Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:9243–9270

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-24381-y

REVIEW ARTICLE

Pesticide contamination in agro‑ecosystems: toxicity, impacts,

and bio‑based management strategies
Umesh Pravin Dhuldhaj1 · Rishikesh Singh2 · Vipin Kumar Singh3

Received: 29 June 2021 / Accepted: 19 November 2022 / Published online: 2 December 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2022

Abstract
Continuous rise in application of pesticides in the agro-ecosystems in order to ensure food supply to the ever-growing
population is of greater concern to the human health and the environment. Once entered into the agro-ecosystem, the fate
and transport of pesticides is determined largely by the nature of pesticides and the soil attributes, in addition to the soil-
inhabiting microbes, fauna, and flora. Changes in the soil microbiological actions, soil properties, and enzymatic activities
resulting from pesticide applications are the important factors substantially affecting the soil productivity. Disturbances in
the microbial community composition may lead to the considerable perturbations in cycling of major nutrients, metals, and
subsequent uptake by plants. Indiscriminate applications are linked with the accumulation of pesticides in plant-based foods,
feeds, and animal products. Furthermore, rapid increase in the application of pesticides having long half-life has also been
reported to contaminate the nearby aquatic environments and accumulation in the plants, animals, and microbes surviving
there. To circumvent the negative consequences of pesticide application, multitude of techniques falling in physical, chemical,
and biological categories are presented by different investigators. In the present study, important findings pertaining to the
pesticide contamination in cultivated agricultural soils; toxicity on soil microbes, plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates; effects
on soil characteristics; and alleviation of toxicity by bio-based management approaches have been thoroughly reviewed.
With the help of bibliometric analysis, thematic evolution and research trends on the bioremediation of pesticides in the
agro-ecosystems have also been highlighted.

Keywords Accumulation · Bioremediation · Bioaugmentation · Fate and transport · Integrated pest management ·
Resistance

Introduction
Responsible Editor: Elena Maestri
Production of sufficient amount of food for the rapidly
Umesh Praveen Dhuldhaj and Rishikesh Singh are equal principal increasing population is one of the most important global
authors and contributed equally to this work. challenges (Singh et al. 2019). For increasing crop produc-
tivity and farm management, often use of agro-chemicals
* Vipin Kumar Singh
[email protected] (e.g., synthetic fertilizers and pesticides) is recommended
under the Green Revolution principles (Pascal-Lorber and
Umesh Pravin Dhuldhaj
[email protected] Laurent 2011; Singh et al. 2019). Massive production and
application of pesticides to the agricultural fields, urban
Rishikesh Singh
[email protected] landscapes, and household purposes for killing pests and
epidemic disease control are reported from different coun-
1
School of Life Sciences, Swami Ramanand Teerth tries due to their high efficiency, low cost, and easy usability
Marathwada University, Nanded 431606, India (McKnight et al. 2021; Rani et al. 2021). Most of the applied
2
Department of Botany, Panjab University, pesticides belong to the group of pyrethroids, organochlo-
Chandigarh 160014, India rines, organophosphates, carbamates, and neonicotinoids.
3
Department of Botany, K. S. Saket P. G. College, Many of these pesticides are classified as probable carcino-
(Affiliated to Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Avadh University), gens to humans (Gilani et al. 2016; Lu et al. 2016). Once
Ayodhya 224123, India

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9244 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:9243–9270

pesticides are applied, some part is dissipated to non-target

region and transported further till it reaches to impermeable Physical Chemical Biological
concrete surfaces, and finally with the aid of flowing rainwa-
• Soil washing • Oxidation • Land farming
ter mixed with the groundwater or surface water resources • Solvent extraction • Microbes
(Jiang et al. 2010; van de Merwe et al. 2018; Verasoundara- • Photodegradation
• Reduction • Composting
• Algae
pandian et al. 2022). Moreover, because of volatile nature, • Zero-valent iron • Fungi
pesticides may be dissipated through the air and contaminate • Incineration • Plants
• Slurry bioreactor
larger areas of the atmosphere. • Thermal
• Biobeds
The deadly impacts of pesticides on different environmen- desorption • Vermiremediation

tal components and associated organisms have been explic-

Factors Limitations
itly portrayed in the book Silent Spring by Rachel Carson
published in the year 1962, after which the concerns over • pH • Secondary waste
the pesticide use have emerged globally (Rani et al. 2021). • Temperature • Longer duration

Since the half-life of a number of pesticides is over a decade, • Soil characteristics • Chemical

it will persist for a longer time in a given environment with • Microorganisms requirements
• Expensive
the resultant contamination of soil and groundwater by per-
• Moisture content
• Redox status • Safe disposal
colation (Aktar et al. 2009). The pesticide residues present • Nutrient condition
in soil negatively influence the invertebrates, vertebrates,
microbiological activity, and crop’s productivity (Garcia-
Perez et al. 2020; Egbe et al. 2021; Krishnaswamy et al.
Fig. 1  Remediation methods, limitations, and factors affecting
2021; Parizadeh et al. 2021; Schulz et al. 2021). In addi- removal of pesticides from the agro-ecosystems
tion, the pesticide residues present in the aquatic ecosystem
considerably affect the fish, amphibians, reptiles, and hydro-
phytes’ growth and productivity (Solomon et al. 2008; Pérez management (IPM) strategy can be followed to minimize
et al. 2019; Yang et al. 2021). Noteworthy, the excessive and the introduction of pesticides in agricultural lands. The
lower dose application of pesticide may also be responsible implementation of strict regulatory laws for the produc-
for the development of resistance in nuisance pests affect- tion and application of pesticide to the agricultural fields
ing the agricultural crops (Bhatt et al. 2021a, b; Peng et al. could also help in reducing the level of pesticides in agro-
2021). The widespread contamination of pesticide in the ecosystems (Islam et al. 2017; Zikankuba et al. 2019). In
environment, and accumulation of their residue into the food the present article, a comprehensive discussion has been
have been marked as future hazard to the humans (Singh done on different pesticides used for field application; their
et al. 2018). impacts on soil microbes, invertebrates, vertebrates (includ-
Because of potential toxicity and accumulation of pesti- ing humans), and cultivated crops; their fate and transport;
cides at various trophic levels, their removal from the con- and finally the bio-based strategies to minimize the hazards
taminated agro-ecosystem is necessary to protect human of pesticide contamination in the agro-ecosystems. Further-
health and environmental complexes (Liu et al. 2021; Pelosi more, bibliometric analysis has been used to complement
et al. 2021). The successful removal from the contaminated our discussion for visualizing the research trends on biore-
agricultural sites is largely determined by the nature of mediation approaches applied for pesticide management in
pesticides, soil attributes, and different methods involved the agro-ecosystems.
(Fuentes et al. 2017; Marican and Durán-Lara 2018; Bhatt
et al. 2021a, b). The presently deployed methods for pesti-
cide decontamination are based on physical, chemical, and Classification of pesticides
biological approaches (Fig. 1). Physico-chemical methods
are generally expensive, use large amount of synthetic Pesticides can be categorized on the basis of their source
chemicals, and produce large amount of secondary by- of origin (i.e., natural or synthetic), chemical and physi-
products of even more toxic nature, whereas bioremedia- cal states (i.e., solid, liquid, or gas), and their target pest
tion utilizes biological agents like algae, fungi, bacteria, organisms (Sharma et al. 2020; Verasoundarapandian et al.
plants, and derived products for the efficient removal of 2022). On the basis of target pest organisms, pesticides are
pesticides. It is eco-friendly, inexpensive, and independent grouped as rodenticides (for rats), insecticides (for insect
of hazardous chemical application and does not produce pests), nematicides (for nematodes), herbicides (for unnec-
harmful secondary by-products (Avila et al. 2021; Bhatt essary vegetation), fungicides (for pathogenic fungi), mol-
et al. 2021a, b; Loffredo et al. 2021; Usmani et al. 2021; luscicides (for gastropod pests), and sometimes as growth
Wongputtisin et al. 2021). Alternatively, the integrated pest regulators. Based on the type of target pest organisms, the

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US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) identified (Deadman 2017). Afterwards, other synthetic substances
24 types of pesticides available in the market (Verasoundara- such as organophosphates and carbamates came to exist-
pandian et al. 2022). Nevertheless, more precise parameters ence in the world of pesticides and dominated the chlorine-
for the classifications of pesticides can be on the basis of containing compounds (Deadman 2017).
class of chemical compounds and their functional groups
(Castillo et al. 2006), toxicity, and their varied mode of Organophosphates
actions (Fig. 2). Based on the type and level of toxicity,
the World Health Organization (WHO) classified pesticides Organophosphates (e.g., diazinon, fenitrothion, mala-
in four major categories, viz., class Ia (extremely hazard- thion, mipafox, phosphamidon) represent more common
ous), Ib (highly hazardous), II (moderately hazardous), III and oftenly used pesticides in agricultural fields to control
(slightly hazardous), and IV (the product unlikely to present herbal pests closer to the freshwater sources (Vajargah et al.
acute toxicity/hazard in normal use) (WHO 2005). The brief 2013; Rani et al. 2021). Organophosphates are considered
classification of pesticides on the basis of chemical attributes to exert inhibitory effect on organisms via modulating the
is presented below. activity of acetylcholinesterase (Medithi et al. 2022). The
disease symptoms appearing in the organisms, such as fail-
Organochlorines ure of male reproductive system in fishes, decreased testicu-
lar weight, and sperm density in rodents, and loss of body
During the World War II, several synthetic substances weight and spermatheca alternation in earthworm (Eisenia
were tested against the insect pests. First time synthesis of fetida Savigny, 1826) could be considered as the biomarker
chlorine-containing compound known as dichlorodiphenyl- to assess the toxicity of the organophosphates (Espinoza-
trichloroethane (DDT) was recorded in 1874, but its insecti- Navarro et al. 2017). Moreover, organophosphates (e.g., eth-
cidal properties were unknown to chemists. Organochlorine oprop) are considered as highly toxic to birds and humans,
pesticides (OCPs) such as lindane (hexachlorocyclohexane) and therefore, their use has been banned or replaced by other
and chlordecone (decachloropentacyclodecan-5-one) are less toxic pesticides (like pyrethroids) in several regions of
important category of pesticides used for controlling a wide the world (Tassin de Montaigu and Goulson 2020).
range of agricultural pests (Blondel et al. 2017). These are
highly persistent in the environment, having high ability to Carbamates
bioaccumulate/biomagnify, and suspected to be carcinogenic
and endocrine disruptors (Multigner et al. 2010; Giusti et al. Carbamates are increasingly applied agro-chemicals for pest
2013), and thus, listed as the priority environmental pol- management and are chemical products derived from the
lutants by the Stockholm Convention (Vijgen et al. 2011). carbamic acid (Sinha et al. 2021). Some of the important
Consumptions of such compounds dominated till 1970 carbamates extensively used for agricultural applications are

Fig. 2  Major classes of pesti-

cides based on chemical nature, CHEMICAL NATURE TARGET PESTS MODE OF ACTION
target pests, and mode of action

Herbicide Acetylcholine
Organophosphate
esterase inhibitor
Insecticide
Chloride channel
Organochlorines Inhibitors
Acaricide
Sodium channel
Carbamates Miticide inhibitors

Rodenticide ATP synthase

Pyrethroids inhibitors
Algicide Hormone mimics
Neonicotinoids Fungicide Electron transport
inhibitors

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carbofuran, carbaryl, and isoprocarb. Apart from applica- the insects (Zhang et al. 2018; Jactel et al. 2019; Roy et al.
tion as pesticides, some carbamates are also employed as 2019; Sabin and Mora 2022). Additionally, the reproduc-
medicine to cure the human health disorders. Carbamates act tion, foraging, and flying ability of the honey bee and other
by affecting important enzyme acetylcholinesterase through pollinators have been reported to be affected by the neoni-
carbamylation of functional groups present in active sites, cotinoids (Buszewski et al. 2019).
thereby influencing the process of neural transmission. The
presence of carbamate in cellular environment inhibits the
cleavage of acetylcholine to choline and acetic acid (Chen Pesticides in the agro‑ecosystems:
et al. 2021). Because of potential inhibitory effect on acetyl- bibliometric analysis and research trends
cholinesterase, carbamates are often designated as antiace-
tylcholinesterase molecules. In fact, the changes in activity Bibliometric analysis is a comprehensive tool for the sys-
of acetylcholinesterase enzyme could be considered as bio- tematic review of a research theme and trend analysis using
marker of pesticide exposure (Jokanović 2009). quantitative tools for data acquisition from scientific libraries
such as Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed (Linnenluecke
Pyrethroids et al. 2020; Zhu and Liu 2020). In order to observe the trends
in research concerned with bioremediation of pesticides dur-
In comparison to other class of insecticides, pyrethroids have ing the last three decades (1991–2021/2022), we performed a
been largely used for agricultural and household applica- bibliometric analysis using different search queries in the Web
tions because of long range insecticidal action, increased of Science database. The search query was as follows: (TITLE-
efficacy, and reduced toxic effects on humans and environ- ABS-KEY (“Pesticides” OR “Carbamates” OR “Organophos-
mental complexes (Ye et al. 2006; Blankson et al. 2016; Xue phates” OR “Organochlorine” OR “Pyrethroids” OR “Neo-
et al. 2021). The insecticides belonging to class pyrethroids nicotinoids” AND “Remediation”) AND PUBYEAR > 1990
are neurotoxic chemical derivatives produced by pyrethrum. which was further refined by (“Agro-ecosystem” OR “Agro-
The pyrethroids are able to associate with the sodium ion ecosystem” OR “Agricultural System” OR “Agriculture Sys-
channels leading to channel opening for extended durations tem”). The search query yielded in total 102,919 and 607 docu-
(Chen and Zhan 2019). The chemically synthesized pyre- ments for the initial and final search results, respectively, as
throids are more specific and selective in nature and are on 09.01.2022. The “bibliometrix” package in R (ver. 4.0.3)
classified as type I and type II depending on the presence/ was used for the bibliometric analysis (Aria and Cuccurullo
absence of α-cyano moiety. 2017). The keyword-plus (ID) from the Web of Science search
results was used for the analysis as described in Singh et al.
Neonicotinoids (2022). Methodology such as word cloud (Fig. 3a), keyword
co-occurrence network plot (Fig. 3b), and thematic evolu-
Neonicotinoids, the synthetic derivatives of nicotinoids or tion plots (Fig. 4) were used to detect the development in the
nicotine, are an important group of broad-spectrum systemic research themes. Details about these features of the bibliome-
insecticides developed during the 1990s for controlling a trix package are given in Singh et al. (2022). The main infor-
wide range of agricultural as well as non-agricultural pests mation of the bibliometric analysis is presented in Table S1.
(Simon-Delso et al. 2015; Zhang et al. 2018). Neonicoti- In brief, total 607 documents (467 articles, 113 reviews, and
noids are broadly classified in two classes, viz., nitroguani- 24 proceeding papers) from 275 sources (journals, books, etc.)
dine (containing N-nitro groups, thus more polar and reac- with 2377 keyword-plus (ID) and 2136 authors’ keywords
tive) and cyanoamidine, both of which chemically consist were obtained for the final search query in the Web of Science
of four major elements, viz., aromatic heterocyclic group, database (Table S1). Annual scientific production for the final
elastic bonds, guanidine or amidine groups, and electron search string is presented in Figure S1.
withdrawing group (Buszewski et al. 2019). These are pri-
marily used for treating seeds or as foliar sprays to crops, Research trend analysis
grass, and soils for protection from the phytophagous pests
particularly sap-feeding insects (e.g., aphids, planthoppers, Based on the Web of Science keyword-plus datasets, Fig. 3
and whiteflies), insects chewing plant tissues (e.g., beetles, depicts the focus areas of research on pesticide management
mealworm, and larvae of some moths), bugs, and fleas (Bass in the agro-ecosystems. It can be seen that biodiversity,
and Field 2018; Buszewski et al. 2019; Calvo-Agudo et al. soil, toxicity, biological control, impact, systems, diversity,
2019). Neonicotinoids act as agonists to nicotinic-acetyl- degradation, ecosystem services, and insecticides are the
choline receptors (nAChRs) present in the post-synaptic top 10 areas of research related to pesticide management
membrane of central nervous system of the insects which which has been considerably explored in the last three dec-
disrupt the nerve signaling, leading to paralysis and death of ades (Fig. 3a). Pesticides-toxicity-soil-degradation (in blue)

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Fig. 3  Representation of
research focus of bio-based
management of pesticide-con-
taminated agro-ecosystems for
the search query: (TITLE-ABS-
KEY (“Pesticides” OR “Carba-
mates” OR “Organophosphates”
OR “Organochlorine” OR
“Pyrethroids” OR “Neonicoti-
noids” AND “Remediation”)
AND PUBYEAR > 1990 which
was further refined by (“Agro-
ecosystem” OR “Agroecosys-
tem” OR “Agricultural System”
OR “Agriculture System”)
based on keyword-plus data as:
a word cloud diagram, and b
keyword co-occurrence network
plot. Size of a word (a) depicts
the occurrence frequency of the
keywords. The circles (nodes)
in co-occurrence analysis (b)
represent the collection of
themes based on their frequency
(ID) whereas connecting lines
(edges) reveal their linkages.
The color denotes the assem-
blage of similar nodes and each
cluster is named based on the
larger node with more edges
(source: Web of Science data-
base 2022)

associated with different regulatory factors (e.g., organic advances towards the impact and management, biodiversity,
matter, carbon, water, residues, fate, exposure); biodiver- and production in light of agricultural intensification during
sity-management-systems-ecosystem services (in red) asso- the 2006–2015 periods. The recent trend analysis revealed
ciated with land use and climatic factors; impact-biological that the research focus for the year 2016–2021/2022 is
control-natural enemies-insecticides (in violet) associated mainly on biodiversity (microbial diversity for degrading dif-
with different pests and their management; and nitrogen-con- ferent pesticides), impact (on non-target pests and humans),
servation-impacts-indicators (in green) form four different management (at contaminated field scale), and degradation
but interrelated clusters for the overall pesticide bioremedia- (Fig. 4). The results of the bibliometric analysis have been
tion research (Fig. 3b). Furthermore, thematic evolution plot further incorporated in the following sections on toxicity,
(Fig. 4) results revealed that research on bioremediation of impacts, fate and transport, and bioremediation approaches
pesticides started with the focus on biological control and for pesticides in the agro-ecosystems.

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Fig. 4  Thematic evolution plot for the search query ((TITLE-ABS- tem” OR “Agriculture System”) based on keyword-plus data. The
KEY (“Pesticides” OR “Carbamates” OR “Organophosphates” OR thematic evolution analysis represents the research trends in last few
“Organochlorine” OR “Pyrethroids” OR “Neonicotinoids” AND years with respect to emergence, aggregation, and segregation of dif-
“Remediation”) AND PUBYEAR > 1990 which was further refined ferent themes/research fields under different time periods (source:
by (“Agro-ecosystem” OR “Agroecosystem” OR “Agricultural Sys- Web of Science database 2022)

Toxicity of pesticides and plants and parts per trillion (ppt)-ppb level in water sys-
tems (Morrissey et al. 2015; Zhang et al. 2018). Moreover,
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as pesticides several metabolites of neonicotinoids have been found to be
are the resistant synthetic (hydrophobic and/or lipophilic) more toxic and durable in the environment as compared to
chemicals having high tendency to bioaccumulate and bio- their original pesticides (Hamada et al. 2019).
magnify in different components of environment and liv- The formulations of pesticides typically contain active
ing organisms, including human (deposited in the adipose and inert components (Vijgen et al. 2011). The active com-
tissue) (Röllin et al. 2009). Pesticides are designed to kill/ ponents target and kill the pests and, thus, are taken into
destroy the target pests by inhibiting their acetylcholinester- consideration to analyze the toxicity and measurement of
ase and blocking sodium ion channels which further affect acceptable daily intake in mammals and admissible limit for
their physiological, neuro-muscular, and respiratory activi- the environment, whereas the inert components may act as
ties (IRAC 2021; Sarker et al. 2021). Apart from inhibitory the penetrant and improve the efficacy of the active compo-
action of pesticides on acetylcholinesterase and sodium ion nents (Vijgen et al. 2011; Mesnage et al. 2014). The carrier
channels, other plausible sites of actions are also reported material could be solvent or inert material, emulsifier, and
by different researchers (Fig. 2). Different classes of pesti- other impurities responsible for adverse effects (Al-Saleh
cides are described to induce (i) the disruption of cell mem- 1994). For instance, some reports have indicated the biologi-
brane integrity, (ii) suppression of pigment biosynthesis, (iii) cal toxicity of only active principles of pesticides including
impairment in ergosterol biosynthesis, (iv) interruption in amitrol, ammonium thiocyanate, diazinon, dicamba, sima-
ATPase enzyme, (v) blockage of photosynthetic machinery, zine, and natural pyrethrum extract in algae, bacteria, and
(vi) inhibition of amino acid and lipid formation, (vii) altera- plants (van de Merwe et al. 2018; Abrantes et al. 2021).
tion in hormone synthesis and transport, and (viii) dysfunc- Pesticide application and their spread through the water,
tion of mitochondrial respiratory chain enzymes (Bolognesi wind, and soil may be harmful with minor or major tox-
and Merlo 2011; Lushchak et al. 2018). Noteworthy, only icity. Rapid dissemination of pesticides through the water
10% of the applied pesticides reach to the target pests and and soil finally finds their ways to groundwater and surface
remaining 90% lie in the environment as residue, which is a water and subsequently causes contamination (Gonçalves
cause of concern for other non-target organisms (Rangasamy et al. 2021). The contamination may negatively affect the
et al. 2017; Pang et al. 2020). Thus, excessive uses of the exposed birds and fishes followed by further bioaccumula-
pesticides are of more concerns for the environmental and tion in secondary consumers (Fig. 5). It is worth to mention
human health (Verasoundarapandian et al. 2022). For exam- that along with target pests, beneficial insects (e.g., honey
ple, a considerable amounts of neonicotinoids have been bee) and non-target plants are also affected severely by pes-
reported in different environmental components such as in ticide toxicity (Meftaul et al. 2020). The roots of crop plant
parts per billion (ppb)-parts per million (ppm) level in soils grown on pesticide-contaminated field take up large amount

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Fig. 5  Impact of pesticides on different target and non-target organisms related to different components of the agro-ecosystems

and get access to vegetative and reproductive part through persistence in the soil matrix (Barra Caracciolo et al. 2009;
the transport across the cell (Hwang et al. 2015, 2018). The Khatri and Tyagi 2015), and external factors like wind flow,
extensive utilization impacts the farm field as their half-life landscape structure, and precipitation frequency (Arias-
period is around a decade; therefore, traces of pesticides also Estévez et al. 2008; Khatri and Tyagi 2015). A close sur-
enter into the food, especially fruits and vegetable crops, veillance is, therefore, necessary to monitor the stress of
eventually causing human health disorders (Pimentel et al. pesticide and biodiversity in agricultural sites as biologi-
1992; Boudh and Singh 2019). cal disturbance has been recorded in the organisms such as
Pesticides are well documented to be responsible for neu- micro-invertebrates (Beketov et al. 2008), phytoplanktons
rodegenerative diseases, reproductive sterility, developmen- (Debenest et al. 2009), and microbes (DeLorenzo et al. 2001;
tal and metabolic abnormality, and side effects on lungs of Widenfalk et al. 2004).
different organisms (Mostafalou and Abdollahi 2017; Gon-
çalves et al. 2020). For example, Gonçalves et al. (2020) Soil‑associated organisms and pesticides
evaluated the toxicity of pesticide on zebra fish (Danio rerio
Hamilton, 1822) embryos by the Organisation for Economic Soil serves as the sink for multiple contaminants of inor-
Co-operation and Development (OECD) recommended ganic and organic nature including excessively applied
Fish Embryo Acute Toxicity (FET) test no. 236 which is pesticides. The presence of hazardous pesticide residues
intended to determine the acute toxicity of chemicals on the exerts deleterious effect on soil microbes, invertebrates,
embryonic development stages of the fish (OECD 2013). and vertebrates (Fig. 5). The negative impact of pesticide
They observed that fertilized eggs were coagulated, without is known to modulate the soil microbial community com-
somites, with no tail bud detachment from yolk sac, and position and their functioning (Egbe et al. 2021; Shahid
absence of heartbeats. Generally, most of the pesticides tar- et al. 2021). Particularly, bioavailability of the pesticides
get the metabolic enzymes (e.g., cholinesterase, glutamine in the soils affects the functioning of different microbial
synthetase, enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthetase) communities and other organisms inhabiting the soil eco-
and their respective channels (e.g., sodium and chloride systems (Pang et al. 2020). To check the toxicity of pesti-
channels), and finally show disease symptoms (Costa 2008; cides, some model soil organisms are used, e.g., earthworm
Duncan et al. 2020; Azevedo et al. 2021). Adverse effect of (E. fetida). Due to the exposure of their large body surface
pesticides depends on the physico-chemical parameters of in the soil, mollusks and earthworms have been considered
the applied medium, rate of degradation, dissolution rate, to be more prone to the pesticides and other contaminants

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(Pang et al. 2020). The pesticides like malathion, methami- to the malfunctioning of immune system and finally death
dophos, and diazinon have shown several side-effects such of the organisms (Maskaoui et al. 2005; Hong et al. 2018).
as decrease in the body weight and inductions of muscle The study of Glinski et al. (2021) has recently presented the
contraction with the coiled tail. The earthworm’s exposure toxicity of pesticide exposure to leopard frogs (Lithobates
to high doses of dinotefuran has resulted in the oxidation sphenocephalus Cope, 1886). The analysis of metabolic
and destruction of nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids (Liu compounds of liver cells of the organism suggested that the
et al. 2017). Damage to neurochord, gut, and epidermal cells risks to the pesticide exposure are more through the aqueous
as well as significant inhibition to cellulase, catalase, and environment (e.g., intake of contaminated water or food) as
superoxide dismutase enzyme activities in the earthworms compared to the soil systems.
due to exposure to different neonicotinoids (e.g., acetami-
prid, clothianidin, cycloxaprid, imidacloprid, nitenpyram, Impact of pesticides on pollinators and other
and thiacloprid) has also been reported (Wang et al. 2015b; terrestrial organisms
Qi et al. 2018). In addition, there was increase in immature
sperm and loss of sperm count in developmental morula Though pesticides were initially considered to be less toxic
stage and changes in spermatheca. Further studies on sperm to the non-target useful insects and other species, several
with the acridine orange revealed that the metachromatic incidences of pesticide toxicity to different pollinators
cells get increased with DNA alterations (Espinoza-Navarro have been observed recently (Wood et al. 2018). Pesticides
and Bustos-Obregón 2005; Espinoza-Navarro et al. 2017). directly or indirectly affect the foraging ability and health
However, Wang et al. (2015a) reported no DNA damage of the pollinators such as bees, birds, and bats (Jactel et al.
and less toxicity against a fourth-generation neonicotinoid 2019). For example, a large number of researches identified
(e.g., guadipyr). Thus, extensive analysis of the nature of the negative (acute or chronic) effects of neonicotinoids on
pesticides, accumulation in different organisms, and trans- bee population, and it is partly responsible for the bee colony
port to different trophic levels could help to minimize the collapse disorder syndrome (Buszewski et al. 2019; Jactel
contaminant level to a safer limit. et al. 2019; Thompson et al. 2019). The bees come in con-
tact with the pesticides during foraging and pollinating the
Aquatic organisms and pesticides contaminated crops (Sánchez-Bayo and Goka 2014; Calvo-
Agudo et al. 2019). Interestingly, studies reported that bees
The flow of rainwater from pesticide-contaminated soils prefer the nectar contaminated with pesticides which lead
is the chief factor responsible for the contamination of the to higher chances of exposure and poisoning risks to the
aquatic ecosystems (Huggenberger et al. 1973). Aquatic ani- bees (Kessler et al. 2015). Studies reported that the bees’
mals can directly take up the pesticide contaminants through exposure to trace levels of pesticides (e.g., neonicotinoids)
the gills and body surface, whereas aquatic macrophytes and in agricultural fields may not result in lethal effects (kill) but
phytoplankton may accumulate the contaminants by cellular show several sub-lethal effects like tremors, convulsions,
uptake (Katagi 2010; Lushchak 2011). Sometimes, expired uncoordinated movements affecting their foraging capac-
pesticides and chemicals are directly dumped into the water ity, cognitive behavior (e.g., remembering the path to the
bodies intentionally (Ullah et al. 2014). Such hazardous colony), physiological effects, and developmental disorders
chemicals accumulate in the water bodies, may reach beyond worsening the health of workers and queen (Rundlöf et al.
the permissible limit, and ultimately exert hazardous effects 2015; Rumkee et al. 2017; Buszewski et al. 2019).
by killing various life-forms surviving there (Fig. 5). On Several pesticides belonging to the class neonicotinoids
the other hand, lower pesticide concentrations with longer have been reported to induce genotoxicity, immunotoxic-
persistence time may trigger the bioaccumulation in aquatic ity, neurotoxicity, reproductive, and developmental toxic-
organisms, thereby posing hazardous effects on the consum- ity in vertebrates (Hong et al. 2018; Wan et al. 2019). For
ers including humans (Abedi et al. 2013). Acute toxicity of example, neonicotinoids have been found to induce carci-
pesticide has been detected in fishes and can be analyzed nogenic effects in lizards by interfering with the growth
by the in situ bioassays (Akcha et al. 2003; Buschini et al. hormone/insulin-like growth factor (GH/IGF) pathway
2004; Cavas and Ergene-Gozukara 2005; Pandey et al. 2011; and damaging the liver cells (Wang et al. 2018a, 2019). As
Kushwaha et al. 2012). For such bioassays, the contamina- neonicotinoids are among the most effective pesticides for
tion sites are kept undisturbed and fishes are allowed to get the insects, they have more chances for the bird contami-
exposure (if the water column is so deep or fast, in such nation (Li et al. 2020a). Several insectivorous birds have
cases water cages are used), followed by survival percentage been found exposed to the pesticide contamination which
calculation (Dey and Saha 2014; Ullah and Zorriehzahra resulted in a drastic decrease in their biodiversity (Li et al.
2015). Pesticide (e.g., neonicotinoids) exposure to the fishes 2020a). Adverse effects of neonicotinoids are also reported
and aquatic organisms may induce genotoxicity and leads in the non-insectivorous birds (Fig. 5). The consumption of

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pesticide-contaminated (coated) seeds and insects are the Cimino et al. 2017; Rao 2018; Wang et al. 2018b; Eddleston
major direct sources of bird contamination, whereas lack 2020; Wang et al. 2020).
of arthropods/insects population (as substantial prey for the The routes for the pesticide poisoning in humans are the
birds) are the indirect sources for the loss of bird diversity skin, eyes, nose, and mouth directly exposed to the envi-
(Ertl et al. 2018; Li et al. 2020a; Sabin and Mora 2022). ronmental contaminants. Among them, the main cause of
Moreover, cytotoxic and DNA damage to mammalian cells pesticide poisoning to humans is the dermal absorption,
have been reported to be induced by the neonicotinoids while pesticide spray in the farm field was found more prev-
(Senyildiz et al. 2018). For example, neonicotinoids (viz., alent route of entry among the other modes reported (Rani
clothianidin and thiamethoxam) have been reported to inter- et al. 2021). Moreover, ingestion of contaminated food and
fere with the endocrine system and brain cells (thalamic and water can also be the potential source of human exposure to
hippocampal regions) of mice and also pose toxic risks to the pesticides (Bennett et al. 2019; Li and Kannan 2020).
the embryos of mice and rabbits (Pang et al. 2020). Thus, Pesticides soluble in fat or water are prone to the dermal
pesticides have considerable toxic effects on different pol- absorption, while the pesticide substances of around 5 μm
linator species which lead to the decline in their foraging in diameter are taken up through inhalation in the form of
capacity with time (Fig. 5). aerosols. After introduction in the human body, some of
the pesticides get metabolized by the enzymes to different
metabolites and excreted through the urine (Li et al. 2020b).
Humans and pesticides Once ingested by the humans, pesticide is directly deposited
into the liver followed by further transformation into water-
Synthetic and natural pesticides are poisonous and danger- soluble excretory substances. In the liver, highly oxidative
ous to human beings, and hence, use and application during metabolic reactions convert pesticides into other less toxic or
farming should be controlled and monitored (Sharma et al. even more toxic compounds of xenobiotic nature (Hodgson
2020). The toxicity of the pesticides to the human can be and Goldstein 2001). However, some of the neonicotinoids
classified as intentional or unintentional/accidental (Eddles- have been reported to excrete as such through the urine due
ton 2020) and depends on the type of pesticides, concentra- to their higher water solubility (Ueyama et al. 2015). Thus,
tion, and exposure levels. As a saying “the dose and time of formulation of policies and legislation related to the judi-
exposure make the poison,” the dose and exposure timing are cious use of pesticides and the consequences of pesticide’s
the important factors for developing the chronic toxicity to a overuse to the human health has been suggested for different
living organism (Tennekes 2017; Buszewski et al. 2019). In countries of the world (Huang et al. 2021).
general, the effect observed in a single exposure is called as
acute effect and long-term exposure causes chronic effects.
Short-time exposure of human body to highly toxic pesticide Impact of pesticides
substance leads to the acute effect and can be observed as
dermal, inhalation, and ingestion toxicity (Rao 2018). The Effect on soil characteristics
acute pesticide toxicity is responsible for the symptoms like
headache, lack of decision and coordination, redness and Soil acts as sink as well as secondary source of differ-
itching of eyes, skin allergies, depression, loss of appetite, ent pollutants (Chakraborty et al. 2015). For example,
diarrhea, shortness of breath, fatigue, slow pulse rate, sweat- OCPs have been found to have higher affinity to soils
ing, vomiting and nausea, and sometimes coma (Jones et al. (Khuman et al. 2020). Due to this nature, the pollutants
2007; Eddleston 2020). On the other hand, the ignorance of have been reported to have negative effects on different
acute toxicity and long-term exposure to low pesticide doses soil organisms (Prashar and Shah 2016; Gunstone et al.
are responsible for the chronic effects (Koureas et al. 2012; 2021). Soil organisms along with different soil physico-
Thongprakaisang et al. 2013; Nieder et al. 2018). Continu- chemical properties play important role in determining
ous exposure of similar pesticide for the long time could the health and overall soil fertility (Lo 2010). The exces-
result in their accumulation in the tissues (Fig. 5). The accu- sive application of environmentally hazardous pesticides
mulation of such hazardous substances and their residues in (e.g., OCPs) could lead to detrimental effects on the
the tissue will induce malfunctioning in the development and soil physico-chemical as well as biological properties
metabolism (La Merrill et al. 2013). The chronic exposure (Alengebawy et al. 2021), thus considerably influencing
may lead to different types of cancers, mutations, reproduc- the productivity of the agro-ecosystems (Khuman et al.
tive abnormality, hormonal imbalance, birth defects, neuro- 2020). High-throughput sequencing data results revealed
degenerative diseases, lung and liver dysfunction, Parkin- a considerable change in microbial community compo-
son’s disease, disorders of blood, and even death (Roberts sition in the neonicotinoid-spiked soils as compared to
and Reigart 2009; Khatri and Tyagi 2015; Zhang et al. 2015; the control (Zhang et al. 2018). Thus, pesticide-directed

13
9252 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:9243–9270

modulations in microbial activities eventually alter the Pesticide contamination in crop produce
soil functionalities (Verasoundarapandian et al. 2022).
The impact of two pesticides (viz., cypermethrin and thi- So far, a number of pesticides have been chemically synthe-
amethoxam) perturbing the activities of dehydrogenase, sized for improving the agricultural productivity. Pesticides
urease, catalase, phosphatases, and nitrifying bacteria is are also reported to protect postharvest fruit losses (Deng
studied by Filimon et al. (2015). The reductions in enzy- et al. 2021). However, the excessive application, improper
matic markers were ascribed to the decline in microbial handling, poor understanding of the safety measurements,
population (Fig. 5). The assessment of enzymatic activi- and ignorance of the regulatory guidelines may result in
ties, therefore, can be used as important biomarkers to accumulation of pesticides in treated crops and food con-
identify the agricultural soils greatly exposed to the pes- tamination, thereby affecting consumer’s health (Zhang
ticide residues. Furthermore, many of the pesticides con- et al. 2011; Shammi et al. 2017). Pesticide availability
ventionally used for crop protection are registered to hin- (even above maximum residual limit, MRL) in different
der the chemical conversation necessarily required for the crop and food components has been reported globally (Qin
vital functioning of diazotrophic bacteria (Kumar 2015). et al. 2021; Sarker et al. 2021). In an extensive review on
The insecticides have been found to block the molecular the presence of pesticides in different foodstuffs and their
signals required for the functioning of N ­ 2-fixing bacte- ecological risk assessment, Sarker et al. (2021) reported
ria, thus affecting the N
­ 2-fixation ability. Therefore, the the presence of pesticides in vegetable and fruit samples
soils receiving high amounts of pesticides have become of Pakistan, Turkey, and Ghana, in vegetables and fishes in
nitrogen deficient, and thus, showed substantial decline China, and in fresh and marketed tomato products in Saudi
in crop productivity in the long run (Fox et al. 2007), if Arabia. The vegetable sample analyses by Qin et al. (2021)
additional N-fertilizer is not supplied (Verasoundarapan- also revealed the level of difenoconazole and procymidone
dian et al. 2022). beyond the recommended content. Taghizadeh et al. (2021)
The investigation of Kumar et al. (2012) directed have indicated the presence of noxious pesticides in wal-
towards the impact of four pesticides (viz., carbendazim, nut, but were consumable because of acceptable amount.
cartap hydrochloride, chlorpyrifos, and pretilachlor) Detailed account of different pesticide residues in fruits
which reflected the differing actions in soil matrix. Soil and vegetables is recently delineated by Narenderan et al.
treatment with cartap hydrochloride and chlorpyrifos (2020). The authors have summarized the state-of-the-art
led to the rise in microbial biomass carbon (MBC) for techniques such as gas chromatography-mass spectrom-
30 days; thereafter, decline and reversal to natural level etry (GC–MS), high-performance liquid chromatography
were achieved after 90 days. For carbendazim, initially (HPLC), tandem mass spectrometry (MS–MS), mass selec-
there was reduction in MBC for 45 days followed by tive detection (MSD), photo-diode array detection (PAD),
enhancement up to 90 days. With reference to carbon quadrupole-time of flight mass analyzer (Q-TOF), and rapid
mineralization, reduction was noticed after soil treatment resolution liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (RR-
with carbendazim, chlorpyrifos, and cartap hydrochloride LCMS) for quantification and detection of pesticides (see
for initial 30 days, followed by enhancements. The soil Narenderan et al. 2020). Presence of organophosphate and
treated with pretilachlor, on the other hand, displayed carbamate class pesticides in vegetables grown in Kenya is
rising trend for carbon mineralization. Such differences recently reported (Omwenga et al. 2021). The vegetables
might result from the changes in chemical properties of like French beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), tomato (Sola-
selected pesticides as well as nature of the exposed micro- num lycopersicum L.), spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.), and
organisms. The degradation products of applied pesticide kales (Brassica oleracea var. acephala DC.) were found to
may serve as substrate for microbial growth (Handa et al. be contaminated with pesticide residues of methamidophos,
1999; Fernández-Calviño et al. 2021) rather than show- acephate, omethoate, chlorpyrifos, and profenofos in the
ing inhibitory effects. Increased electrical conductivity range of 10 to 1343 μg/kg. The experimental investigation
(caused by rise in ions) and reduced moisture content, demonstrated significant health risks to the consumers and
nitrate, and percent total organic matter in OCP-affected recommended regular assessment of pesticide contents in
soil as compared to the non-contaminated pristine soil are cultivated vegetables so as to limit the contaminant within
demonstrated by Egbe et al. (2021). The reduced level of maximum recommended limit (MRL). Gaweł et al. (2019)
organic matter in pesticide-affected soil was attributed identified residues of neonicotinoids (viz., acetamiprid and
to the strong interaction of pesticide contaminants with thiacloprid) and fungicide metabolites in honey samples
organic matter. Overall, the effects of pesticides can be using liquid and gas chromatography assisted with tandem
mediated by the soil microorganisms which pave the ways mass spectroscopy and found their considerable presence in
for exploring the bio-based remediation of pesticides in more than 77% and 50% samples, respectively. Therefore,
the agro-ecosystems. risk assessment, precise extraction, and determination of

13
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:9243–9270 9253

residues in different soil and plant matrices using modern Stål, 1854) led to enhanced metabolism of the neonicoti-
analytical tools could be helpful in eliminating the health noids before their interaction with the nAChR in insects,
effects associated with hazardous level of pesticides. whereas mutations of the nAChR target site (e.g., dupli-
cation of CYP6ER1 gene) further reduce the sensitivity
Resistance development in pests: an emerging towards the neonicotinoids (Bass et al. 2011; Zimmer et al.
threat 2018; Ihara and Matsuda 2018). Moreover, the availabil-
ity of pesticide may also lead to the development of non-
The exact concentration taken by the pest is always less target site resistance (Gaines et al. 2020). For instance, the
(< 10%); thus, maximum amount of applied pesticides genes responsible for non-target site herbicide resistance
(> 90%) either ends in soil or crop absorption, or carried belong to enzymes like cytochrome P ­ 450, transferases, and
through the precipitation and leaching, surface and water aryl acylamidase. Noticeably, the combined action of both
run-off, volatilizations, wind flow, evaporation, and degra- the target and non-target resistance development in an
dation through the photolysis and microbial hydrolysis (Li individual organism may trigger even more resistance to
et al. 2020c; Pang et al. 2020). Humidity and temperature a pesticide. Hence, there is urgent need for the sustainable
along with above-mentioned parameters may lead to an management of pesticide resistance in crop pests to improve
additional loss of 20–30% of the pesticide (Ghormade et al. the agricultural productivity.
2011; Perlatti et al. 2013). Because of considerable loss in
the actual concentration used, pests will be exposed to lower
concentration of pesticides under such conditions. Gradual Fate and transport of pesticides
and increased exposure to lesser concentrations makes in the agro‑ecosystems
the organism tolerant/resistant to the pesticides (Nuruzza-
man et al. 2016; Gaines et al. 2020), and the pesticides Though recent advancements in pesticide development have
can be metabolized by the organisms. Biotransformation been focusing on reducing the application rate and envi-
triggered by enzymes is the important stage of pesticide ronmental exposure, the movement of pesticide residues in
conversion into less toxic forms. Biotransformation is car- different environmental components is still happening (Bish
ried out by several organisms and involves bio-concentra- and Bradley 2017). The transport and transformations of the
tion, bioaccumulation, and detoxification (Katagi 2010). pesticides happen after their applications (Fig. 6). Deposi-
Sometimes, even more toxic by-products are produced by tion of pesticides and their residues near the crop and veg-
cellular metabolic pathways. For example, neonicotinoids etation, absorption by the soil particles and transfer through
have been reported to successfully control a wide range of the wind and water run-off, solubilization of pesticides into
pests, but the resistance development in some major pests water and uptake and assimilation into plant parts through
like aphids, beetles, planthoppers, and whiteflies has been the vessels, and finally pesticide degradation and forma-
observed recently (Bass and Field 2018). Genetic make-up tion of the residual product through the photo-oxidation,
of the pest is orchestrated in a way to adjust according to chemical, and microbial processes (Meftaul et al. 2020) are
the changes in the individual pesticide concentrations or the important events associated with the fate of pesticides
concentration addition of several pesticides. In other words, applied in the agro-ecosystems. In nature, pesticides go
the presence of pesticide in a given environment induces through three different fate processes, viz., (a) absorption,
selective pressure for the progressive evolution of different (b) transfer, and (c) environmental degradation, depending
pests (Palumbi 2001). on the environmental conditions, soil characteristics, physi-
Molecular-level researches identified two major mecha- cal and chemical nature of pesticides, solubility in water and
nisms for resistance development in pests: (i) metabolic volatility in air, and methods of applications (Raffa and Chi-
resistance (e.g., extrusion and rapid degradation) mediated ampo 2021). These fate processes determine the significance
by enhanced expression and/or activity of target enzymes/ of pesticides for the environment whether will be safe or not
proteins, and (ii) target site resistance by mutations (Bass after application. Moreover, by modeling and changing envi-
and Field 2018; Hawkins et al. 2019). Thus, the alteration ronmental parameters, fate processes can be manipulated to
of target site and modifications of the enzymes involved get maximum benefits after their application to the fields
in detoxification make the organism resistant to exposed (Al-Shidhani et al. 2013). Adsorption by using different
pesticides. For example, the modification of the enzymes adsorbents (e.g., activated carbon, biochar, clay, and nano-
leads to the survival of the pests with resistance to carba- particles) is an eco-friendly, cost-effective, and widely used
mates (oxidases), organophosphates (esterases), and DDT methods for pesticide removal from the polluted environ-
(DDT-dehydrochlorinase) (Salem and Olajos 1988). Fur- ment (Rani et al. 2021). Adsorption occurs through chemi-
thermore, overexpression of cytochrome ­P 450 enzymes cal interactions/bonding (e.g., cation exchange, covalent
(e.g., CYP6ER1 gene in brown hoppers Nilaparvata lugens bonding dipole–dipole, van der Waal’s forces) or physical

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9254 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:9243–9270

Fig. 6  Fate and transport of pesticides in the environment

interactions (Rashed 2013). For example, the heteroatoms pesticide-contaminated systems (Fig. 7). It involves miti-
(N, S, and Cl) present in the neonicotinoids help in form- gation and degradation of contaminants by the organisms
ing H-bonds with the H-ion-donating particles in the soil (microbes and plants) in which these contaminants are used
(Zhang et al. 2018). Soil texture, temperature, organic C as a substrate and broken down into less/non-toxic forms/by-
(OC) content, pH, and cation exchange capacity are major products (Ye et al. 2017; Li et al. 2020c; Pang et al. 2020). A
soil parameters which determine the sorption of different diverse range of microorganisms (see Table 1) such as spe-
pesticides (Anderson et al. 2015; Zhang et al. 2018). Neo- cies of Arthrobacter (Conn & Dimmick, 1947), Aspergillus
nicotinoids have more solubility in water and low volatility (P.Micheli, 1729), Bacillus (Cohn, 1872), Chlamydomonas
(Morrissey et al. 2015), and thus, they are more prone to (Ehrenberg, 1835), Ensifer (Casida, 1982), Methylobac-
leaching and less sorption on the soils or volatilization in terium (Patt et al., 1976), Mycobacterium (Lehmann &
air, in general (Botias et al. 2015). But higher adsorption and Neumann, 1896), Nostoc (Vaucher ex Bornet & Flahault,
rapid biodegradation of these pesticides has been reported 1886), Phanerochaete (P.Karst., 1889), Pigmentiphaga
in OC-rich and alkaline soils (Zhang et al. 2018). The fate (Blümel et al., 2001), Pseudomonas (Migula, 1894), Pseu-
and transportation of pesticides in the agro-ecosystems has doxanthomonas (Finkmann et al., 2000), Rhizobium (Frank,
been illustratively described in Fig. 6. 1889), Rhodococcus (Hirose, 1958), Sphingomonas (Yabu-
uchi et al., 1990), Stenotrophomonas (Palleroni & Bradbury,
1993), and Trichoderma (Persoon ex Gray, 1801) belonging
Bio‑based management strategies to different groups such as Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes,
for the pesticide‑contaminated Chlorophyta, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Cyanobacteria,
agro‑ecosystems Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota are found as potential
sources for the degradation of different classes of pesticides
So far, different physico-chemical and biological approaches including carbamates, neonicotinoids, organochlorines,
have been applied for the remediation of pesticide-con- organophosphates, and pyrethroids (Pang et al. 2020; Kumar
taminated systems. Each of the currently applied methods et al. 2021). Different approaches of bioremediation have
has associated advantages and disadvantages (Fig. 1). As been elaborated in the following sub-sections:
compared to different methods, bioremediation is an eco-
friendly and cost-effective approach for the management of

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:9243–9270 9255

Fig. 7  Bio-based remediation approaches applied for the management of pesticide-contaminated agro-ecosystems

Microbes in pesticide bioremediation microbial remediation can be further simplified and grouped
into five sub-classes, viz., biosorption, bioaccumulation,
In the present scenario, microbial remediation has become biotransformation, biomineralization, and biodegradation
a research hotspot and has been proposed as a safe and eco- (Zhang et al. 2020b). Biological degradation of pesticide
friendly strategy for the mitigation of pesticide contami- atrazine by Arthrobacter aurescens (Phillips, 1953) and Aci-
nation from soils (Boudh and Singh 2019; Li et al. 2019; netobacter sp. (Brisou & Prevot, 1954) has exhibited the
Zhang et al. 2020a, b). Microorganisms have an immense relevance of natural bacterial species (Strong et al. 2002;
potential to metabolize (and/or immobilize) different pol- Singh et al. 2004). Another investigations employing the
lutants, including pesticides (see Table 1), to different less/ bioremediation of glyphosate using sulfur-oxidizing bacte-
non-toxic compounds (Zhang et al. 2020a, b). Microbi- ria and diazinon catalyzed by bacteria Arthrobacter sp. and
ally catalyzed remediation processes are generally of three Mycobacterium sp. are well documented (Dar et al. 2020;
types: (i) natural remediation, (ii) bioaugmentation, and (iii) Liang et al. 2020). Different species of genera Bacillus,
biostimulation (Pimmata et al. 2013; Helbling 2015; Nwank- Mycobacterium, Pseudomonas, Pseudoxanthomonas, and
wegu and Onwosi 2017). In natural attenuation, the microbes Stenotrophomonas have been reported to regulate different
existing in contaminated environment are taken in consid- degradation pathways (such as hydroxylation and nitrate
eration. Bioaugmentation refers to the release of genetically reduction) of neonicotinoids (Zhang et al. 2018).
transformed (cultured) microbes for the metabolization of Microbial species can be used singly (e.g., pure culture)
contaminants at the site of contamination (in situ), with- or in combination as microbial consortia for efficient clean-
out disturbing the rhizosphere. In biostimulation, the sub- up of pesticide-contaminated soils (Verma et al. 2014; Pang
stances of chemical origin like electron donors/acceptors et al. 2020). The microorganisms use pesticides as the source
or growth-limiting nutrients are added in the vicinity of the of nutrients (C and N) for their growth, whereas additional
contaminated site in order to support the multiplication of nutrient sources are also required in co-metabolic biodeg-
existing microbes performing the active contaminant uptake/ radation of pesticides (Pang et al. 2020). In general, rapid
degradation. The bioremediation by these approaches also biodegradation of neonicotinoids by involving cyano- and
involves ex situ homogenization of contaminated soils (Pas- imino-hydrolysis, dechlorination, hydroxylation, and nitrate
cal-Lorber and Laurent 2011). Based on these approaches, reduction pathways has been observed in pure cultures

13
 Table 1  List of important organisms (viz., bacteria, algae and cyanobacteria, fungi, and plants) involved in removal of different pesticides from the agro-ecosystems
9256

Organisms’ type/class Name of organism Pesticide used Percent (%) removal Country of the study Reference

13
Bacteria Pseudomonas sp. DSP-1 (Migula, Chlorpyrifos ~ 50 China Jia et al. (2021)
1894) and Cupriavidus sp. P2
(Makkar & Casida, 1987)
Pseudomonas luteola BS-06 Profenofos 92.72 Indonesia Putra et al. (2021)
(Kodama et al., 1985)
Streptomyces sp. A2, A5, A11, and Lindane 82.6 Argentina Raimondo et al. (2020)
M7 strains (Waksman & Henrici,
1943)
Sphingobium sp. (Takeuchi, Hexachlorocyclohexane 58 India Garg et al. (2016)
Hamana & Hiraishi, 2001)
Cupriavidus sp. YNS-85 (Makkar Pentachloronitrobenzene 74.2 China Zhang et al. (2020a, b)
& Casida, 1987)
Pseudomonas sp. (Migula, 1894), Epoxiconazole and fludioxonil 100 Portugal Alexandrino et al. (2020)
Ochrobactrum sp. (Holmes et al.,
1988) and Comamonas sp. (De
Vos et al. 1985)
Sphingobium sp., Acinetobacter sp. Acetamiprid 100 China Xu et al. (2020)
(Brisou & Prévot, 1954), Afipia
sp. (Brenner et al., 1992), Steno-
trophomonas sp. (Palleroni &
Bradbury, 1993), Microbacterium
sp. (Orla-Jensen, 1919)
Cupriavidus sp. LMGR1 Methyl parathion 78.39 India Tiwari et al. (2020)
Shewanella sp. BT05 (MacDonell Chlorpyrifos 93 India Govarthanan et al. (2020)
& Colwell, 1986)
Pseudomonas plecoglossicida Profenofos 38–55 Thailand Subsanguan et al. (2020)
strain PF1 (Nishimori et al.,
2000)
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:9243–9270
 Table 1  (continued)
Organisms’ type/class Name of organism Pesticide used Percent (%) removal Country of the study Reference

Algae and cyanobacteria Chlorella sp. (M.Beijerinck 1890) Chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, and 35, 14, and 55, respectively Spain Avila et al. (2021)
and Scenedesmus sp. (Meyen oxadiazon
1829)
Chlorella saccharophila Pyridaphenthion > 55 Spain Jonsson et al. (2001)
(M.Beijerinck, 1890)
Chlorella vulgaris (M.Beijerinck, Atrazine, molinate, carbofuran, and 89.2, 85.6, and 88.2, respectively Egypt Hussein et al. (2017)
1890) others
Chlorella vulgaris Diazinon 94 Republic of Korea Kurade et al. (2016)
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Trichlorfon 100 China Wan et al. (2020)
P.A.Dang
Nostoc muscorum C.Agardh Malathion 91 Egypt Ibrahim et al. (2014)
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Prometryne > 50 China Jin et al. (2012)
Chlamydomonas mexicana L. Atrazine 14–36 South Korea Kabra et al. (2014)
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:9243–9270

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Isoproturon 15.1 China Bi et al. (2012)

Scenedesmus obliquus (Turpin) Triadimefon > 70 China Xu and Huang (2017)
Kütz
Fungi Trametes versicolor (L.) Lloyd Bentazone 48 Spain García-Vara et al. (2021)
1921
T. versicolor Diuron 83 Spain Hu et al. (2020a)
T. versicolor Chlorpyrifos, dicofol, and cyper- 94.7, 87.9, and 93.1, respectively Spain Hu et al. (2020b)
methrin
Phanerochaete chrysosporium Imidacloprid 97.37 China Xie et al. (2020)
(Burds. 1974)
Aspergillus sp. (PYR-P2) Cypermethrin, cyfluthrin, and 100, 98.24, and 92.11, respectively India Kaur and Balomajumder (2020)
(P.Micheli, 1729) cyhalothrin
Aspergillus fumigatus (Fresenius, Chlorpyrifos 99.65 Indonesia Anggreini et al. (2020)
1863)
Aspergillus oryzae strains. AM1 Glyphosate 57 Argentina Carranza et al. (2019)
and AM2 ((Ahlb.) Cohn, 1884)
Aspergillus sydowii strain PA F-2 Trichlorfon 55.52 China Zhang et al. (2019)
((Bainier & Sartory) Thom &
Church, 1926)
Ascochyta sp. CBS 237.37carb.1b Carbamate mixture > 90 India Kaur and Balomajumder (2019)
(Lib., 1830)
Aspergillus niger (Tiegh., 1867) Glyphosate 100 Iraq Shaker et al. (2018)

13
9257
 Table 1  (continued)
9258

Organisms’ type/class Name of organism Pesticide used Percent (%) removal Country of the study Reference

13
Plants Cannabis sativa L. Metalaxyl-M 67–94 Italy Loffredo et al. (2021)
Pistia stratiotes L. and Eichhornia Clomazone 90–99.9 Brazil Alencar et al. (2020)
crassipes ((Mart.) Solms, 1883)
Canavalia ensiformis (L.) DC., Hexazinone 1.1–11.2 Brazil da Silva Teófilo et al. (2020)
Stizolobium aterrimum (Piper &
Tracy, 1910), Raphanus sativus
L., Crotalaria spectabilis Roth,
Lupinus albus L., and Pennisetum
glaucum ((L.) R.Br., 1810)
Potamogeton crispus L. and Myrio- Atrazine > 50 China Li et al. (2019)
phyllum spicatum L.
Canna indica L. Triazine 100 China Sun et al. (2019)
Cyperus alternifolius L., Canna Chlorpyrifos 64.6–86.4 China Tang et al. (2019)
indica L., Iris pseudacorus L.,
Juncus effusus L., and Typha
orientalis (C.Presl, 1851)
Polygonum punctatum (Elliott, Chlorpyrifos 98.6 Brazil Souza et al. (2017)
1817), Cynodon spp. Rich., and
Mentha aquatica L.
Potamogeton crispus L. and Myrio- Atrazine > 90 China Qu et al. (2017)
phyllum spicatum L.
Lolium perenne L., Festuca arundi- Atrazine 88.6–99.6 Spain Sánchez et al. (2017)
nacea (Schreb., 1771), Hordeum
vulgare L., and Zea mays L.
Panicum virgatum L. (Switch Atrazine 80 United States Lin et al. (2008)
grass)
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:9243–9270
Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:9243–9270 9259

Fig. 8  An illustrative representation of different processes involved and the mechanism of microbial degradation of pesticides in the agro-eco-
systems (based on Raffa and Chiampo 2021)

under laboratory conditions (Zhang et al. 2018). However, pesticide-contaminated soil environment, could be helpful
the mineralization rate and degradation products may differ in applying the bacteria for environmental remediation. The
under natural agricultural soil matrix. The rapid degrada- optimization of environmental factors like pH, temperature,
tion of pesticide by consortium consisting of Ochrobactrum nutrient condition, pesticide’s content, amount of carbon
sp. (Holmes et al., 1988) and Pseudomonas citronellolis substrates, treatment durations, soil characteristics, and
(Seubert, 1960) strain ADA-23B under real environment inoculation dose are the important criteria for improving
is recently presented (Góngora-Echeverría et al. 2020). the degradation potential of microbes (Fig. 1). Different pro-
Within 15 days, the selected pesticides were degraded up cesses involved in the microbial degradation of pesticides
to 80% by microbial consortium. Elucidation on the role have been elaborated in Fig. 8.
of Actinobacteria, namely Thermobifida sp. (Zhang et al.,
1998 emend. Yang et al., 2008) and Streptomyces coelicolor Algae and cyanobacteria in pesticide
((Müller, 1908) Waksman & Henrici, 1948), for the degrada- bioremediation
tion of lindane present in soil as determined by reverse phase
high-performance liquid chromatography is demonstrated In addition to microbes, algae and cyanobacteria also play
by Usmani et al. (2021). Thermobifida halotolerans (Yang important role in the remediation of pesticide contaminants
et al., 2008) was able to degrade maximally 82% of lindane (see Table 1). The application of microalgae has immensely
spiked in sterile soil within 30 days of treatment. An Act- attracted the researchers in view of the natural and efficient
inobacteria consortium including Amycolatopsis tucuman- management of pesticide-contaminated environments such
ensis AB0 (Albarracín et al., 2010) and Streptomyces sp. as agricultural run-off and polluted water effluents (Nie et al.
M7, MC1, A5 (Waksman & Henrici, 1943) has also been 2020; Verasoundarapandian et al. 2022). Because of simple
reported to sufficiently degrade lindane along with Cr(VI) nutrient requirements, microalgae may be easily cultivated
co-contamination in a couple of weeks in the contaminated autotrophically, heterotrophically, and mixotrophically
soils from the Lerma Valley, Argentina (Zhang et al. 2020b). (Hammed et al. 2016). Most of the investigations dealing
Cell immobilization (by maintaining their catabolic, with pesticide bioremediation have focused basically on the
catalytic, and metabolic activities) is also an effective tech- application of Chlorella sp. (M.Beijerinck, 1890), Anabaena
nique for the efficient removal of pollutants as compared sp. (Bory de Saint-Vincent ex Bornet & Flahault, 1886),
to the free cells (Conde-Avila et al. 2020). Isolation and Nostoc sp. (Vaucher, 1888 ex Bornet & Flahault, 1886), and
identification of newer strains, tolerant to increased pes- Chlamydomonas sp. (Ehrenb., 1833) under culture condi-
ticide content together with the metagenomics study of tions (Jin et al. 2012; Ibrahim et al. 2014; Kurade et al. 2016;

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9260 Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:9243–9270

Hussein et al. 2017; Avila et al. 2021). The important pro- dependency on organic substrates generally required for
cesses for the remediation of pesticide-contaminated sites proliferation in other organisms (Chen et al. 2012). Addi-
based on algal systems involve surface sorption, intracel- tionally, the synthesis of extracellular enzymes, larger
lular accumulation, and degradation in less toxic or non- surface areas, increased biomass generation within short
toxic products. Nostoc ellipsosporum (Des.) Rabenh. and durations, stable genome because of eukaryotic nature,
Anabaena sp. can degrade organic pollutants such as lindane and extended survival even under extreme natural envi-
(Kuritz and Wolk 1995). ronmental conditions are chief characteristics suggest-
In estuarine region and water bodies, phytoplankton such ing the applicability of fungi for remediation of hazard-
as algae are the primary producers providing food to differ- ous pesticides (Nagpal et al. 2008; Yin and Lian 2012).
ent trophic levels. For example, diatoms cover the bottom of Among different fungal strains evaluated to date, white
water body and provide important fatty acids to the consum- rot fungi are of special interest for the act of pesticide
ers of aquatic food web (Brett and Müller-Navarra 1997). degradation due to extracellular secretion of non-specific
In ecosystem processes, adverse effect on algae rendered by enzymes comprising of different peroxidases and laccase
pesticide contamination can affect dependent consumers. (Bakshi et al. 1999; Hai et al. 2012). Several research-
Similar successive effect can also be observed at higher ers have indicated the opportunities of fungi belonging
trophic levels (Lamberti and Steinman 1997; Fleeger et al. to genera including Candida (Berkh 1923), Ganoderma
2003). Moreover, chronic or long-term exposure of similar (P.Karst, 1881), Trichoderma hamatum ((Bonord) Bainier,
pesticide more often makes the algae tolerant (Molander 1906), and Phanerochaete in the degradation of pesticides
and Blanck 1992; Berard et al. 2002; Stenström 2013). (Kullman and Matsumura 1996; Rigas et al. 2007; Salam
Study on removal of organophosphate pesticide, fenami- and Das 2014; Russo et al. 2019). The yeast identified as
phos by algae belonging to Chlorophyceae (Scenedesmus Pichia anomala ((E.C.Hansen) Kurtzman, 1984) is pre-
sp. Meyen, 1829, Chlamydomonas sp., and Stichococcus sented to metabolize the pesticide carbofuran nearly 96%
sp. Nägeli, 1849) and Cyanophyceae (Nostoc sp. and Ana- after 2 days of treatment in mineral salt media and was
baena sp.) is described by Cáceres et al. (2008). Most of proposed as a potential biological agent for clean-up of
the selected algae transformed fenamiphos into phenolic the contaminated soils (Yang et al. 2011).
derivative. However, species of Chlorella and Anabaena An elaborated discussion on the involvement of fungi
were observed to absolutely metabolize the test pesticides. in biological degradation of pesticide concentrated in
Recently, Avila et al. (2021) have shed light on the effec- water and soil is presented by Spina et al. (2018). The
tiveness of microalgae Chlorella sp. and Scenedesmus sp. review has also shed information pertaining to enzymes
in removal of hydrophobic pesticides, namely chlorpyri- and hormones serving as important biomarkers in order
fos, oxadiazon, and cypermethrin, by 97%, 88%, and 74%, to identify the toxicity on different life-forms imposed by
respectively, under aqueous environment. The maximum pesticides. Pesticide (viz., endosulfan) degradation effi-
biodegradation was noticed for oxadiazon. The isolation, ciency of Aspergillus niger (Tiegh., 1867), Aspergillus
screening, and identification of rapidly growing and high flavus (Link, 1809), and Penicillium chrysogenum (Thom,
pesticide concentration–tolerant algal strains with large 1910) in aqueous condition is reported by Ahmad (2020).
biomass production at the cost of minimal nutrient require- At 10 mg/L concentration of endosulfan, 77% degradation
ment is of special concern while selecting microalgae for following first-order kinetics was recorded for Aspergillus
the bioremediation (Verasoundarapandian et al. 2022). niger. The analysis of degradation products by gas chro-
Noteworthy, the algae and cyanobacteria sequestering pes- matography coupled with mass spectroscopy unveiled the
ticides from the contaminated land areas may be harvested presence of diol, ether, hydroxy ether, and lactone deriva-
easily for the production of valuable products like biochar tives of endosulfan. The identification of pesticide deg-
and biofuel. Moreover, the efficient algal species may be radation products, fungal biomolecules, specific mecha-
cultivated simultaneously with the bacterial strains to aug- nism of degradation, different enzymes carrying out the
ment the process of pesticide bioremediation. degradation, and role of media composition may provide
important clues for augmenting the rate of biodegradation
Fungi in pesticide bioremediation under real environmental conditions. Furthermore, the rate
of degradation is substantially influenced by nature and
Fungi have been considered as potential candidate for concentration of pesticide as well as environmental factors
the management of the pesticide-contaminated sites like pH, temperature, and nutrient conditions. Because of
(see Table 1). The important characteristics offering similar microhabitat (Warmink et al. 2009), fungi can be
the deployment of fungi for bioremediation purposes used simultaneously and synergistically with the bacteria
include much extensive mycelial web, weaker specific- (Purnomo et al. 2020) for further improving the degra-
ity of enzymes catalyzing degradation, and absence of dation potential. Identification, transfer, and enhanced

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:9243–9270 9261

expression of putative genes mediating the biodegrada- plant-soil-microbe systems as compared to the soil without
tion of pesticide in microbes could be sought as another plants. In plant–microbe-combined remediation approach,
approach for accentuating the remediation efficiency. both plant and microbe take the concurrent advantages of
each other (Khan and Iqbal 2013). For example, microor-
Plants in pesticide bioremediations ganisms improve the bioavailability of pollutants in soil
either by degrading themselves or by secreting different
Removal of pesticide contaminants in soil using plant (i.e., plant hormones and ion carriers which enhance the uptake
phytoremediation) has been sought as an attractive, econom- and/or tolerance of the plants to the pesticides (Hrynk-
ically sound, and innovative technology for in situ remedia- iewicz et al. 2018), whereas plant roots provide suitable
tion of not only soil and water but also for the atmospheric habitat and readily available nutrients in the form of root
contaminants (Tripathi et al. 2020). Therefore, phytore- exudates (enriched with amino acids, organic acids, sugars,
mediation holds great promise in revitalizing the affected etc.) required for the microbial growth and activities (Blon-
agro-ecosystems (see Table 1). Phytoremediation can be del et al. 2017; Sarma et al. 2019; Zhang et al. 2020b).
sub-divided as phytoextraction, phytofiltration, phytostabi- It is worth to note that the endophytic and rhizospheric
lization, phytoaccumulation, rhizofiltration (rhizoremedia- microbes used simultaneously with plants must have easy
tion), and phytovolatilization (Fig. 7). Plants belonging to adaptability to contaminated sites and increased coloni-
the genera Typha L., Leersia (Sw. 1788), Sparganium L., zation tendency (Lugtenberg et al. 2001). For example,
Panicum L., Heliconia L., and Medicago L. are explored for hyperaccumulator and high biomass-producing plants can
sequestration of a range of pesticide contaminants (Flocco be suitably used with the rhizospheric (pesticide-degrad-
et al. 2004; Moore et al. 2013; López-Chávez et al. 2021). ing) microorganisms or endophytes for efficient remedia-
Plants efficiently retain a considerable amount of pesticides tion of pollutants (Glick 2010).
(e.g., OCPs) in their tissues, particularly underground tis- The addition of specific molecules, organic acids, micro-
sues such as roots/tubers by the diffusion/partition processes bially derived lipids, surfactants, and nanoparticles has been
(Letondor et al. 2015; Pascal-Lorber et al. 2016). Phytoaccu- tested to improve the phytoremediation potential (An et al.
mulation activities of Lotus tenuis (Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd., 2011; Ramamurthy and Memarian 2012; Agnello et al.
1809), Artemisia vulgaris L., and Tanacetum vulgare L. for 2014; Pillai and Kottekottil 2016). The phytoaccumula-
the extraction of lindane from the contaminated sites is ana- tion ability of Miscanthus sinensis (Andersson, 1855) for
lyzed by Balázs et al. (2018). The selected plants differed varied pesticides relying on soil amendment surfactant and
with respect to the accumulation of α- and β-isomeric forms activated carbon is recently demonstrated (Mamirova et al.
in plant tissues. Remedial effects of plants are significant 2021). The supplementation of Tween 20 used as surfactant
when plants of the Graminae family are applied in buffer reflected augmented plant growth together with the accel-
zones, willow and poplar plants in the riparian zone (hav- erated uptake and transport of some pesticides rendered
ing high evapotranspiration capacity), and aquatic plants in by reduced hydrophobicity, thereby making the pesticide
depuration processes of wastages (Pascal-Lorber and Lau- more available. On the other hand, the amendment of acti-
rent 2011). vated carbon diminished the pesticide absorption by plants
The microbial processes along with the phytoremedia- in question (Mamirova et al. 2021). Nowadays researchers
tion techniques (i.e., combined plant–microbe remediation) have started working on the effectiveness of constructed
are the most widely used bioremediation technology for wetlands (CWs) for remediation, basically of run-off from
the efficient removal of pollutants from the contaminated cultivated lands and drainage (Vymazal and Březinová 2015;
sites (Glick 2010; Zhang et al. 2020a, b). The association Tournebize et al. 2017; Zhu et al. 2021). CWs have been
of endophytic microbes has been noticed to increase the found as the most successful techniques for the removal
aboveground biomass (Babu et al. 2015), thus, support- of pyrethroids, OCPs, organophosphates, and strobin pes-
ing the remediation of pesticide-enriched soils. Apart ticides, whereas poor removal efficiency was observed
from endophytic microbes, rhizospheric microorganisms for aryloxyalkanoic, triazinone, and urea pesticide groups
could also be integrated with the plants for augmenting the (Vymazal and Březinová 2015). Overall, utilization of plants
removal and degradation of pesticides from the soil matrix along with different other bio-based methods and modern
(Flocco et al. 2004; Gerhardt et al. 2009). For example, technological tools can be utilized for the management of
Blondel et al. (2016) revealed that the presence of maize pesticide contamination in the agro-ecosystems.
plant (roots) in the pesticide-contaminated soils altered A detailed list of important organisms belonging to bac-
microbial community composition and functioning as com- teria, algae, fungi, and plants employed for the removal of
pared to the soils without plants. Similarly, greater biodeg- the pesticides from the agro-ecosystems has been given in
radation of lindane was observed by Kidd et al. (2008) in Table 1.
the Cytisus striatus (Hill) Rothm. and Holcus lanatus L.

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Alternative strategies for the mitigation different potential microbes (e.g., bacteria, fungi, algae) and
of pesticide contamination plants (e.g., hyperaccumulators), and plant–microbe nexus
approaches are now getting wider attention for sustainable
Prevention of vector-borne diseases with non-insecticide management of pesticides in the agro-ecosystems. These
approaches includes restrictions of entrance through the organisms have considerable potential to metabolize a range
mechanical barrier and source reductions. The long-term of pesticides to non-toxic products. Researches are now
environmental friendly approach is elimination of main focusing on developing more efficient microbial consortium
sources of the pests such as breeding sites and harborage. and favorable conditions for the microbial degradation of
The mechanical barrier such as curtains, doors, and screens pesticides in the contaminated fields. In order to curb the ris-
inhibits pest entrance and increases the chances of protec- ing menace of pesticide contamination, integrated pest man-
tion. The integrated program includes applications of pes- agement (IPM) and strict regulatory acts for controlling the
ticide in controlled manner by trained personnel, and thus, synthesis and application for agricultural purposes have also
will protect humans from diseases leading to enhanced been implemented. The precise determination of pesticide
protection to the environment and non-target organisms contents together with the by-products generated in soil as
(Chapman et al. 1981). Since the last decade, the approach well as in plant products and development of plant varieties
of physico-chemical methods such as composting, land fill- resistant to the mixtures of pesticide could be viable strate-
ing burning, and incineration is documented to decrease gies in order to avoid the toxicity to the agro-ecosystems.
the chances of pesticide contamination and toxicity in the Most importantly, the development of new generation pes-
environment (Kempa 1997; Wehtje et al. 2000). To avoid ticides of biodegradable nature could be another promising
overuse and misuse of pesticides, the traditional approach approach to safeguard the agro-ecosystems. Overall, this
of integrated pest management (IPM) and integrated vector review will be helpful to the researchers by providing infor-
management should also be followed (Sarwar 2015). IPM mation related to a comprehensive list of organisms and dif-
program which alters the cycle of pest, removal of infected ferent approaches applied for the remediation of pesticides
plant part, and no use of chemicals will be beneficial with from the contaminated sites.
respect to the environmental health management (Emily
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen-
2011; Piwowar 2021). A number of promising pest manage- tary material available at https://d​ oi.o​ rg/​10.1​ 007/s​ 11356-​022-​24381-y.
ment alternatives to the neonicotinoids such as plant defense
elicitors, multiple plant-based semiochemicals, gene editing Acknowledgements Authors are thankful to the handling editor and
for developing resistant crop varieties, and conservation of anonymous reviewers for their critical suggestions which consider-
ably helped in improving the manuscript. RS extends his thanks to
biological control methods have been proposed and/or devel- Ms. Shikha Singh, IESD, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, for her
oped but not fully implemented at the ground levels (Jactel help in drafting figures and improving the content of the manuscript.
et al. 2019). Most of the alternatives need further research
and testing in the field and acceptance by the farmers before Author contribution Umesh Dhuldhaj: conceptualization, writing-
original review draft, funding acquisition; Rishikesh Singh: revision
their release to the market (Jactel et al. 2019). drafting, review, visualization, and editing; Vipin Kumar Singh: con-
ceptualization, writing-original review draft, vizualization, review, and
final editing. All authors have reviewed and approved the final version
Conclusions of the manuscript.

Funding RS gratefully acknowledge the funding support (grant number

Pesticides are meant for the protection of massive losses of PDF/2020/001607) received from Science and Engineering Research
crops and yield reduction caused by different pests reported Board (SERB), New Delhi, as National Post-Doctoral Fellow (NPDF).
globally. The excessive application is reported to deteriorate
Data availability Not applicable.
the agricultural productivity by altering soil and microbio-
logical characteristics. The accumulation of pesticides in dif- Declarations
ferent crops grown, and transport to groundwater and surface
water resources have aggravated the problem to the human Ethics approval The work did not involve animal-based experiment.
and environmental health at multiple folds. The development
Consent to participate All authors participated in this work.
of pest resistance, however, is another challenging problem
linked with the indiscriminate application of pesticide in Consent for publication All authors agree to publish this article in the
the agricultural fields. To mitigate the toxicity of differ- Environmental Science and Pollution Research.
ent pesticides of hazardous nature, a number of physical,
chemical, and biological approaches have been devised. Bio- Conflict of interest The authors declare no competing interests.
based management strategies, particularly with the help of

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Environmental Science and Pollution Research (2023) 30:9243–9270 9263

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