VALLEY VIEW UNIVERSITY

MATE 359
METHODS OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS

Dr. Robert Akpalu, Valley View University 1

 • JOB 36:22
“Behold, God is exalted by His power;
Who teaches like Him?”

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 2

 Course Description
The course is designed to help students with
knowledge and experience to enable them to become
effective secondary school mathematics teachers and
be competent in the various methods of teaching
mathematics.

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• Topics include the following: Jesus method of
teaching,gleaning from great quotes about teaching,
direct objects of mathematics(facts, skills, concepts
and generalizations), maxims about teaching,
Strategies-lecture method, inductive and deductive
method, analytic and synthetic method, heuristics
method, project method, laboratory method, and
problem solving method. Merits and demerits of
each method would also be thoroughly examined.
Assessing students performance in mathematics
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 TEACHING METHODS

Lecture, group work and discussions, presentations

and tutorial sessions will be used. Students are
expected to be actively involved in all sessions for
maximum experience.

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 Great Quotes on Teaching
1. The mediocre teacher tells. The good teacher
explains. The superior teacher demonstrates. The
great teacher inspires.
• — William Arthur Ward

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2) You cannot teach a man anything, you can only
help him find it within himself.
— Galileo Galilei

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• 3) True teachers are those who use themselves as
bridges over which they invite their students to
cross; then, having facilitated their crossing,
joyfully collapse, encouraging them to create their
own.
• — Nikos Kazantzakis

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• I never teach my pupils, I only attempt to provide
the conditions in which they can learn.
• — Albert Einstein

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• The chief end of mathematical study must be to
make the students think. If mathematical teaching
fails to do this, it fails altogether. The mere
memorizing of a demonstration in geometry has
about the same educational value as the memorizing
of a page from the city directory.(Young,1911, p 4)

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• I’ve come to a frightening conclusion that I am the
decisive element in the classroom. It’s my personal
approach that creates the climate. It’s my daily mood
that makes the weather. As a teacher, I possess a
tremendous power to make a child’s life miserable or
joyous. I can be a tool of torture or an instrument of
inspiration. I can humiliate or heal. In all situations, it is
my response that decides whether a crisis will be
escalated or de-escalated and a child humanized or
dehumanized.
• — Haim G. Ginott

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• When you want to teach children to think, you
begin by treating them seriously when they are
little, giving them responsibilities, talking to them
candidly, providing privacy and solitude for them,
and making them readers and thinkers of
significant thoughts from the beginning.
That’s if you want to teach them to think.
• — Bertrand Russell

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 Summary of Quotes
• The different perspectives on what it means to teach
or be a great teacher share a common line — that at
some point, it becomes the responsibility of the
learner to venture out into their own understanding.
Great teachers and great teaching moments are
therefore the moments that inspire one to look
within himself and grow beyond the person he is to
the person he’s supposed to be.

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SOME KEY WORDS

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• To teach is to motivate, to inspire
• To teach is to engage students in learning.

• Teaching consists of getting students involved

in the active construction of knowledge.

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• “Teaching is defined as an interactive process
primarily involving classroom talk which takes place
between teacher and pupil and occurs during
certain definable activity.” -Edmund Amidon

• “Teaching process is designed and performed to

produce change in student behavior.” –Clarke

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• “Teaching is an intimate contact between a more
mature personality and a less mature one which is
designed to further the education of the latter.” –
Morrison

• “Teaching is concerned with the activities which are

concerned with the guidance or direction of
learning of others.” -Ryan

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 What is method?
AND
What is method of Teaching?

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• The word “Method” has been derived from a Latin
word which means, “Mode” or “Way”.

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 What is Method of Teaching?

“The process of interpreting the world of knowledge

to a learner’s mind is called the method of teaching”

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• Mathematics is "the branch of human enquiry
involving the study of numbers, quantities, data,
shape and space and their relationships, especially
their generalizations and abstractions and their
application to situations in the real world" (Clapham
& Nicholson, 2009, p. 505).

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 Assignment 1
• Date of Submission---Sunday, August 16, 2020

• Give one suitable example of each of the following

maxims about methods of teaching and state the
grade level where your mathematics example is
applicable:

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• Maxim - Is a general truth, fundamental principle,
or rule of conduct.
• Maxim - Is a compact expression of a general
truth or rule of conduct.
• A maxim sums up a fundamental principle or truth
about something in a way that captures the
imagination and gets repeated.

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 Examples
1. What is good for the goose is good for the gander.
2.You’re either part of the solution or part of the
problem.
3.Actions speak louder than words.
4. The pen is mightier than the sword.
5.Birds of a feather flock together.

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 The maxims are:
• We teach from:
• Simple →Complex
• Known → Unknown
• Concrete → Abstract
• Direct →Indirect
• Empirical → Rational
• Definite → Indefinite

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 Known to Unknown

• This maxim is based on the assumption that the

student knows something already and the teacher is
to increase his knowledge and widen his outlook.
We have to interpret all new knowledge in terms of
the old. It is said that old knowledge serves as a
hook on which the new one can be hung.

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• Known is trustworthy and the unknown
cannot be trusted. So while teaching we should
proceed from known and go towards unknown. For
example, while teaching any lesson, the teacher can
link the previous experiences of the child with the
new lesson that is to be taught.

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• For example, sets of numbers should serve as the
known on which prime and composite
numbers will be built.

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 Simple to Complex
• Classroom teaching is formal where the teacher
tries to teach and the students try to learn. In this
process of teaching-learning, the teacher should see
to it that those simple things are presented first to
the students. That way, they will start developing an
interest. Once they become interested, then he can
gradually move to complex type of things.

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• By learning simple things first, they feel
encouraged and they also gain confidence.
On this basis, they become further receptive to
the complex matter. On the other hand, if
complex types of things are presented to the learner
first, he becomes, upset, feels bored and finds
himself in a challenging situation.

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• Gradually more difficult items of learning may be
presented to the students. It will smoothen teaching
being done by the teacher and make learning
convenient and interesting for the students.
• For example, students should learn two-set
problems before learning three-set problems.

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• A non mathematics example is, while teaching
sentences of English, simple sentences should be
taught first and then complex type of sentences
may be taken afterwards.

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• Concrete things are solid things and they can be
touched. But abstract things can only be imagined.
So it is rather difficult to teach children about
abstract things. The students are likely to forget
them soon. On the other hand, if we teach the
students with the help of concrete objects, they will
never forget the subject matter.

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• For example, when we teach students counting, we
should first examine concrete nouns like, laptop,
book, Pen etc. and then proceed to digits and
numbers. The stars, the moon, the sun etc. being
taught first whereas the abstract things: like a
planet, satellites etc. should be taught afterwards.

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 Analysis to Synthesis
• Analysis means breaking a problem into its
convenient parts while synthesis means the
grouping of these separated parts into one complete
whole. A complex problem can be made simple and
easy by dividing into different parts.
• “Analysis is the approach for understanding and
synthesis is for fixation.”

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• 1. For example, In plane geometry, we teach
adjacent angles on a straight line, sum of angles at a
point, vertically opposite angles, corresponding
angles etc. then we put all these ideas together to
solve problems in geometry.

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• 2. Analysis of a sentence is taught to students, that
helps the students to understand the different parts
of a sentence. Later on, the synthesis of sentences
should be taught.

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 Particular to General:
• While teaching, the teacher should, first of all, take
particular statements and then on the basis of those
particular cases, generalization should be made.
Suppose the teacher is teaching the sum of angles in
a polygon, he should, first of all, give a few
examples of sum of angles in a triangle, rectangle or
any quadrilateral and then pentagon,… then on
the basis of those, find a general formula.

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 Empirical to Rational
• Empirical knowledge is based on observation and
first hand experience. For example the freezing of
water, the rising and setting of the sun. We can see,
feel and experience it. On the other hand, rational
knowledge is based on our arguments and
explanation. The stage of arguments is the last
whereas seeing things or feeling them is the first
stage. Empirical is less general statement whereas
rational is a more general statement.
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• Rationalism says that knowledge is derived from
reason and logic. Rational knowledge is built upon
scientific basis and it is more dignified than
empirical knowledge. So the safe approach in
teaching is that we should proceed from empirical
to rational.
• It is a journey from less mental maturity to more
mental maturity.

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 Induction to Deduction

• Deductive reasoning works from the more general

to the more specific.
• Inductive reasoning works the other way round,
moving from specific observations to broader
generalizations and theories.

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• Deductive reasoning works from the "general"
to the "specific". This is also called a "top-
down" approach.
• The deductive reasoning works as follows: think of a
theory about a topic and then narrow it down to
specific hypothesis (hypothesis that we test or can
test).

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• Narrow down further if we would like to collect
observations for hypothesis (note that we collect
observations to accept or reject hypothesis and the
reason we do that is to confirm or refute our
original theory).

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• In a conclusion, when we use deduction we reason
from general principles to specific cases, as in
applying a mathematical theorem to a particular
problem or in citing a law of physics to predict the
outcome of an experiment.

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 Theory Theory
↓ ↑
Hypothesis Hypothesis
↓ ↑
Observation Pattern
↓ ↑
Confirmation Observation
Deduction Reasoning Induction Reasoning
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• An Inductive reasoning works the other way
around, it works from observation (or observations)
toward generalizations and theories. This is also
called a “bottom-up” approach.

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• Inductive reasoning starts from specific
observations (or measurement if you are
mathematician or more precisely statistician), look
for patterns (or no patterns), regularities (or
irregularities), formulate hypothesis that we could
work with and finally end up developing general
theories or drawing conclusion.

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• Note that, that is how Newton reached to "Law of
Gravitation" from "apple and his head”
observation").
• In conclusion, when we use Induction we observe
a number of specific instances and from them
infer a general principle or law.

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 Psychological to Logical

• While teaching, the teacher should first keep in

mind the interest, aptitudes, capacities, and
developmental levels etc. of the children during the
selection of subject matter and then to its logical
arrangement for easy understanding.

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• A Real Teacher First Understand Learners
(Acronym ARTFUL)

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 Actual to Representative.

• For teaching excellently, actual objects should be,

shown to the children as far as possible. It gives
them concrete learning which is more desirable.
The learners are able to retain it in their minds for
quite a long time. Especially in the lower classes,
first-hand information to the students impresses
them a good deal. Representative things in the form
of pictures, models; etc. should be used for the
grown-ups or the seniors who are already familiar
with the actual objects.
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• For example, the teacher should show the elephant,
the camel, the horse, the railway station, the post
office etc. and thereby he should make them
understand about these things. The representative of
these things in the form of pictures or models may
be used at later stages.

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 Near to Afar
• Every child is able to learn well in the surroundings
to which he belongs. So the child should be
acquainted fully with his immediate environment.
Gradually, he may be taught about those things
which are far from his immediate environment. This
principle, if kept in view, will smoothen the
teaching-learning process considerably.

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• Thus the child should be taught the home, followed
by the street, the bazaar, the school and then the
distant environment of the city to which he belongs.
In the same way, acquaintance with the city should
lead to acquaintance with the District, the Division,
the Region and then the Country as a whole.

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• This type of teaching will be incremental and will be
step by step learning. The textbook writer who
writes books for the young children should also
place the different chapters in his book, keeping in
view this principle. Then only his book will stand
better chances of approval by all concerned.

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 Whole to Part
• In teaching, the teacher should try to acquaint the
child with the whole lesson first and then the
different portions of it may be analyzed and studied
intensively. This principle holds good while teaching
anything to the young children.

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 Definite to Indefinite

• In teaching, definite things should be taught first

because the learner can easily have faith in them.
Then afterwards he should be given the knowledge
of indefinite things.

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PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING

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 PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
1) Principle of learning by doing
2) Principle of individual differences
3) Principle of motivation
4) Principle of correlation

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4) Principle of linking with previous knowledge
5) Principle of repetition
6) Principle of certain objectives
7) Principle of evaluation

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 Aim of Teaching
• A teacher requires not only knowledge of the
subject matter, but knowledge of how
students learn and how to transform them
into active learners.
• Good teaching, then, requires a commitment
to systematic understanding of learning.

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• The aim of teaching is not to transmit
information, but to transform students from
passive recipients of other people's
knowledge into active constructors of their
own and others' knowledge.

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DIRECT OBJECTS OF MATHEMATICS

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• There are two objects of mathematics learning. They
are direct and indirect objects which we want
students to learn in mathematics.
• The direct objects of mathematics learning are facts,
skills, concepts, and principles.

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• Some of the many indirect objects are transfer of
learning, inquiry ability, problem-solving ability,
self-discipline, and appreciation for the structure of
mathematics.
• The direct objects of mathematics learning - facts,
skills, concepts, and principles(generalizations) - are
the four categories which mathematical content can
be separated.

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 FACTS
• A fact is a specific detail; verifiable information or
data.
• A Fact is something that actually exists or existed,
object or event, and can be verified by observation.

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• Examples:
• The Ghana flag is red, gold, and green.
• My birthday is in July.
• A square is a closed sided plane figure with four
straight equal sides and right angles.
• A triangle is a closed sided plane figure with three
straight sides and three angles.

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• Facts are presented as they are. They do not have
any level of inductive or deductive knowledge
applied to them.
• A good example of fact can be, “When did Vasco da
Gama reach India?” The quick answer is May 20,
1498 A.D. That is a fact. ...

• Facts have no generality and it is this feature which

distinguishes them from concepts and principles.

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• A math fact is something that needs to be
memorized or written down. For example, the
multiplication and addition tables are math facts
because they tell you that 1 + 1 = 2 and that 2 * 2
= 4. There are no ifs, or buts about them.
• .

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• Knowing a math fact allows you to recall the
information when you need it, say during a test.
However, if you were given a problem that is similar
but uses different numbers or arrangements, then
you wouldn't be able to do the problem because you
only know the fact and not the concept behind it.
You don't know how the problem works so you can't
solve it because the facts you know don't include
that specific problem.
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 Mathematical Concepts

• A concept is a mental representation or prototype

of objects or ideas for which multiple specific
examples exists.
• Concepts share critical features and vary on
irrelevant features.

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• A Concept - Is an idea about a particular
phenomenon which people abstract from specific
experiences. The idea includes all the properties
that distinguish examples of the concept from all
the non examples of the concept.

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• A concept in mathematics is an abstract idea
which enables people to classify objects or events
and to specify whether the objects and events are
examples or non-examples of the abstract idea
• A concept is a derived, abstracted form of
knowledge.
• .

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• 1. A concept is knowledge of the logical necessity of
a mathematical relationship. 2. Observation of a
pattern between inputs and outputs is not in itself a
mathematical concept. Merely fostering observation
of a pattern does not promote a concept.

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• 3. Teacher articulation of the goal concept is critical
to effective planning, teaching, and assessment.
Articulation of a concept involves specifying the
understanding of the logical necessity and includes
identification of the prior knowledge on which the
understanding rests

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• . 4. Mathematical concepts develop through
students’ activity, both mental and physical. By
making use of activities the students already have
available, we support them in building new
knowledge on prior knowledge.

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• 5. Learning a concept involves coming to anticipate
the result of one’s activity, so that the learner no
longer needs to carry out the activity to determine
the result.

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 Teaching Concepts

• Teachers are generally most concerned with

conceptual learning because it helps learners to
understand why. Concepts are distinguished from
facts in that they are a much broader, deeper type of
knowledge. Learning a concept should help the
learner generalize from the teaching context to
other, different contexts

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• . In this way, conceptual learning is like a key: it
helps to open learning in other areas. Concepts are
also different from facts and skills because they
involve relationships or processes. Photosynthesis,
natural selection, and the theory of relativity are all
examples of large, organized concepts.

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• Learning concepts is usually much more difficult
than learning facts because it requires analytical
thinking; facts taught within a concept are typically
learned faster. Teaching for concepts can take many
forms.

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• One common method for conceptual development
is the use of examples and non-examples, with a
focus on attributes/criteria for inclusion. Teachers
also engage in hypothetical questioning and systems
analysis instruction for teaching concepts.
Sample question used when teaching concepts:
“What do you notice about…?” or “How is x like y?”

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• For example consider the concept “house.” All
houses share 3 critical features:
a) All houses serve as living places for humans,
b) All houses are permanent features,
c) All houses are living places for one or more
families.

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• A Concept is a class of things: a category with
common elements.
• A Concept is something conceived in the mind
• A math concept is the 'why' of math.

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• Knowing a math concept means you know the
workings behind the answer.You know why you got
the answer you got and you don't have to memorize
answers or formulas to figure them out.

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• A concept in mathematics is an abstract idea which
enables people to classify objects or events and to
specify whether the objects and events are examples
or non-examples of the abstract idea. In this, the
examples of concepts are sets, subsets, equality,
inequality, triangle, cube, radius, and exponent.

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• A person who has learned the concept of triangle is
able to classify sets of figures into subsets of
triangles and non-triangles.
• Concepts can be learned either through definitions
or by direct observation.
• A concept is a derived, abstracted form of
knowledge.

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• Math Concept vs. Math Fact
• Let's compare a few math concepts and math facts.
• Counting. The math concept for counting tells you
that you start at a number and incrementally go up.
You can choose your increment to suit your needs.
The math fact for counting gives you the number
line of 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.

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 Assignment 2
• Due Date: Sunday, August 23, 2020
• Pick out two mathematical concepts and describe
how you would proceed to make your learners
grasp the concept.

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• Addition. The math concept of addition tells you to
gather 2 quantities or numbers together and get
their total.
• The math fact is the addition table that tells you
1 + 1 = 2, 1 + 2 = 3, etc.
• A formula is a rule expressed in symbols.
• E.g. A =𝜋𝑟 2

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 •

Concept of Area of a Circle

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Multiplication. The math concept of multiplication
tells you to get the total of a certain number or
quantity that has been copied so many times.
The math fact is the multiplication table.

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• Division. The math concept of division
tells you to split fairly.

• The math fact is the division table or the

reverse multiplication table.

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• The math concept is more general than the math
fact. Do you see how the math concept can be
applied in so many more areas than the math fact?
The concept allows you to solve so many more
problems than just the math fact

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 One math fact lets you solve one specific
type of problem, but one math concept
covers a whole range of like problems.

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 SKILLS
• A skill- Is a proficiency ability or technique;
strategy, method or tool.
Teachers also want students to learn skills. Skills are
best considered a type of learning that gets better with
practice. The most obvious examples come from
motor learning. Practicing your penalty kicks will
likely make you more accurate (a good coach can help,
too).

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 But skills learning can also include cognitive skills,
such as using a dictionary. For instance, if you practice
finding words in a dictionary by learning how to use
the guide words or recognizing the significance of
different typefaces, you will very likely become faster
and more efficient.

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• Cognitive skills are the core skills your brain
uses to think, read, learn, remember, reason, and
pay attention. Working together, they take incoming
information and move it into the bank of knowledge
you use every day at school, at work, and in life.

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• Methods for teaching skills usually involve practice
in which the teacher gives quick feedback on the
student's performance.
Sample feedback used when teaching skills: This
picture is clearer. Can you tell what you did
differently?”

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 Generalizations
• “Generalizations are the lifeblood of mathematics."
(Mason, et al., 2011).
• Generalizations are statements of a relationship
between two or more concepts.
• Generalizations are where students tell about the
pattern they see in the relationship of a certain
group of numbers. It's a pattern that is always true.

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• Examples:
• All matter has volume and mass.
• There is a relationship between an object's volume and
surface area.
• Magnets attraction is stronger the closer they are to
each other.
• Solids dissolve faster if they are smaller and the solution
is warmer.
• Cold water will freeze faster than hot.
• Hot water will freeze faster than cold.

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• Generalizations are summary statements of
relationships between concepts, summary
statements of cause and effect, summary statements
of predictions of future relationships, and a
generalized condition of fact.

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• Notice generalizations require understanding of
each concept to have meaning.
• Generalizations are powerful as they provide a way
to consolidate information to make it more usable
and easier to remember. Laws, principles, and
theories are all kinds of generalizations.

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• These generalizations require the connection of
concepts by a relationship.
• Relationships can only be built with direct
observational evidence and reasoning. Good
teaching practices will mediate both.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 125

• By examining examples such as:
• a2 × a3 = (a × a) × (a × a × a) = a5
a3 × a4 = (a × a × a) × (a × a × a × a) = a7 and so
on
• One can conclude that:
• am × an = am+n
• …thus generalizing to all cases for a specific
domain for the base “a” and the exponents
“m” and “n.”
Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 126
• In mathematics, generalization can be both a process
and a product. When one looks at specific instances,
notices a pattern, and uses inductive reasoning to
conjecture a statement about all such patterns, one
is generalizing. The symbolic, verbal, or visual
representation of the pattern in your conjecture
might be called a generalization.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 127

• When a student notices that the sum of an even and
an odd integer always results in an odd integer, that
student is generalizing. Generalizations such as this
allow students to think about computations
independently of the particular numbers that are
used. Without this, and many other generalizations
made in mathematics from the early grades, all work
in mathematics would be cumbersome and
inefficient.
Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 128
• More examples:
• Evaporation will increase as the surface area, air
movement, and temperature of the liquid increases.
• Plants grow from seeds. Generalization because it
has three concepts plants, growth, and seeds. It can
also predict future occurrences of the relationship -
plants growing from seeds...

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 129

• Generalizing is the process of "seeing through the
particular" by not dwelling on the particularities but
rather stressing relationships… whenever we stress
some features we consequently ignore others, and
this is how generalizing comes about"
(Mason, et al., 2011).

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 130

• An implication for teaching is that in order for
students to generalize, they must have multiple
examples from which to construct a generalization.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 131

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 132
Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 133
 George Polya’s 10 Commandments for
Teachers
• Be interested in your subject.

• 2. Know your subject.

• 3. Know about the ways of learning: The best way to learn anything
is to discover it by yourself.

• 4. Try to read the faces of your students, try to see their

expectations and difficulties, put yourself in their place.

• 5. Give them not only information, but “know-how”, attitudes of

mind, the habit of methodical work.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 134

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 135
• 6. Let them learn guessing.

• 7. Let them learn proving.

• 8. Look out for such features of the problem at hand as may be useful in
solving the problems to come – try to disclose the general pattern that lies
behind the present concrete situation.

• 9. Do not give away your whole secret at once—let the students guess
before you tell it—let them find out by themselves as much as feasible.

• 10. Suggest it, do not force it down their throats.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 136

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 137
SPECIFIC TEACHING METHODS

USED BY JESUS

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 138

 He Spoke with Authority

• While on earth, Jesus utilized many different

teaching methods during his three and a half years of
ministry. One approach He used was to speak by His
own authority; He spoke with certainty
(Zuck, 1995).

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 139

• The Bible states, “The people were amazed at His
teaching, for He taught with real authority—quite
unlike the teachers of religious law” (Mark 1:22
New Living Translation).

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 140

• We find ourselves quoting other teachers or experts
in our field of study but Jesus did not have to do
that. He spoke with His own authority because “all
authority in heaven and on earth had been given to
Him” (Matthew 28:18).
• Note : This is not to say that quoting an authority is
wrong.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 141

• What does this method look like in your classroom?
Students are searching for content knowledge and
answers to life’s questions as well. There are times
when we must say, “I don’t know,” and help
students find the answers. There are other times,
particularly when it comes to spiritual truths, that
we must not waiver but speak with certainty.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 142

 2. Using Object Lessons
• When we use tangible objects – insects, fruits,
vegetables, animals, coins, thermometers, tools, and
weapons – to teach intellectual and spiritual truths
the teaching method is usually called an object
lesson. Something physical is used as a metaphor for
an abstract concept or principle that is difficult to
explain.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 143

• In Christ’s teaching, He used the things with which
the people were most familiar, the things of the
earth to teach them the things that were unfamiliar,
the things of heaven.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 144

• The unknown was illustrated by the known; divine
truths by earthly truth, the spiritual by the natural,
the difficult by the simple. Object lessons speak to
the eyes and other senses so that they are received
into the heart. In fact, the more senses that are
involved, the greater the learning that takes place.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 145

 3. Use of Repetition
• Repetition is essential to new learning. Jesus utilized
this concept as He worked not only with His
disciples but with folks He met.
We see this when He talked about the importance of
receiving the(i) kingdom of God like a little child, and

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 146

(ii) When He told the disciples to allow the children to
come to Him.
(iii) In Peter we read about desiring the milk of the
word like a child, and in regard to evil, be like infants.
His repetitious use of children sends a message to us.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 147

 4.Story Telling
• Consider this statement: God loves you so much
that even if you turn your back on Him and you
choose to live a sin filled life, for many years, and
later if you have a change of heart, He will welcome
you back? This is a wonderful truth but is there
anything memorable about it? No !!

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 148

Jesus turned the above statement into a story. Luke
states “Jesus told them a story to TEACH them…”
(Luke18:1).
The Prodigal Son.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 149

Each of us has stories to tell our students. Can these
stories be the launching point of our lessons, or
perhaps a point along the way, or could they be used as
closure, wrapping up the lesson?
Sometimes teachers can be so intent on covering the
materials prepared for the lesson that they miss the
importance of this teaching method of Jesus.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 150

 5. Teachable Moments

• Teachable Moment-An event or experience which

presents a good opportunity for learning something
about a particular aspect of life. Jesus utilized the
teachable moment like no other before Him.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 151

• During one of Jesus’ lessons, He was interrupted by
an expert in the law and asked what he needed to do
to inherit eternal life. Jesus simply said, “Love the
Lord your God with all your heart and with all your
soul and with all your mind … you should love and
value your neighbor as much as you love and value
yourself ” (Matthew 22: 37-39), a Bible truth of 30
words.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 152

• Jesus used two teaching methods—storytelling and
a teachable moment—to illustrate and summarize
this truth into three words: The Good Samaritan.
These three words bring to memory an example of
what it takes to be a good neighbor and shows an
example of love.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 153

 6. Humor
• “Good teachers are teachers that know their field,
have a sense of caring and compassion, and a sense
of humor (p. 204).Humor will work very well in all
classes. However, “the Lord’s humor was never
entertainment for entertainment’s sake

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 154

• . He never told jokes merely to evoke laughter. His
humor was always purposeful” (Zuck, 1995, p.204).
I would caution and encourage all teachers to use
humor to support their lesson points.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 155

 7. Get Their Attention
Many a good lesson has fallen on deaf ears because the
teacher has not taken the time to capture the imagination
of his or her students at the beginning of the lesson.

One of Jesus’ methods of teaching was to intentionally get

peoples’ attention, either by shocking them with a
statement, or using humor, enigmas, or aphorisms, for the
expressed purpose of planting these thoughts for
future(Matthew 5: 29-30)

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 156

OTHER TEACHING METHODS

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 157

 OTHER TEACHING METHODS

• We can now consider a number of specific methods

which can be drawn from in the course of classroom
instruction. It is however, important to note that the
choice of any form of methods should not be
arbitrary, but needs to be governed by the criteria
we have already examined.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 158

• At the same time each method is not fool-proof, but
has its own advantages and disadvantages. That is
why I would recommend the use of complementary
methods rather than one method.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 159

 1. The Lecture Method
• A lecture is an oral presentation of information by
the instructor. It is the method of relaying factual
information which includes principles, concepts,
ideas and all THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE about a
given topic In this method, knowledge is delivered
through a speech.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 160

• This is the oldest and most important teaching
method because it always remained a part of all
other instructional methodologies. In this method, a
teacher takes part as an active participant and
students are at the receiving end most of the time.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 161

 In a lecture the instructor tells, explains, describes or
relates whatever information the trainees are required
to learn through listening and understanding. It is
therefore teacher-centred. The instructor is very
active, doing all the talking.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 162

• Trainees on the other hand are very inactive, doing
all the listening. Despite the popularity of lectures,
the lack of active involvement of trainees limits its
usefulness as a method of instruction.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 163

• The lecture method of instruction is recommended
for trainees with very little knowledge or limited
background knowledge on the topic. It is also
useful for presenting an organised body of new
information to the learner. To be effective in
promoting learning, the lecture must involve some
discussions and, question and answer period to
allow trainees to be involved actively.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 164

 PREPARATION AND DELIVERY OF A LECTURE

• As stated earlier, during the lecture, the trainees

merely listen to the instructor. It is therefore very
important to consider the attention span of trainees
when preparing a lecture. The attention span is the
period of time during which the trainees are able to
pay full attention to what the instructor is talking
about. It is estimated to be 15-25 minutes only. It is
difficult to hold the trainees attention for a long
period of time and careful preparation of lectures is
very necessary.
Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 165
• The instructor should have a clear, logical plan of
presentation. He/she should work out the essentials
of the topic, organise them according to priorities
and logical connections, and establish relationships
between the various items. Careful organisation of
content helps the trainees to structure and hence, to
store or remember it.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 166

• When developing a theme in a lecture, the
instructor should use a variety of approaches. A
useful principle in any instruction is to go from
the KNOWN to UNKNOWN;
from SIMPLE to COMPLEX,
or from PARTS to a WHOLE.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 167

• Knowing the trainees and addressing their needs and
interests is very important. For example, in
explaining technical processes the instructor should
search for illustrations that will be familiar to the
trainees.
• Unfamiliar technical words should be introduced
cautiously. New terminologies should be defined
and explained and examples given.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 168

• In order to gain and focus the attention of trainees,
the instructor should be adequately prepared, fluent
in his/her presentation and should use various
teaching aids and illustrations such as charts,
transparencies, codes and even the real objects
during presentation.
• Question and Answer periods should be included in
the lecture.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 169

 Merits and Demerits of Lecture Method
• Lecture method has also some merits which are as
follows:
• i. This is the most convenient and easy method.
• ii. This is the fastest way to deliver knowledge so
when the syllabus is so heavy then it becomes
necessary.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 170

• iii. When strength of a class is very high then it
becomes more important to use.
• iv. This is so economical because there is no
equipment involved in it and only one teacher can
teach so many students.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 171

• v. This is very helpful to introduce new concepts.
• vi. This can be used to raise the interest level of the
students while applying any other teaching method.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 172

 Demerits
• This method has also some demerits which are
listed below:
• i. This is a teacher centred approach so students
cannot play an active role.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 173

• ii. This method does not develop reasoning and
thinking ability in the students.
• iii. Sometimes lectures become boring because
there is no activity involved in it.
• iv. In this method, teacher-student relationship is
not developed in a proper way.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 174

• v. This method is relatively more useful in higher
classes.
• vi. It becomes essential to enhance writing and
communication skills by the teachers.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 175

 Application -Lecture Method in Mathematics

• As no practical work is involved in this method, so it

can only be used to clarify the basic concepts of each
unit given in the textbooks of mathematics.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 176

• It is applicable to teach all branches of mathematics
including sets, logarithms, algebra, matrices,
statistics, geometry and trigonometry.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 177

• Mathematical problems related to the above
branches cannot be solved by this method but the
procedures and methods to solve them can be
explained in a very good manner. The historical
perspective of these branches and their relevance to
the real life can also be described by this method.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 178

 2. Inductive Method
(Another name for it is reasoning based on
pattern).This method is based on principle of
induction. Thus, inductive method of teaching leads
us from known to unknown, particular to
general or examples to general rule and from
concrete to abstract.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 179

When a number of concrete cases have been
understood, the learner himself is able to attempt for
generalization.
This method is also called scientific method in which
we proceed from: known to unknown, from
specific to general and from example to rule
or formula.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 180

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 182
Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 183
• Consider the following numbers
• 0, 3, 8, 15, 24, 35……..

Find the next three terms if there is a pattern and

hence find the generalization or formula.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 184

• Answer: 𝑛2 − 1 where 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, 4 … …

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 185

• Example 3
• 1 = 1
• 1+ 3 = 4
• 1+3 + 5 = 9
• 1+3+5+ 7 = 16
• 1+3+5+ 7+ 9 = 25

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 186

• Conjecture:
• Sum of the odd numbers is equal to the number of
odd numbers you have squared.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 187

• Example 4
• Show whether or not 3𝑛 −1 a multiple of 2?

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 188

 Show it is true for n =1
31 −1 = 3−1 = 2
Yes 2 is a multiple of 2.
Assume it is true for n=k
Then 3𝑘 −1 is true
(How do we know that? We don't! It is
an assumption ... that we treat
as a fact for the rest of this example)
Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 189
• Now, we prove that 3𝑘+1 − 1 is a multiple of 2.
• = 3𝑘+1 − 1
• =3 x 3𝑘 −1
• = 2 x 3𝑘 + 3𝑘 −1
• 2 x 3𝑘 This is divisible by 2 and 3𝑘 −1 is true
• Hence 3𝑘+1 − 1 is a multiple of 2.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 190

 Merits & Demerits of Inductive Method
Its merits are as follows:
• i. This method is useful to introduce a new
mathematical concept along with a formula or rule.

• ii. Students who like the inductive approach can

infer the more complicated rules or formulas.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 191

• iii. This is a student centred approach because
students play an active role in it.
• iv. As the students may establish laws and principles
by themselves so it gives them confidence.
• v. This method helps to motivate the students to
think logically and make the learning environment
more interesting.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 192

• vi. This is based on reasoning and experimentation.
• vii. This is quite suitable for primary and secondary
level classes.
• viii. Students easily remember the laws or principles
which they prove by themselves.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 193

 Demerits
• i. It is quite time consuming and laborious as well.
• ii. To establish a law or principle is not the complete
process of learning. Students have to practice a lot to
understand the concept fully.
• iii. Sometimes a formula or rule proved with the help of
some similar examples does not apply in other similar
cases.
• iv. Only experienced teachers can use this method in a
right way.
• v. This method does not help in developing problem
solving ability in the students.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 194

 Application of Inductive Method
• Inductive method is used to establish laws,
principles, formulas and methods instead of solving
mathematical problems.
• Therefore it can be used in all branches of
mathematics but establishing laws or formulas at the
secondary level is only involved in algebra, matrices
and to some extent geometry.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 195

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 196
• Prove that the n-th triangular number is:

• 𝑇𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)/2

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 197

 3. Deductive Method
• Deductive method is based on deduction. In
this approach we proceed from general to
particular and from abstract to concrete. At first
the rules are given and then students are asked to
apply these rules to solve more problems.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 198

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 199
• This method is totally different from inductive
method. In this method, we proceed from
general to specific and from a rule to an
example.
• Already constructed formulas, rules, methods or
principles are taught to the students and they apply
them to solve the problems.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 200

• In this teaching approach, we can also prove a
theorem with the help of undefined terms, defined
terms, axioms and postulates. Then with the help of
that theorem along with different rules and
principles, we can derive other theorems as well.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 201

1. All numbers ending in 0 or 5 are divisible by 5.
The number 35 ends with a 5, so it must be
divisible by 5.
2. Acute angles are less than 90 degrees. This angle
is 40 degrees, so it must be an acute angle.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 202

 Steps in the Deductive Approach

• 1) Clear recognition of the problem

• 2) Search for a tentative hypothesis
• 3) Formulating of a tentative hypothesis
• 4) Verification

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 203

 Example 1

• Find a2 X a10 = ?
• Solution:
• General : am X an = am+n
• Particular: a2 X a10 = a2+10 = a12

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 204

 Example 2

• Find (102)2 = ?
• Solution:
• General: (a+b)2 =a2+b2+2ab
• Particular: (100+2) 2 = 1002 + 22 + (2 x 100 x 2)
= 10000+4+400= 10,404

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 205

• Example 3
Solve the equation 5+ 𝑥 + 14 = 𝑥 + 7

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 206

Is this an example of logical reasoning?
If yes why?

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 207

a) Subtract 5 from both sides
b) Square both sides
c) Use the pattern for square binomials to expand the right
hand side
d) Subtract 𝑥 + 14 from both sides
e) Factor the right side
f) Use the zero product property to solve the equation
g) Check both answers.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 208

• It is an example of deductive reasoning because we
started with a known statement and just doing
logical operations, we are able to deduce step by
step by manipulating other truths to arrive at the
answer.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 209

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 210
• The subtle difference between "teach" and
instruct is that you can teach almost anything:
concepts, ideas, theories etc. When
you instruct someone, you're giving him/her a set
of tools or tasks to do something specific.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 211

 Merits and Demerits of Deductive Method

• There are some merits and demerits of this method

as well. Some merits are listed below:
• i. This method is very easy and short.
• ii. To remember a formula or rule is not very
difficult so this method is blessing for those students
who cannot remember complicated procedures.
• iii. Teachers can complete the syllabus easily by this
method.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 212

• iv. This method helps to enhance the computational
ability of the students.

• v. It is helpful to teach those concepts in which

derivation of rules or methods is not involved.

• vi. With the help of this method, we can prove

different theorems using already defined formulas or
principles.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 213

 This method has the following demerits

• i. It becomes very difficult for students when they

have to remember so many rules and formulas.
• ii. This method does not help in improving
reasoning ability in the students.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 214

• iii. It is not effective at lower level classes.
• iv. This method is not constructivist. If a student
forgets a rule or principle then he or she
cannot reconstruct that easily.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 215

• v. This method does not encourage discovery
learning.
• vi. It cannot make students creative.
• vii. Students may be doubtful about the reason of
using one particular formula

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 216

 Application of Deductive Method in Mathematics.

• Deductive method is the highly used method in

mathematics. It is used to solve those problems in
which complicated procedures are not involved and
they can be solved by applying different kinds of
already established laws, methods, formulas and
principles directly.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 217

• Such kind of problems can be found in all units of
syllabus of mathematics at secondary level including
sets, logarithms, algebra, matrices, variation,
statistics, geometry and trigonometry.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 218

 Teaser
• A floor measures 160cm by 200cm.It is completely
covered with square tiles, all alike. If whole tiles
only are used, what is the greatest size the tiles can
be?

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 219

 4. Heuristic (Discovery) Method

• The term ‘Heuristic’ is derived from a Greek word,

which means ‘I find’ or ‘I discover’. Here the child is
put in the place of discoverer.
• This method emphasis experimentation as the
teacher becomes an observer and the child tries to
move ahead independently. This method makes
student self – reliant and independent.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 220

• PROCEDURE:
• This method requires the student to solve problems
experimentally. Each student is required to discover
almost everything himself and is to be told nothing.
The students are led to discover facts with the help
of experiments, apparatus and books. In this method
the children behaves like a research scholar.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 221

• In Heuristic method,
• A problem sheet with minimum instruction is given
to the student and he is required to perform the
experiments concerning the problem in hand.
• He must follow the instruction and enter in his note
book. He must record everything about his
experiment, research, observation, result, and draw
conclusion.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 222

• The types of heuristics in Mathematics that can be
applied to School level Math problems can be
grouped as follow:

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 223

Visualize a Make a systematic
Draw a diagram
Problem list

Make a Calculated
Guess and Check
Guess

Walk through the

Act it out Work backwards
Process

Simplify the Solve part of the

Look for patterns
Problem problem
Make a
Consider Special
supposition/Assum
Cases
ption

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 224

 How to Draw a Diagram
• Question 1
• At a pet shop,25% of the animals were cats, 45% of
the animals were dogs,18% of the animals were
rabbits and the rest were hamsters (rodents). There
were 24 hamsters. How many animals were there at
the pet shop?

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 225

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 226
 How to Make a Systematic List

• Question 2
• Use the digits 9, 5,4 and 2 to form a 4-digit number
that is closest to 5,000. Each digit can only be used
once.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 227

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 228
 How to Guess and Check

• Question 3
• There are 30 coins in a bag. They consist of twenty-
cent and fifty-cent coins. The total value of the coins
is $ 9.30. How many twenty-cent coins are there?

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 229

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 230
• Let 𝑥 be the number of 20 cent coins and 𝑦 be the
number of fifty-cent coins.
• Then 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 30…………….(1)
0.2𝑥 + 0.5𝑦 = 9.30 … … … (2)
• 𝑥 = 19 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 11

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 231

 How to Work Backwards and Draw Model
• Alan had some cards and he gave some to two
1
friends, Ben and Carl. Alan first gave of his cards
3
3
and 8 more to Ben. Alan then gave of the
4
remainder to Carl and two more cards. In the end,
Alan was left with 46 cards. How many cards did
Alan have at first?
• Answer = 300

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 232

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 233
How to Look for Patterns

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 234

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 235
Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 236
Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 237
• Thinking skills and heuristics are essential for
mathematical problem-solving.
• Now that you have a better picture of what Math
Heuristics are and how they work, try them out
with a variety of Math questions!

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 238

• As you are doing the questions, don’t forget to think
about which Math Heuristics is the best-fitting for
each particular scenario.
• If you continue to hone your problem-solving skills
over the next few weeks with these heuristics
mentioned above, you will be able to see questions
in new perspectives and increase your efficiency in
solving Math problems!

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 239

 Further Examples

• 1.Take a problem of the discovery of the properties

of parallelogram: Give students many
parallelograms drawn on sheets of paper and ask
them to find its properties. Naturally the students
will start observation, measurements, records their
findings, analysis and draw their conclusions.
Everything has to be done by the students on their
own.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 240

• Example 2: Measuring the area of the four walls of
the classroom.
• Here, students start observation, measurements,
records their findings, analysis, finds areas using
formulas, and draw conclusion. Every thing has to
be done by students own their own.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 241

• Advantages of Heuristic Teaching Method
• Student becomes active participant.
• Home study and memorization work become light.
• Psychological method, creativity of learner
• Develops scientific attitude
• Independent
• Understands the subject matter with logical thinking

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 242

• It is a student centred approach.
• It gives confidence to the students because they
discover the solution by themselves.
• It makes students creative.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 243

• It develops reasoning and thinking abilities in the
students.
• It clears concepts in a better way.
• Continuously inquiring by the students keeps them
active and they do not get bored.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 244

• Disadvantages of Heuristic Teaching Method
• It cannot be used at primary level of education
• It demands extraordinary labour and special from
the teacher, who is already over burden.
• Every child cannot be expected to be gifted
discoverer.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 245

• Not possible to teach the entire topic by this
method.
• Student may tends to take the help,
• This method is possible for small classes.
• Sometimes teachers fail to distinguish between False
heuristic and true heuristic.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 246

• This method is quite time consuming.
• It is essential for all teachers to be properly skilled
with this method otherwise it is very difficult for
them to apply this in the classroom.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 247

• If a teacher fails to give proper guidance to the
students, then they may get discouraged along the
way.
• This method is not suitable for teaching all kinds of
mathematical problems.
• Sometimes a teacher fail to ask the proper
questions during the discovery process thereby
distracting students.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 248

• If any student has less aptitude towards discovery
then it becomes very difficult for him or her to learn
something through this method.
• It is only applicable if strength of a class is low but it
is usually not possible in public schools with large
numbers.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 249

• In the heuristic method, students are encouraged to
reach the solution by constructing the knowledge
themselves. Teacher only facilitates them by raising
relevant questions.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 250

 Finally
At school, each topic cannot be taught by this method.
However, teachers can at least do two to four topics in
a year to develop the heuristic attitudes of children.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 251

• That is why it is also called inquiry method. As
students discover the solution under the guidance of
a teacher so it is also known as guided discovery
method or programmed instruction.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 252

• So many researches have proved that heuristic or
discovery method is more effective in teaching
mathematics than expository approach.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 253

• With the help of this method, lengthy syllabus
cannot be finished in time.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 254

Application of Heuristic Method in Mathematics

• Heuristic method can be used to teach all branches

of mathematics. It is helpful when students are not
competent enough to solve problems related to one
particular concept and they need guidance. When
students get mastery of different methods and
formulas, then they are encouraged to use deductive
or problem solving methods to solve the same
problems.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 255

 5. Analytic Method
• Analytic is derived from the word Analysis
which means 'breaking up' .
• In this method we break up the unknown
problem into simpler parts and then see how
these simpler parts can be recombined to find the
solution. It proceeds from unknown to known.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 256

• Here, we start with what is to be found out
and then think of further steps or possibilities that
may connect the unknown to the known and find
out the desired result.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 257

• Example: Given that a/b= c/d, prove that
ac-2b2/b = c2-2bd/d
Solution start from the unknown i.e. to solve this
problem, we have to start from
ac-2b2/b=c2-2bd/d and get the answer a/b=c/d

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 258

You are given 5 minutes to provide the answer
to the question above.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 259

 Example 2:

• If a2+b2=7ab, prove that 2log (a+b) =

2log3+loga+logb

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 260

TRY ON YOUR OWN
3 MINUTES

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 261

 Proof
• To prove this using analytic method, begin from
the unknown.
• The unknown is 2log (a+b) = 2log3+loga+logb
• Now, 2log (a+b) = 2log 3+ log a+ log b
• log (a+b)2 = log 32 + log a + log b

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 262

• log (a+b)2 = log 9 + log ab
• log (a+b)2 = log 9ab
• (a+b)2 = 9ab
• Hence a2+b2=7ab

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 263

 MERITS OF ANALYTIC METHOD

• 1.It is a logical method. It leaves no doubts in the

mind and convinces the learner.
• 2.It helps the student in understanding and
strengthen the urge to discover facts.
• 3.Each step has its reason and justification. So, no
fixed steps are required.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 264

• 4.This is a pure logical method so there is always
less chance of doubts.
• 5.. Discovering the solution is an essential part of
this method so it enhances logical thinking and
reasoning ability of the students.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 265

 DRAWBACK- ANALYTIC METHOD

1.It is a lengthy method

2. It is difficult to acquire efficiency and speed
3.It may not be applicable to all topics equally well.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 266

• 4.Students always play an active role in this method.
• 5.Students do not need to memorise any set of
procedures in order to solve a problem.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 267

Applications of Analytic Method in Mathematics

• Because of discovery approach, only such kind of

problems can be taught with the help of this method
in which we have to prove something. At secondary
level, such problems can only be found in the units
of algebra, geometry, ratio and proportion
(variation).

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 268

 6. Synthetic Method
• This method is completely opposite to the analytic
method as we proceed from the given or known
elements in the problems to the desired solution
or unknown. In this method, we synthesize or put
together separate elements or small portions given
in the problems to draw a series of conclusions
until the unknown or desired result is
found.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 269

• The Synthetic method is based on already learnt
concepts. Therefore it is quite necessary to go through the
analytic method to become master of specific mathematical
concepts then synthetic method can be used to solve the
problems more quickly.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 270

• It is the opposite of the Analytic Method. Here
one proceeds from known to unknown. In practice,
synthesis is the complement of analysis. To
synthesize is to place together things that are apart.
It starts with something already known, and
connects that with the unknown parts.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 271

• It starts with the data available or known and
connects the same with the conclusion. It is the
process of putting together known bits of
information to reach the point where unknown
information becomes obvious and true. Synthesis
without analysis is dogmatic.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 272

• In this method, students are not bound to give
reason for each and every step while solving a
mathematical problem. That is why it cannot be
preferred alone to derive mathematical proofs.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 273

 Synthetic Example

If a2+b2=7ab (known)
prove that 2log (a+b) = 2log3+loga+logb
(The unknown)

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 274

Make an Attempt to Solve This
3 Minutes

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 275

 Example :

If a2+b2=7ab prove that 2log (a+b) = 2log3+loga+logb

Proof:
To prove this using synthetic method, begin from the
known.
The known is a2+b2= 7ab
Adding 2ab on both sides
a2+b2+2ab = 7ab + 2ab
(a+b)2 = 9ab

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 276

• Taking log on both sides
• log (a+b)2 = log 9ab
• 2log (a+b) = log 9 + log ab
• 2 log (a+b) = log 32 + log a + log b
• 2log (a+b) = 2log 3+ log a+ log b

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 277

 TRY
• If a2+b2=11ab, prove that 2log (a-b) =
2log3+loga+logb

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 278

• Example: Given that a/b= c/d, prove that
ac-2b2/b = c2-2bd/d
Solution start from the known i.e. to solve this
problem, we have to start from a/b= c/d
and get the answer ac-2b2/b=c2-2bd/d
• Try it now.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 279

 Solve it

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 280

 𝑎 𝑐
Starting from = we have 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐……(1)
𝑏 𝑑
Multiply thro equation (1)by c, we have
𝑎𝑐𝑑 = b𝑐 2 …….(2)
Subtracting 2𝑏 2 𝑑 from both sides of equation (2),
𝑎𝑐𝑑2𝑏 2 𝑑= b𝑐 2 2𝑏 2 𝑑
𝑑 𝑎𝑐 − 2𝑏 2 = 𝑏(𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑑) Divide thro by 𝑏𝑑
𝑎𝑐−2𝑏2 𝑐 2 −2𝑏𝑑
=
𝑏 𝑑

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 281

Example 5

1 1
Given that 𝑎 + = 1, and 𝑏 + = 1, prove that
𝑏 𝑐
1
𝑐+ = 1 using the synthetic approach.
𝑎

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 282

 Merits and Demerits of Synthetic Method
• This method has also some merits as given below:
• i. Synthetic method is short and brief.
• ii. It is quick because of deductive reasoning.
• iii. It sharpens the memory of students.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 283

• iv. Teachers can finish the lengthy course in time
through it.
• v. It provides opportunity to the students to practise
mathematical formulas or procedures.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 284

 Demerits of this method
• i. It is not student centred.
• ii. It does not develop reasoning ability in the students.
• iii. Students have to remember so many steps without
reasoning.
• iv. It does not employ heuristic approach.
• v. If a student forgets any mathematical proof then it is
very difficult to recall it step by step.
• vi. It does not clarify the concepts completely.
• vii. It is neither psychological nor scientific in nature.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 285

 7. Application
• Just like analytic method, this method can be used
for such problems in which we have to prove
something. It is also useful to find out something
unknown with the help of given conditions in the
problem statement.
• These problems can be found in the units of algebra,
ratio and proportion (variation) and geometry at
secondary level.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 286

Do a little research on the above topic

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 287

 8. Problem Solving Method

• Definitions
• Problem solving is a set of events in which human
beings use rules to achieve some goals – Gagne
• Problem solving involves concept formation and
discovery learning – Ausubel
• Problem solving is a planned attacks upon a difficulty
or perplexity for the purpose of finding a satisfactory
solution. – Risk,T.M.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 288

• The child is curious by nature. He wants to find out
solutions of many problems, which sometimes are
puzzling even to the adults. The problem solving
method is one, which involves the use of the process
of problem solving or reflective thinking or
reasoning.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 289

• Problem solving method, as the name indicated,
begins with the statement of a problem that
challenges the students to find a solution.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 290

 Steps in Problem Solving

• 1. Identifying and defining the problem:

• The student should be able to identify and clearly
define the problem. The problem that has been
identified should be interesting challenging and
motivating for the students to participate in
exploring.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 291

• 2. Analyzing the Problem:
• The problem should be carefully analyzed as to what
is given and what is to be find out. Given facts must
be identified and expressed, if necessary in symbolic
form.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 292

• 3. Formulating tentative hypothesis
• Formulating of hypothesis means preparation of a
list of possible reasons of the occurrence of the
problem. Formulating of hypothesis develops
thinking and reasoning powers of the child. The
focus at this stage is on hypothesizing – searching for
the tentative solution to the problem.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 293

• 4. Testing the hypothesis:
• Appropriate methods should be selected to test the
validity of the tentative hypothesis as a solution to
the problem. If it is not proved to be the solution,
the students are asked to formulate alternate
hypothesis and proceed.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 294

• 5. Verifying of the result or checking the
result:
• No conclusion should be accepted without being
properly verified. At this step the students are asked
to determine their results and substantiate the
expected solution. The students should be able to
make generalizations and apply it to their daily life.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 295

• Example :
• Define union of two sets. If A={2,3,5}. B={3,5,6}
And C={4,6,8,9}.
• Prove that A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 296

• Solution :
• Step 1: Identifying and Defining the Problem
• After selecting and understanding the problem the child will
be able to define the problem in his own words that
• (i) The union of two sets A and B is the set, which
contains all the members of a set A and all the members of a
set B.
• (ii) The union of two set A and B is express as ‘A ∪ B’ and
symbolically represented as A ∪ B = {x ; x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
• (iii) The common elements are taken only once in the union of
two sets.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 297

• Step 2: Analysing the Problem
• After defining the problem in his own words,
the child will analyse the given problem that how
the problem can be solved?

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 298

• Step 3 : Formulating Tentative Hypothesis
• After analyzing the various aspects of the problem
he will be able to make hypothesis that first of all he
should calculate the union of sets B and C i.e.
(B ∪ C). Then the union of set A and B ∪ C. thus he
can get the value of A ∪ (B ∪ C). Similarly he can
solve (A ∪ B) ∪ C

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 299

• Step 4: Testing Hypothesis
• Thus on the basis of given data, the child will be
able to solve the problem in the following manner
• In the example it is given that
• B ∪C = {3,5,6} ∪ {4,6,8,9}
• = {3,4,5,6,8,9}

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 300

• A ∪ (B ∪ C) = {2,3,5} ∪ {3,4,5,6,8,9}
• = {2,3,4,5,6,8,9}
• Similarly,
• A ∪ B = {2,3,5,6}
• (A ∪ B) ∪ C = {2,3,4,5,6,8,9}
• After solving the problem the child will analyse the result on
the basis of given data and verify his hypothesis whether A ∪
(B ∪ C) is equals to (A ∪ B) ∪ C or not.
•

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 301

• Step 5 : Verifying of the result
• After testing and verifying his hypothesis the child
will be able to conclude that A ∪ (B ∪ C) =
(A ∪ B) ∪ C
• Thus the child generalizes the results and apply his
knowledge in new situations.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 302

 Merits

a) This method is psychological and scientific in nature

b) It helps in developing good study habits and
reasoning powers.
c) It helps to improve and apply knowledge and
experience.
d) This method stimulates thinking of the child
e) It helps to develop the power of expression of the
child.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 303

f) The child learns how to act in new situation.
g) It develops group feeling while working together.
h) Teachers become familiar with his pupils.
i) It develops analytical, critical and generalization abilities
of the child.
j)This method helps in maintaining discipline in the class.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 304

 Demerits
a) This is not suitable for lower classes

b) There is lack of suitable books and references

for children.

c) It is not economical. It is wastage of time and

energy.

d) Teachers find it difficult to cover the

prescribed syllabus.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 305

e)To follow this method talented teacher are
required.

f) There is always doubt of drawing wrong

conclusions.

g)Mental activities are more emphasized as

compared to physical activities.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 306

 Conclusion

Problem solving method can be an effective method

for teaching mathematics in the hands of an able and
resourceful teacher of mathematics.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 307

• Instructional methodologies should improve
reasoning ability in the students. In this way, they
become capable to find out the solutions of different
kinds of problems not only during the studies but in
their daily routine matters as well.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 308

• Every child has the curiosity to explore the things
and this psychology of the children can be utilised in
a better way through problem solving method. It is
the most important instructional methodology for
mathematics. All the most famous psychologists,
gave their top priority to this method.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 309

• In this method, students are given such problems
which cannot be solved easily or their solutions are
not obvious. A student tries to reach the goals or
solutions through the set of events or procedures.
Gagné (1970) calls these events or procedures as
lower order capabilities in which formulas, rules
and concepts are used from which a student is
already familiar. According to him, what the student
learns is called a higher order principle which is the
result of lower order capabilities.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 310

 Merits & Demerits-Problem Solving Method
• i. This method is scientific in nature.
• ii. It is student centred.
• iii. It is helpful to enhance the reasoning ability of the
students.
• iv. Students are provided with opportunity to apply their
previous knowledge through problem solving.
• v. Students learn how to face totally new situation by solving
different kinds of questions.
• vi. Teacher can assess the abilities of his or her students easily.
• vii. This method improves logical thinking in the students
which leads towards creativity.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 311

 Demerits

• i. This method is quite time consuming.

• ii. This is usually not recommended for lower classes.
• iii. Textbooks do not provide enough help to apply this
method because such books are usually written in a
traditional way.
• iv. Logical thinking is involved in this method therefore
physical kind of activities are totally neglected.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 312

 Application
• This method is used to solve those complicated
problems which cannot be solved with the help of
single law or formula. Usually word problems are
solved by problem solving approach. At secondary
level, such kind of problems can be found in the
units of algebra, trigonometry, ratio and proportion
(variation).

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 313

 9. Laboratory Method
1.This method is based on the maxim “learning by
doing.”
2. This is an activity method and it leads the students
to discover mathematics facts.
3. In it we proceed from concrete to abstract.
4. Laboratory method is a procedure for stimulating
the activities of the students and to encourage them to
make discoveries.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 314

5. This method needs a laboratory in which equipment
and other useful teaching aids related to mathematics
are available.
6.For example, equipment related to geometry,
mensuration, mathematical model, chart, balance,
various figures and shapes made up of wood or
hardboards, graph paper etc.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 315

• Mathematics is different from the subjects involving
readings; thus practical work is its major part.
Laboratory method has the capacity to deal with
practical work in mathematics. It is a method of
“learning by doing”.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 316

• That is why, different kinds of tools and equipment
are used in it to perform practical work which
includes drawing of different shapes, taking
measurements of geometrical figures and making of
charts and graphs.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 317

Students go through different experiments in
laboratory or classroom and learn by observing and
calculating themselves. During this process, they get
opportunity to draw conclusions and generalise
different laws and formulas. Therefore, this method
can be said to be an extended form of inductive
method.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 318

• The role of a teacher in this method is to supervise
the whole process and give proper instructions to
the students at each step. He or she should keep
some points in mind to make this method successful

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 319

• i. Necessary equipment related to the laboratory
work should be arranged in advance.
• ii. Teacher should continuously observe the practical
work of every student and guide him or her
accordingly.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 320

• iii. Every student should be encouraged throughout
the practical work.
• iv. All necessary concepts should be cleared before
starting experimental work.
• If number of the students is high and required
equipment is not enough then students can be
divided into small groups.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 321

 Merits and Demerits of Laboratory Method
• This method has also some merits and demerits
(Sekhar, 2006). Merits of this method are as follows.
• i. It is student centred method.
• ii. Students play an active role so they do not get
bored.
• iii. It is based on discovery approach.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 322

• iv. Knowledge gained through practical work is long
lasting.
• v. As students establish laws and formulas by
themselves so they gain confidence.
• vi. Practical utilization of mathematics is realised by
the students.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 323

• vii. When students work in the groups then their
learning becomes fast because of sharing
information and ideas.
• viii. The teacher-student relationship gets
strengthened.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 324

• Laboratory method has the following demerits.
• i. It is very lengthy process.
• ii. It is restricted to those topics only in which
practical work is involved.
• iii. In Pakistan, it is very difficult for so many
schools to spend a lot of money on tools and
equipments involved in this method.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 325

• iv. Teachers have to practice a lot before applying
this method in the classroom or laboratory.
• v. Students cannot practice this method to establish
laws or principles independently.
• vi. It is more effective in lower level classes as
compare to secondary level.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 326

• Application of Laboratory Method in
Mathematics at Secondary Level
• This method is mostly used for practical geometry.
At the secondary level, it can also be used to
establish or verify the laws and theorems in sets and
trigonometry. These laws and theorems are usually
proved through inductive method but laboratory
method can be used at alternative basis to create
interest among the students.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 327

 10. Project Method

• This method is also based on the philosophy of

“learning by doing”. It was devised by famous
educationist Prof. Dr. William H. Kilpatrick who
defined this method as “whole-hearted purposeful
activity” (Kilpatrick, 1918). In this method, students
are engaged in such kind of projects in which they
get opportunity to apply their theoretical
knowledge and learn practically.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 328

• In these projects, students work in natural
environment outside or within the boundary of
school. During this process, they face different
mathematical kind of problems in real life and then
try to solve them with previously gained knowledge.
Projects may be allocated at individual level but
usually students are organized in small groups to
accomplish them (Sidhu, 1995).

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 329

• Project method provides cooperative learning in
which not only students share the ideas and
knowledge but they also get motivated to complete
the tasks as soon as possible. Famous educationist
John Dewey (1916) emphasized on social
interaction of the learners for the first time then
Herbert Thelen (1954, 1960) also gave importance
to cooperative learning in small groups.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 330

• Merits and Demerits of Project Method
• There are some merits and demerits of this method
(Sekhar, 2006). Its merits are as follows.
• i. It is totally student centred method.
• ii. It helps students to correlate the mathematical
knowledge with real life problems.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 331

• iii. It is a social activity that helps to promote
friendly environment among students.
• iv. Students share their ideas and experiences with
each other.
• v. It gives confidence to the students.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 332

• vi. Students learn so many other things during
projects in real life scenarios.
• vii. Students remain active and enjoy throughout the
project.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 333

 Demerits.
• i. It is quite time consuming.
• ii. It is costly because so many equipment are
involved in it.
• iii. Because of excessive practical work, students
cannot give much attention to practice the
mathematical operations.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 334

• iv. Usually textbooks are not designed according to
this method.
• v. It is very difficult to complete the syllabus in time
with the use of this method.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 335

Application of Project Method in Math at
Secondary Level
• This method is not used to teach one particular
concept of mathematics. When students have
mastery of different areas of mathematics like
algebra, geometry or trigonometry with the help of
other teaching methods, then project method
provides opportunity for them to apply their already
learnt knowledge in real life scenarios.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 336

 Conclusion

This study described different teaching methods of

mathematics at secondary level. These teaching
methods include lecture, inductive, deductive,
heuristic, analytic, synthetic, problem solving,
laboratory and project methods.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 337

• Lecture method can be used to explain basic
concepts of all branches of mathematics.
• Inductive method is helpful to establish laws and
formulas related to algebra, matrices and geometry.
• Already established laws and formulas can be
applied through deductive method to solve
problems related to all branches of mathematics.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 338

• If students have no proper command to solve
problems, then heuristic or discovery method
can be applied in which inquiry approach is quite
helpful to make students capable to understand
mathematical procedures. It is quite time consuming
but it enhances reasoning ability in the students.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 339

• The mathematical problems in which students have
to prove laws or formulas can be taught with the
help of analytic method. Such kinds of problems
can be found in the units of algebra, ratio and
proportion (variation) and geometry.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 340

• When students gain mastery to analyse the
problems, then they are in a position to synthesize
and reach the goal more quickly using already learnt
concepts.
• The problems in which something has to be proved
can also be taught through synthetic method.
This method is short and brief as compared to
analytic method.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 341

• There are also some lengthy problems which cannot
be solved directly by applying a single formula or a
small procedure. In such cases, problem solving
method may be adopted. Lengthy word problems
can be found in the units of algebra, trigonometry,
ratio and proportion (variation).

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 342

• To prove laws and theorems related to sets and
trigonometry involves practical work. For this
purpose, laboratory method can be used

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 343

• . Practical geometry is totally dependent on this
method. As far as project method is concerned, that
provides opportunity for the students to relate their
theoretical knowledge about mathematics with their
real life scenarios. Students get involved in different
small projects and they try to get solutions by
applying laws and formulas of different branches of
mathematics.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 344

• A teacher should be familiar with all of these
teaching methods because he or she can get better
results by applying appropriate method according to
the nature of the problem, available resources and
number of students in the class.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 345

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 346
• A good lecture should not be too long as to exceed the
trainees attention span (up to 25 minutes).

• 2. A good lecture should address a single theme.

• 3. In a good lecture technical terms are carefully

explained.

• 4. Familiar examples and analogies are given.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 347

• 5. A good lecture establishes fluency in technical
content.

• 6. A good lecture uses illustrations and examples.

• 7. A good lecture builds on existing knowledge.

• 8. A good lecture employs a variety of approaches.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 348
 11. THE DISCUSSION METHOD

• Discussion involves two-way communication

between participants. In the classroom situation an
instructor and trainees all participate in discussion.
During discussion, the instructor spends some time
listening while the trainees spend sometimes talking.
The discussion is, therefore, a more active learning
experience for the trainees than the lecture.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 349

• A discussion is the means by which people share
experiences, ideas and attitudes. As it helps to foster
trainees involvement in what they are learning, it
may contribute to desired attitudinal changes.
Discussion may be used in the classroom for the
purpose of lesson development, making trainees
apply what they have learnt or to monitor trainees
learning by way of feedback.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 350

 LESSON DEVELOPMENT

• In areas in which trainees already have some

knowledge or experience, discussion may be used to
develop the main points to be covered in a lesson.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 351

• Trainees can draw on their experience of working in
workshops, contract sites, to contribute to the
discussion. In discussing some issues, differences of
opinion arise. The discussion can help to clarify the
different points of view and may assist each trainee
to define his or her own opinion.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 352

• Used in this way, discussion may be more effective
in motivating trainees than lectures. Trainees can see
that some importance is attached to their
contributions.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 353

 APPLICATION

• Discussion may also be used, following a lecture or

demonstration, to help trainees apply what they
have learned. The instructor can ask questions, that
help trainees to relate concepts and principles to
contexts that are familiar to the trainees or in which
they will ultimately be needed.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 354

 FEEDBACK
• The discussion method also provides an opportunity
to monitor trainees learning. The answers provided
by trainees and the questions they ask, reveal the
extent and quality of learning taking place.
Instructors can use this information to repeat or
modify an explanation to improve learning.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 355

• They can also provide feedback to trainees, thereby
helping to reinforce learning that has taken place.
Discussion used in this way should follow after other
methods of classroom instruction such as lectures,
demonstration or practice sessions.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 356

 CONDUCTING A DISCUSSION

• Discussion sessions can be led by the instructor, or

can take place in groups. In either case, the goal is to
meet the lesson objectives by allowing the trainees
to:-
• a) Relate relevant personal experiences or events
which have occurred in the work setting
• b) Contribute ideas or personal opinions.
• .

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 357

• c) Apply what has been learned to familiar situations
or in solving problems.
• d) Express what had been learned.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 358

• Whether the discussion is instructor led or takes
place in groups it must be guided by the instructor.
It must be focused on the objectives of the lesson: it
is the instructors responsibility to see that the
objectives are met.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 359

• If it is not properly guided, a discussion can
degenerate into a consideration of inappropriate or
unimportant topics adding confusion rather than
clarification to the lesson.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 360

 3. THE DEMONSTRATION LESSON
• “The most effective way to teach an occupational
skill is to demonstrate it... one of the two most
essential teaching skills is the ability to demonstrate;
the other is the ability to explain. Both are vital to
the success of either an operation lesson or an
information lesson”. Weaver & Cencil in Applied
Teaching Techniques.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 361

 4. BUZZ GROUPS
• Another method of instruction is the buzz group.
During a longer session, the plenary group can
break into sub-groups to discuss one or two specific
questions or issues. The room soon fills with noise as
each sub-group ‘buzzes’ in discussion. If appropriate,
after the discussion one member of each group can
report its findings back to the plenary.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 362

• Buzz groups can be in pairs, trios, or more
depending on the activity. People turn to their
neighbours for a quick buzz, or form larger groups
of three or more. This allows almost every one to
express an opinion.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 363

• While they are buzzing, participants are able to
exchange ideas and draw on their wide collective
experience. It may provide a good opportunity for
trainees to reflect on the content of a lecture. A
good buzz session will generate many ideas,
comments and opinion, the most important of
which will be reported back.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 364

• Buzz groups help trainers as they allow you te
instructor to:
• - Draw your breath,
• - Gauge the mood, by listening to some of the
discussions,
• - Change pace of the session,
• - Encourage participants to reflect on what they
have learnt and how they might apply it in their
work.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 365

 DISADVANTAGES

• The main obstacle using buzz sessions lie in

unfamiliarity with their use, the time required, the
need for leaders or facilitators within each sub-
group, and the need to have tables and chairs
arranged for quick and easy discussion.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 366

 5. BRAINSTORMING

• The purpose of a brainstorming session is to

discover new ideas and responses very quickly. It is
particularly a good way of getting bright ideas. It
differs from the buzz groups discussion in that the
focus is on generating as many ideas as possible
without judging them. In this technique, all ideas are
given equal credence.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 367

• Participants are encouraged to let ideas flow freely,
building on and improving from previous ideas. No
idea, however crazy, should be rejected. These ideas
are listed exactly as they are expressed on a board or
flipchart, or written on bits of paper.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 368

• The combination of swiftly generated ideas usually
leads to a very animated and energizing session.
Even the more reserved participants should feel
bold enough to contribute. The purpose of listing
responses is to collect existing experiences and
thoughts.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 369

• It is useful to collect answers to questions when you
expect much repetition in the responses.
• After a brainstorm session, the ideas can be
discussed further and evaluated, for example listing
the best options in a systematic way.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 370

• Ideas can be grouped and analyzed so that they
belong to the group rather then individuals. Unlike a
buzz session, a brainstorming session can work well
with a large group and usually takes less time. It is
best to limit the time for plenary brainstorming, as
you might lose the attention of some participants.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 371

 6. ROLE PLAYS
• In role plays, participants use their own experiences
to play a real life situation. When done well, role
plays increase the participants self-confidence, give
them the opportunity to understand or even feel
empathy for other people’s viewpoints or roles, and
usually end with practical answers, solutions or
guidelines.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 372

• Role plays are useful for exploring and improving
interviewing techniques and examining the
complexities and potential conflicts of group
meetings. They help participants to consolidate
different lessons in one setting and are good
energizers.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 373

• However, role plays can be time-consuming and
their success depends on the willingness of
participants to take active part. Some trainees may
feel a role play is too exposing, threatening or
embarrassing. This reluctance may be overcome at
the outset by careful explanation of the objectives
and the outcome.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 374

• Some role plays can generate strong emotions
among the participants. It is therefore essential that
a role play is followed by a thorough debriefing. This
provides the opportunity for the trainer and the
participants to raise and assess new issues.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 375

 INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS AND
THEIR APPLICATIONS
METHOD USES ADVANTAGE DISADVANT
S AGES
THE 1. To orient 1. Saves time. 1. Involves
LECTURE students. 2. Permits one way
METHOD 2. To flexibility. communicatio
A formal or introduce a 3. Requires n.
semi-formal subject. less rigid 2. Poses
discourse is 3. To give space problems in
which the directions on requirement. skill teaching.
instructor procedures. 4. Permits 3.
presents a 4. To present adaptability. Encourages
series of basic 5. Permits student
events, facts, material. versatility. passiveness.
or principles, 5. To 6. Permits 4. Poses
explores a introduce a better centre difficulty in
problem or demonstration over contact gauging
explains , discussion, and student
relationships or Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University
sequence. reaction. 376
 7. Inquiry-Based Learning

• Inquiry-based learning encompasses a range of

question-driven approaches that seek to increase
students’ self-direction in their development of
critical-thinking and problem-solving skills. As
students gain expertise, the instructor decreases
guidance and direction and students take on greater
responsibility for operations.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 377

• Effective teaching in this mode requires accurate
assessment of prior knowledge and motivation to
determine the scaffolding interventions needed to
compensate for the increased cognitive demands on
novices. This scaffolding can be provided by the
instructor through worked scenarios, process
worksheets, opportunities for learner-reflection,
and consultations with individuals or small groups

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 378

Students are generally allowed to practice and fail with
subsequent opportunities to revise and improve
performance based on feedback from peers and/or the
instructor.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 379

 8. Problem-Based Learning

• Often referred to as PBL, this method is similar to

the case study method, except the intention is
generally to keep the problem, the process, and the
outcomes more ambiguous than is comfortable for
students.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 380

• PBL asks students to experience and struggle with
radical uncertainty.Your role as the teacher is to
create an intentionally ill-structured problem and a
deadline for a deliverable, assign small groups (with
or without defined roles), optionally offer some
preparation, and resist giving clear, comfortable
assessment guidance.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 381

 9. Project-Based Learning

• Project-based learning is similar to problem-based

learning, and both can be referred to as PBL, but in
project-based learning, the student comes up with
the problem or question to research.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 382

• Often, the project’s deliverable is a creative
product, which can increase student engagement
and long-term learning, but it can also result in the
student investing more time and resources into
creative production at the expense of the academic
content.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 383

• When assigning projects to groups that include
novice students, you should emphasize the need for
equitable contributions to the assignment.
Assessments should address differences in effort and
allow students to contribute to the evaluations of
their peers.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 384

 10. Collaborative Learning

• Learning in groups is common practice across all

levels of education. The value of learning in groups
is well supported by research and is required in
many disciplines. It has strong benefits for at-risk
students, especially in STEM subjects.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 385

• In more structured group assignments, students are
often given roles that allow them to focus on
specific tasks and then cycle through those roles in
subsequent activities. Common classroom activities
for groups include: “think-pair-share”, fishbowl
debates, case studies, problem solving, jigsaw.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 386

 11. Case-Based Learning
• Case-based learning is used widely across many
disciplines, and collections of validated cases are
available online, often bundled with handouts,
readings, assessments, and tips for the teacher..

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 387

• Cases range from scenarios that can be addressed in
a single setting, sometimes within minutes, to
sequential or iterative cases that require multiple
settings and multiple learning activities to arrive at
multiple valid outcomes.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 388

• They can be taught in a one-to-many format using
polling technologies or in small teams with group
reports. Ideally, all cases should be debriefed in
plenary discussion to help students synthesize their
learning

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 389

 12. Discussion-Based Learning

• One of the primary purposes of discussion-based

learning is to facilitate students’ meaningful
transition into the extended conversation that is
each academic discipline. Discussions allow students
to practice applying their learning and developing
their critical-thinking skills in real-time interactions
with other viewpoints.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 390

• Often, the challenge for the teacher is to get
students to engage in discussions as opportunities to
practice reasoning skills rather than simply
exchanging opinions.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 391

• One tip for addressing this challenge is to create a
rubric for assessing the discussion and to assign
certain students to act as evaluators who provide
feedback at the end of the discussion. Students
rotate into this role throughout the semester, which
also benefits their development of metacognitive
skills.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 392

 13. Socratic Questioning

• Socratic questioning involves the teacher’s

facilitation of critical thinking in students by dint of
carefully designed questions. The classic Greek
philosopher, Socrates, believed that thoughtful
questioning enabled students to examine questions
logically.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 393

His technique was to profess ignorance of the topic in
order to promote student knowledge. R. W. Paul has
suggested six categories of Socratic questions:
a) questions for clarification,
b) questions that probe assumptions,

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 394

c) questions that probe evidence and reasoning,
d) questions about viewpoints and perspectives,
e) questions that probe implications and consequences,
f) and questions about the question.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 395

 14. Flipped Classroom
• In the basic structure of a “flipped classroom,” the
students first engage the content online (through
readings, video lectures, or podcasts), then come to
class for the guided practice.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 396

• It requires explicit communication of learning
objectives, procedures, roles, and assessment
criteria. It requires a detailed curriculum design
organized around scaffolding learning toward
mastery.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 397

• Some critics equate direct instruction with just
lecturing; however, here the term is used as
“directing” student learning. In direct instruction,
the role of the teacher is similar to that of a coach.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 398

 15. Interactive Lecture

• An interactive lecture is an easy way for

instructors to intellectually engage and involve
students as active participants in a lecture-based
class of any size. ... Then the instructor incorporates
an activity that allows students to apply what they
have learned or give them a context for
upcoming lecture material.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 399

• Some interactive techniques involve short writing
exercises, quick pairings or small group discussions,
individual or collaborative problem solving, or
drawing for understanding.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 400

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 401
Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 402
COMPARISON OF INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE APPROACHES

INDUCTIVE APPROACH DEDUCTIVE APPROACH

Base: Base:
Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoning
Proceeds from: Proceeds from:
Particular to general General to particular
Concrete to abstract Abstract to concrete
Method: Method:
A psychological method An unpsychological method
A method of discovery and stimulates A method of presentation and does not
intellectual powers develop originality and creativity.

Learning: Learning:
Emphasis is on reasoning. Emphasis is on memory
Encourages meaningful learning Encourages rote learning.
Level: Level:
Most suitable for initial stages of learning Suitable for practice and application
Class: Class:
Suitable for lower classes Most suitable for higher classes
Participation: Participation:
Enhances active participation of the Makes the student passive recipient of
students knowledge
Time: Time:
Lengthy, time consuming and laborious Short, concise and elegant
Facilitates discovery of rules and Enhances speed, skill and efficiency in
generalizations solving problems

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 403

• Induction and deduction are not opposite modes of thought.
There can be no induction without deduction and no
deduction without induction. Inductive approach is a method
for establishing rules and generalization and deriving
formulae, whereas deductive approach is a method of applying
the deduced results and for improving skill and efficiency in
solving problems. Hence a combination of both inductive and
deductive approach is known as “inducto-deductive approach”
is most effective for realizing the desired goals.
•

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 404

ASSESSMENT

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 405

 ASSESSING STUDENTS PERFORMANCE IN
MATHEMATICS
• One of the duties of every teacher is to monitor the
progress of their students. The major way to do this
is by giving test to students. To be objective in the
assessment of students performance. A marking
scheme must be prepared. A marking scheme or a
marking guide or a marking key is solutions to
questions in a test showing how the total marks to
each questions should be partially awarded.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 406

• Evaluating student’s performance.
• For many teachers, consideration of how well students
do on tests is the major item in assessing performance.
The process of getting an answer is always more
important than the actual answer itself.
• A student should get credit for what he/she knows.
• This calls for a marking scheme.
• A marking scheme or a marking guide or marking key,
is an ideal solution to a given question in the test
showing how partial credits are awarded to the question

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 407

• In mathematics, we follow some instructions on
how to award partial credits:

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 408

• Marks are subdivided into method (M) marks, accuracy
(A) and independent accuracy marks not preceded by
M mark (B)
•
• The M marks should be given for a particular stage if
the method is correct: it would, if correctly carried out
without numerical error, yield the right answer, M
marks are not subdivided. Unless the M marks for a
stage have been awarded, no A marks can be gained for
that stage.
Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 409
• Deduct 2 for a misreading of the data. Deduct 1 for an
answer not given to the degree of accuracy asked for,
but this should not be more than once in a question.
Deduct 1 for premature approximation which does
considerable simplify the subsequent work.
•
• Deduction could only be made from A or B marks and
not from M marks
•
Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 410
• Give 0 for result obtained for work that is
indecipherable or wholly suppressed (W.S.O).
Deduct 1 mark for omission of an essential working
(oew – 1 )
• Do not mark beyond the first appearance of a
correct answer, i.e. ignore further working after a
correct answer.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 411

• For geometric proofs, except when otherwise stated
above, deduct 1 for an essential reason omitted or
for a wrong reason given but not more than once in
the question.
• Deduct 1 mark for omission of units or for wrong
units but this should not be more than once in one
question

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 412

• If a question is attempted more than once mark all
and record the marks for that which has gained the
highest marks
• If more questions are attempted than the rubric
allows, delete the marks for those extra questions
which have gained the lowest marks.

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 413

• Unless otherwise stated, equivalent methods not
specified in the Marking Scheme should be accepted
and given appropriate marks
•
• The final total (and not the question total) should be
upwards to the nearest whole number.
•

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 414

• For example
• (a) In a school of 255 students, 80 of them study Arabic
only, and 125 study French only. Each student studies at
least one of the two subjects.
• Draw a Venn diagram to represent the information.
• How many students study
• ( ) both subjects?
• ( ) French?
• (b) Make the subject of
•
Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 415
• b) A bookseller bought 80 copies of books at GHc
3.50 per copy. He sold each of them at GHc 4.20.
Find:
• (i) the total cost price
• (ii) his percentage profit. [Total marks is 15]

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 416

Dr. Robert Akpalu,Valley View University 417