF WORKS
Words Derived from Proper Names When to capitalize words derived
from proper names. Adjectives derived from personal names are
normally capitalized. Those in common use may be found in
Webster's, sometimes in the biographical names section (e.g.,
Aristotelian, Jamesian, Machiavellian, Shakespearean). If not in the
dictionary, adjectives can sometimes be coined by adding ian (toa
name ending in a consonant) or an (to a name ending in e or i)—or,
failing these, esque. As with Foucault and Shaw, the final consonant
sometimes undergoes a transformation as an aid to pronunciation. If
a name does not seem to lend itself to any such coinage, it is best
avoided. See also 8.61, 8.79. Baudelaire; Baudelairean Bayes;
Bayesian Dickens; Dickensian Foucault; Foucauldian Jordan;
Jordanesque (a la Michael Jordan) Kafka; Kafkaesque Marx; Marxist
Mendel; Mendelian Rabelais; Rabelaisian Sartre; Sartrean Shaw;
Shavian When to lowercase words derived from proper names.
Personal, national, or geographical names, and words derived from
such names, are often lowercased when used with a nonliteral
meaning. For example, the cheese known as “gruyére” takes its
name from a district in Switzerland but is not necessarily from there;
“swiss cheese” (lowercase s) is a cheese that resembles Swiss
emmentaler (which derives its name from the Emme River valley).
Although some of the terms in this paragraph and the examples that
follow are capitalized in Webster's, Chicago prefers to lowercase
them in their nonliteral use. See also 8.79. anglicize burgundy arabic
numerals champagne arctics (boots) cheddar bohemian delphic
bordeaux diesel engine brie dutch oven brussels sprouts epicure
 8.62 Names of Organizations 8.62 frankfurter pasteurize
french dressing pharisaic french fries philistine, philistinism french
windows platonic (but see 8.79) gruyere quixotic herculean roman
numerals homeric roman type india ink scotch (but Scotch whisky, a
product of Scotland) italicize stilton italic type swiss cheese (not
made in Switzerland) jeremiad venetian blinds lombardy poplar
vulcanize manila envelope wiener morocco leather Names of
Organizations Governmental Bodies Legislative and deliberative
bodies. The full names of legislative and deliberative bodies,
departments, bureaus, and offices are capitalized (but see 8.65).
Adjectives derived from them are usually lowercased, as are many of
the generic names for such bodies when used alone (as on
subsequent mentions). For generic names used alone but not listed
here, opt for lowercase. For administrative bodies, see 8.63; for
judicial bodies, see 8.64. See also 11.4. the United Nations General
Assembly; the UN General Assembly; the assembly the League of
Nations; the league the United Nations Security Council; the Security
Council; the council the United States Congress; the US Congress;
the 115th Congress; Congress; 115th Cong.; congressional (see also
9.45) the United States Senate; the Senate; senatorial; the upper
house of Congress the House of Representatives; the House; the
lower house of Congress the Electoral College the Committee on
Foreign Affairs; the Foreign Affairs Committee; the committee the
Illinois General Assembly; the assembly; the Illinois legislature; the
state senate the Chicago City Council; the city council the British
Parliament (or UK Parliament); Parliament; an early parliament;
parliamentary; the House of Commons; the Commons; the House of
Lords; the Lords
 8.63 8.63 NAMES, TERMS, AND TITLES OF WORKS the
Crown (the British monarchy); Crown lands the Privy Council (but a
Privy Counsellor) the Parliament of Canada; Parliament; the Senate
(upper house); the House of Commons (lower house) the Legislative
Assembly of British Columbia; the National Assembly of Quebec or
Assemblée nationale du Québec the Oireachtas (Irish parliament);
Seanad Eireann (Irish upper house); Dail Eireann (Irish lower house)
the Assemblée nationale or the National Assembly (present-day
France); the (French) Senate; the parliamentary system; the
Parlement de Paris (historical) the States General or Estates General
(France and Netherlands, historical) the Cortes Generales; the Cortes
(Spain); Cortes Espafiolas (Franco era) the Camara de Diputados
(the lower house of Mexico’s congress) the Bundestag (German
parliament); the Bundesrat (German upper house); the Reichstag
(imperial Germany) the House of People’s Representatives; the
House of Federation; the Council of Ministers (Ethiopia) the Dewan
Perwakilan Rakyat or the House of Representatives; the Majelis
Permusyawaratan Rakyat or People’s Consultative Assembly
(Indonesia) the European Parliament; the Parliament Administrative
bodies. The full names of administrative bodies are capitalized.
Adjectives derived from them are usually lowercased, as are many of
the generic names for such bodies when used alone. See also 8.62.
the United States Census Bureau; census forms; the census of 2000
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; the CDC
(abbreviation did not change when “and Prevention” was added to
name) the Department of the Interior; the Interior the Department
of State; the State Department; the department; departmental the
Department of the Treasury; the Treasury the Eunice Kennedy
Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development;
the NICHD the Federal Bureau of Investigation; the bureau; the FBI
the Federal Reserve System; the Federal Reserve Board; the Federal
Reserve the United States Foreign Service; Foreign Service Officer;
officer in the Foreign Service the National Institutes of Health; the
NIH; the National Institute of Mental Health; the NIMH the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration; OSHA the Office of
Human Resources; Human Resources
 8.64 8.65 Names of Organizations 8.65 the Peace Corps the
United States Postal Service; the Postal Service; the post office the
Illinois State Board of Education; the board of education the Ithaca
City School District; the school district; the district Judicial bodies.
The full name of a court, often including a place-name, is
capitalized. Subsequent references to a court (or district court,
supreme court, etc.) are lowercased, except for the phrase
“Supreme Court” at the national level. the United States (or US)
Supreme Court; the Supreme Court; but the court the United States
Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit; the court of appeals the
Arizona Supreme Court; the supreme court; the supreme courts of
Arizona and New Mexico the District Court for the Southern District
of New York; the district court the Court of Common Pleas (Ohio);
the court the Circuit Court of Lake County, Family Division (Illinois);
family court the Supreme Court of Canada; the Supreme Court; the
court the Birmingham Crown Court; Dawlish Magistrates’ Court
(England) the Federal Supreme Court (Ethiopia) States, counties,
and cities vary in the way they name their courts. For example, court
of appeals in New York State and Maryland is equivalent to supreme
court in other states; and such terms as district court, circuit court,
superior court, and court of common pleas are used for similar court
systems in different states. Generic names should therefore be used
only after the full name or jurisdiction has been stated. Government
entities that are lowercased. Certain generic terms associated with
governmental bodies are lowercased. Compare 8.51. administration;
the Carter administration brain trust cabinet (but the Kitchen Cabinet
in the Jackson administration) city hall (the municipal government
and the building) civil service court (a royal court) executive,
legislative, or judicial branch federal; the federal government; federal
agencies government monarchy parlement (French; but the
Parlement of Paris)
 8.66 8.66 NAMES, TERMS, AND TITLES OF WORKS
parliament, parliamentary (but Parliament, usually not preceded by
the, in the United Kingdom) state; church and state; state powers
Political and Economic Organizations and Movements Organizations,
parties, alliances, and so forth. Official names of national and
international organizations, alliances, and political movements and
parties are capitalized (e.g., “the Labor Party in Israel”). Words like
party, union, and movement are capitalized when they are part of
the name of an organization. Terms identifying formal members of or
adherents to such groups are also usually capitalized (e.g., “a
Socialist”; “a Republican”). Names of the systems of thought and
references to the adherents to such systems, however, are often
lowercased (e.g., “an eighteenth-century precursor of socialism”; “a
communist at heart”). Nonliteral or metaphorical references are also
lowercased (e.g., “fascist parenting techniques”; “nazi tendencies”).
For consistency, however—as in a work about communism in which
the philosophy and its adherents, the political party, and party
members and adherents are discussed— capitalizing the philosophy,
together with the organization and its adherents, in both noun and
adjective forms, will prevent editorial headaches. the African
National Congress party (party is not part of the official name); the
ANC Arab Socialist Ba‘th Party; the Ba‘th Party; the party; Ba‘thists
Bahujan Samaj Party; the BSP Bolshevik(s); the Bolshevik (or
Bolshevist) movement; bolshevism or Bolshevism (see text above)
Chartist; Chartism the Communist Party (but communist parties); the
party; Communist(s); Communist countries; communism or
Communism (see text above) the Democratic Party; the party;
Democrat(s) (party members or adherents); democracy; democratic
nations the Entente Cordiale (signed 1904); the Entente; but an
entente cordiale the Ethiopian Somali Democratic League; the
league; the party the European Union; the EU; the Common Market
the Fascist Party; Fascist(s); fascism or Fascism (see text above) the
Federalist Party; Federalist(s) (US history); federalism or Federalism
(see text above) the Free-Soil Party; Free-Soiler(s) the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade; GATT the Green Party; the party;
Green(s); the Green movement
 8.67 Names of Organizations 8.67 the Hanseatic League;
Hansa; a Hanseatic city the Holy Alliance the Know-Nothing Party;
Know-Nothing(s) the Labour Party; Labourite(s) (members of the
British party) the League of Arab States; the Arab League; the
league the Libertarian Party; Libertarian(s); libertarianism or
Libertarianism (see text above) Loyalist(s) (American Revolution;
Spanish Civil War) Marxism-Leninism; Marxist-Leninist(s) the
National Socialist Party; National Socialism; the Nazi Party; Nazi(s);
Nazism the North American Free Trade Agreement; NAFTA the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization; NATO the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development; the OECD; the organization the
Popular Front; the Front; but a popular front the Populist Party;
Populist(s); populism or Populism (see text above) the Progressive
Party; Progressive movement; Progressive(s); progressivism or
Progressivism (see text above) the Quadruple Alliance; the alliance
the Rashtriya Janata Dal; the RJD (National People’s Party) the
Republican Party; the party; the GOP (Grand Old Party);
Republican(s) (party members or adherents); republicanism; a
republican form of government the Social Democratic Party; the
party; Social Democrat(s) the Socialist Party (but socialist parties);
the party; Socialist(s) (party members or adherents); socialism or
Socialism (see text above) the United Democratic Movement; the
movement the World Health Organization; WHO Adherents of
unofficial political groups and movements. Names for adherents of
political groups or movements other than recognized parties are
usually lowercased. anarchist(s) centrist(s) independent(s)
moderate(s) mugwump(s) opposition (but the Opposition, in British
and Canadian contexts, referring to the party out of power) but the
Left; members of the left wing; left-winger(s); on the left the Right;
members of the right wing; right-winger(s); on the right the Far Left
 8.68 8.69 8.68 NAMES, TERMS, AND TITLES OF WORKS
the Far Right the radical Right the Tea Party; Tea Partiers (modeled
on names for established parties) Institutions and Companies
Institutions and companies—capitalization. The full names of
institutions, groups, and companies and the names of their
departments, and often the shortened forms of such names (e.g.,
the Art Institute), are capitalized. A the preceding a name, even
when part of the official title, is lowercased in running text. Such
generic terms as company and university are usually lowercased
when used alone (though they are routinely capitalized in
promotional materials, business documents, and the like). the
University of Chicago; the university; the University of Chicago and
‘Harvard University; Northwestern and Princeton Universities; the
University of Wisconsin-Madison (see also 6.81) the Department of
History; the department; the Law School the University of Chicago
Press; the press the Board of Trustees of the University of Chicago;
the board of trustees; the board the Art Institute of Chicago; the Art
Institute the Beach Boys; the Beatles; the Grateful Dead, the Dead;
the Who (but Tha Eastsidaz) Captain Beefheart and His Magic Band;
the band the Cleveland Orchestra; the orchestra the General Foods
Corporation; General Foods; the corporation the Green Bay Packers;
the Packers the Hudson’s Bay Company; the company the Illinois
Central Railroad; the Illinois Central; the railroad the Library of
Congress; the library the Manuscripts Division of the library the
Museum of Modern Art; MOMA; the museum the New School (see
also 8.69) the New York Stock Exchange; the stock exchange
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill; SOM; the architectural firm the
Smithsonian Institution; the Smithsonian Miguel Juarez Middle
School; the middle school Corporate names with unusual
capitalization. Corporate names that appear in all lowercase in
logotype and other promotional settings can often be capitalized in
the usual way. A copyright or “About Us” state 
 8.70 NamesofOrganizations 8.70 ment.on a corporate
website can be helpful in determining a usage that might be suitable
for regular text. Words that would normally be lowercase in
headline-style capitalization can usually be lowercased (see 8.159).
Spellings that begin lowercase but include a capital letter are usually
appropriate for running text, even at the beginning of a sentence, as
are names with additional internal capitals (see 8.154). A preference
for all uppercase should be respected. If a company appears to
prefer all lowercase even in running text, an initial capital can be
applied as a matter of editorial expediency. Intel (not intel) Adidas
(not adidas) AT&T (not at&t) Ebrary (not ebrary) Parsons the New
School for Design (lowercase the, contrary to corporate usage) but
GlaxoSmithKline HarperCollins RAND Corporation eBay Associations
Associations, unions, and the like. The full names of associations,
societies, unions, meetings, and conferences, and often the
shortened forms of such names, are capitalized. A the preceding a
name, even when part of the official title, is lowercased in running
text. Such generic terms as society and union are usually lowercased
when used alone. the Congress of Industrial Organizations; CIO; the
union Girl Scouts of the United States of America; a Girl Scout; a
Scout the Independent Order of Odd Fellows; IOOF; an Odd Fellow
Industrial Workers of the World; IWW; the Wobblies the
International Olympic Committee; the IOC; the committee the
League of Women Voters; the league the National Conference for
Community and Justice; the conference the National Organization for
Women; NOW; the organization the New-York Historical Society (the
hyphen is part of the official name of the society); the society the
130th Annual Meeting of the American Historical Association; the
annual meeting of the association
 8.71 8.72 8.71 NAMES, TERMS, AND TITLES OF WORKS the
Quadrangle Club; the club the Textile Workers Union of America; the
union On the other hand, a substantive title given to a single
meeting, conference, speech, or discussion is enclosed in quotation
marks. For lecture series, see 8.87. “Inside the Mind of a Master
Procrastinator,” a TED talk by Tim Urban posted in March 2016.
Historical and Cultural Terms Periods Numerical designations for
periods. A numerical designation for a period is usually lowercased;
however, certain periods may be treated as proper nouns (in which
both the numerical designation and the term for the period are
capitalized) to avoid any confusion with the generic meaning of the
same term (see also 8.51). For the use of numerals, see 9.33, 9.45,
the twenty-first century the second millennium BCE the nineteen
hundreds but the nineties the Eighteenth Dynasty (Egypt) the
quattrocento Descriptive designations for periods. A descriptive
designation of a period is usually lowercased, except for proper
names or to avoid ambiguity with a generic term. For traditionally
capitalized forms, see 8.73. ancient Greece the antebellum period
antiquity the baroque period the colonial period a golden age the
Hellenistic period imperial Rome modern history the Romantic period
(see also 8.79) the Shang dynasty (considered an era rather than a
political division; see 8.51) the Victorian era
 8.74 8.75 Historical and Cultural Terms 8.75 Traditional
period names. Some names of periods are capitalized, either by
tradition or to avoid ambiguity. See also 8.75. the Augustan Age the
Common Era the Counter-Reformation the Dark Ages the
Enlightenment the Gay Nineties the Gilded Age the Grand Siécle the
High Middle Ages (but the early Middle Ages, the late Middle Ages)
the High Renaissance the Jazz Age the Mauve Decade the Middle
Ages (but the medieval era) the Old Kingdom (ancient Egypt) the
Old Regime (but the ancien régime) the Progressive Era the
Reformation the Renaissance the Restoration the Roaring Twenties
Cultural periods. Names of prehistoric cultural periods are
capitalized. For geological periods, see 8.134-36. the Bronze Age the
Iron Age the Ice Age the Stone Age Similar terms for modern
periods are often lowercased (but see 8.73). the age of reason the
information age the age of steam the nuclear age Events Historical
events and programs. Names of many major historical events and
programs are conventionally capitalized. Others, more recent or
known by their generic descriptions, are often lowercased but may
be capitalized to prevent ambiguity. If in doubt, opt for lowercase.
For wars and battles, see 8.113-14; for religious events, 8.108; for
acts and treaties, 8.80.
 8.76 NAMES, TERMS, AND TITLES OF WORKS the Arab
Spring Black Lives Matter Boston Tea Party the Boxer Rebellion the
Cold War (but a cold war, used generically) the Cultural Revolution
the Great Chicago Fire; the Chicago fire; the fire of 1871 the Great
Depression; the Depression the Great Fire of London; the Great Fire
the Great Plague; the Plague (but plague [the disease] (President
Johnson’s) Great Society the Industrial Revolution the Long March
the May 18 Democratic Uprising (or Gwangju Uprising) the New Deal
Occupy Wall Street; the Occupy movement Prohibition
Reconstruction the Reign of Terror; the Terror the South Sea Bubble
the War on Poverty but the baby boom the Black September attacks
the civil rights movement the crash of 1929 the Dreyfus affair the
gold rush the Moroccan crises the Tiananmen Square protests the
war on terror 8.76 Speeches. Titles of a select few speeches are
traditionally capitalized. Others are usually lowercased (but see
8.188). Washington’s Farewell Address the Gettysburg Address the
annual State of the Union address Franklin Roosevelt’s second
inaugural address the Checkers speech Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I
Have a Dream” speech
 8.77 8.78 8.79 Historical and Cultural Terms 8.79
Meteorological and other natural phenomena. Named hurricanes and
other tropical cyclones are capitalized, as are many other named
meteorological phenomena. If in doubt, consult a dictionary or
encyclopedia. Natural phenomena identified generically by a place-
name or a year are usually lowercased. Cyclone Becky; the 2007
cyclone Hurricane Katrina; the 2005 hurricane EI Nifio the
Northridge earthquake of 1994 the Arctic polar vortex Use the
pronoun it, not he or she, when referring to named storms,
hurricanes, and the like (notwithstanding the practice of using male
and female proper names to refer to such events). Sporting events.
The full names of major sporting events are capitalized. the
Kentucky Derby; the derby the NBA Finals; the finals the Olympic
Games; the Olympics; the Winter Olympics the World Cup Cultural
Movements and Styles Movements and styles—capitalization. Nouns
and adjectives designating cultural styles, movements, and schools—
artistic, architectural, musical, and so forth—and their adherents are
capitalized if derived from proper nouns. (Words such as school and
movement remain lowercased.) Others may be lowercased, though a
few (e.g., Beat, Cynic, Scholastic, New Criticism) are capitalized to
distinguish them from the generic words used in everyday speech.
Some of the terms lowercased below may appropriately be
capitalized in certain works if done consistently— especially those
that include the designation “often capitalized” in Webster’s. (But if,
for example, impressionism is capitalized in a work about art, other
art movements must also be capitalized—which could result in an
undesirable profusion of capitals.) For religious movements, see
8.97. See also 8.60.
 8.79 NAMES, TERMS, AND TITLES OF WORKS abstract
expressionism Aristotelian art deco art nouveau baroque Beat
movement; the Beats (but beatnik) Beaux-Arts (derived from Ecole
des Beaux-Arts) British Invasion camp Cartesian Chicago school (of
architecture, of economics, of literary criticism) classicism, classical
conceptualism cubism Cynicism; Cynic Dadaism; Dada
deconstruction Doric Epicurean (see text below) existentialism
fauvism formalism Gothic (but gothic fiction) Gregorian chant
Hellenism Hudson River school humanism idealism imagism
impressionism Keynesianism mannerism miracle play modernism
mysticism; mystic naturalism neoclassicism; neoclassical
Neoplatonism New Criticism nominalism op art Peripatetic (see text
below) philosophe (French) Platonism pop art postimpressionism
postmodernism Pre-Raphaelite Reaganomics realism rococo
Romanesque Romanticism; Romantic Scholasticism; Scholastic;
Schoolmen scientific rationalism Sophist (see text below) Stoicism;
Stoic (see text below) structuralism Sturm und Drang (but storm and
stress) surrealism symbolism theater of the absurd
transcendentalism Some words capitalized when used in reference to
a school of thought are lowercased when used metaphorically.
epicurean tastes peripatetic families she’s a sophist, not a logician a
stoic attitude
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