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Impact of Krishi Vigyana Kendras (KVKs) on Socio-economic status of farmers: A

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Indian Journal of Extension Education
Vol. 55, No. 4, 2019 (1-8)

Impact of Krishi Vigyana Kendras (KVKs) on Socio-economic

Status of Farmers: A Meta- Analysis

Bhuvana N1, I Sreenivasa Rao2 and Bharat S Sontakki3

ABSTRACT

Krishi Vigyan Kendra's (KVK's) are integral part of Indian agricultural extension system in India. There are several studies
measuring impact of KVK on farmers, but often they are location specific and based on small samples limiting their
usefulness. With an objective of synthesising many studies on impact of KVK's and to arrive at statistically valid estimate of
impact, a meta-analysis of available literature conducted. The systematic review procedure, resulted in 33 unique studies
related to impact of KVK activities on farmers. The meta-analysis results revealed that the farmers who are beneficiaries of
KVK activities like 'on farm testing', 'front line demonstration', 'trainings' and other KVK activities are 2.62 times, 3.40
times, 1.37 times and 2.01 times more probable to fall in high socio economic status, knowledge level, extent of adoption and
farmer's income score category, compared to non-beneficiary farmers. Thus, the paper concludes that the KVK's activities
have positive impact on farmers of India to have higher socio-economic status with improved knowledge level, extent of
adoption of scientific technologies and farmer's income.

Key words: Farmers, impact, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, KVK activities, meta-analysis, systematic review, socio-economic
status.

INTRODUCTION 2017; Anuj et al, 2014; Mishra et al, 2009; Dubey and
Srivatsva, 2007). Most of the impact studies conducted
Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) also known as Farm are based on smaller samples (Sabyasachi et al. 2019;
science centers in India, are one of the key extension Bacchu et al. 2018; Singh et al. 2018; (Dixit et al. 2017),
systems and integral part of National Agricultural Khedkar et al. 2017), limits generalisation of the findings.
Research System (NARS) in the country. It aims at To frame evidence-based policies, need is for empirical
assessment of location specific technology modules in and objective studies with standard and rigorous methods.
agriculture and allied enterprises through assessment and Such studies are also important to justify the huge
demonstrations with relevant trainings to farmers (ICAR, financial expenditure on KVK's. Further, such studies can
2019a). Being one of its kind in the world, KVKs reach also be helpful at times when policy on agriculture
farmers with the technical inputs from lab to land in extension are at crossroads.
promoting scientific cultivation practices. They serve the
farmers with mandated activities like a) On-farm testing Synthesis of multiple studies will be a challenging
b) front line demonstrations c) trainings of farmers, farm task for the researcher due to heterogeneity with respect to
women and extension personnel and d) act as knowledge sampling, difference in reporting results and location
and resource centre of agricultural technologies. The specific nature of agriculture. These reasons constraint
impact studies conducted on KVKs are specific to the researcher to generalize the findings of social science
location, crop or technology and mandated activity research. So, meta-analysis is one of the analytical tools,
(Aditya, 2019; Hansraj et al. 2019; Kumar et al. 2018; which helps to estimate combined effect size of any
Kumar et al. 2019; Sumita et al. 2018; Savita and Lalita. intervention. Meta-analysis is a statistical synthesis

1.
Ph. D student, Department of Agricultural Extension, Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Hyderabad, 2. Professor & University Head,
Extension Education Institute, Hyderabad and 3. Head, Extension Systems Management Division, ICAR-NAARM, Hyderabad
 2 INDIAN JOURNAL OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

method that provides the opportunity to view the “whole Study selection
picture” in a research context by combining and analyzing Studies are selected following recurrent screening
the quantitative results of many empirical studies (Glass, process which is indicated in PRISMA flow chart
1976). It is essentially systematic review. However, in (figure 1). The first selection process started with title
addition to narrative summary that is conducted in screening. This was followed by abstract screening where
systematic review, in meta-analysis, the analysts also some studies were eliminated based on inclusion-
numerically pool the results of the studies and arrive at a exclusion criteria. This was followed by the full text
summary estimate. Considering the importance of meta- review where the relevant papers for inclusion are
analysis, an attempt has been made to apply this analytical retrieved.
tool to assess the impact of activities of Krishi Vigyan
Kendra (KVK) on farmer's socio-economic status, Statistical Analysis
knowledge level and extent of adoption of scientific The study uses Mantel-Haenszel (MH) statistical
agricultural technologies and farmer's income. method to obtain pooled odds ratio across the studies
related to KVK. Meta-analysis is used to investigate the
METHODOLOGY combination or interaction of a group of independent
studies. The analysis examined the odds ratio for each
Literature search for meta-analysis individual study and for group of studies as a whole. The
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews Mantel-Haenszel (MH) odds ratio is estimated by
and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines of Cochran applying the formula used by Giovanni et al, 2010 in their
collaborations was used for systematic review and meta- study, is as follows:
analysis. Systematic review was performed in databases KVK activities
like Krishi Kosh, Journal of Krishi Vigyan and Google
Participants Non Total
scholar. Various combinations of search strings related to Outcome of interest participants
KVKs and the outcome of interest were used as input to (Socio-economic status, High ai bi n1i
Knowledge level, Extent of
search for research papers. Different combinations of adoption and farmer’s Low ci Di n0i
keywords along with boolean operators (or, and, not), income)
Total
asterick (*) and quotation marks (“ “) were used to m1i m0i Ni

develop the search strategies. "KVKs" and "Impact”; Estimate of odds ratio = (ad)/(bc)
Krishi Vigyan Kendras or Farm Science Center; Impact
and (Krishi Vigyan Kendras or Farm Science Center) and
agriculture are some examples of the search strings used
as search strategy in databases.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Inclusion-exclusion criteria are used as filters for
selecting papers that are relevant for the study. We
selected the papers which were published in English. The Most of the studies on impact of KVK activities on
papers which provide the quantitative data about the farmers have used scale values and then categorized
impact of KVK activities on farmer's socio economic outcome of interest in to low, medium and high
status, knowledge level, extent of adoption and farmer's categories. It is difficult to synthesize the impact with
income as outcome variables were included. Impact such kind of data in absence of mean scores and standard
studies without well-defined counterfactual were deviations.
excluded. The papers with insufficient data, weak
methodologies for assessing impact and lack of proper Hence, in this paper, we considered proportion of
research designs were also excluded. farmers falling in high category of outcome of interest
among those served by KVK and among those not served
We did not restrict ourselves to peer reviewed studies by KVK, as a measure of impact. The results are depicted
as there were very few peer reviewed studies related to in forest plot, which even explains the heterogeneity and
KVK's. The studies included in the analysis were mostly inconsistency in results, if exists. The funnel plot
from theses of agricultural universities and as most of the examines the presence of bias in the studies. Statistical
unpublished studies forms the base for other peer analysis was performed using Revman 5.3.5 software. If
reviewed papers published in journals, they cannot be P<0.05, then the overall effect size is considered to be
ignored (Wilhelm and Martin, 2014). statistically significant.
 IMPACT OF KRISHI VIGYANA KENDRAS (KVKS) ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC 3
STATUS OF FARMERS: A META- ANALYSIS
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION are more likely to fall in high socio economic status,
knowledge level, extent of adoption and income category
Search results are indicated in PRISMA flow chart compared to a farmers who are not reached by KVK
(figure 1). The systematic search in different databases activities. The overall effect size is also found to be
yielded a total of 434 publications. With the elimination of significant as revealed by P score of less than 0.01.
duplicate references, 431 publications were available for
title and abstract screening. Through rigorous screening The overall impact of the study is analysed under
process based on exclusion-inclusion criteria, 284 mandated activities of KVK accounting for heterogeneity
publications were eliminated due to irrelevancy to in impact. The existence of heterogeneity between the
research problem, 12 publications were rejected due to activities of KVKs was evident from the differential total
insufficient data during title and abstract screening . Thus, odds ratios of KVK activities at 5 per cent level of
135 papers were selected for full review. Of the 135 significance.
papers available for full review, only 32 were selected for
further analysis based on suitability and robustness of Table 1: Impact of KVK activities on Farmers of India
methodology, sufficiency of data, relevancy and absence based on Effect Size (ES)
of common biases like access and extreme results.
Outcome and Subgroup Studies Participants Statistical Method ES

Socio-economic status 13 1900 Odds Ratio 2.62 2.04, 3.36)

(M.H., Fixed, 95%
CI)
Training 9 1390 Odds Ratio 1.851.36, 2.51)
(M.H., Fixed, 95%
CI)
FLD 2 240 Odds Ratio 1.990.98, 4.05)
(M.H., Fixed, 95%
CI)
Other activities 2 270 Odds Ratio 9.955.61, 17.63)
(M.H., Fixed, 95%
CI)
Knowledge level 32 5095 Odds Ratio 3.402.96, 3.90)
(M.H., Fixed, 95%
CI)
Frontline demonstration 5 660 Odds Ratio 5.553.78, 8.14)
(M.H., Fixed, 95%
CI)
Training 24 3795 Odds Ratio 3.41(2.90, 4.03)
(M.H., Fixed, 95%
CI)
Other KVK activities 4 640 Odds Ratio 2.191.56, 3.08)
(M.H., Fixed, 95%
Figure 1. PRISMA flow chart for selection of unique studies CI)
to know the impact of KVK-activities on farmers of India Extent of adoption 24 3855 Odds Ratio 2.011.73, 2.33)
(M.H., Fixed, 95%
CI)
Training 16 2555 Odds Ratio 1.511.25, 1.83)
Impact of KVK activities on farmers of India in (M.H., Fixed, 95%
CI)
relation to agriculture: results of meta-analysis Frontline demonstration 5 660 Odds Ratio 5.253.67, 7.49)
The impact of KVK activities assessed considering (M.H., Fixed, 95%
CI)
the socio-economic status of farmers, Knowledge level of Other KVK activities 4 640 Odds Ratio 1.911.36, 2.69)
farmers in relation to agriculture and allied activities, (M.H., Fixed, 95%
CI)
extent of adoption of scientific technologies by farmers Farmers income 10 1480 Odds Ratio 1.371.05, 1.79)
and income of farmers as outcome of interest. (M.H., Fixed, 95%
CI)
Training 8 1120 Odds Ratio 1.39 (1.02, 1.89)
The meta-analytical results of 32 unique studies (M.H., Fixed, 95%
results are given in Table 1 which indicates that the overall CI)
Frontline demonstration 8 360 Odds Ratio 1.33 (0.79,2.25)
effect size of impact of KVK activities on farmers of (M.H., Fixed, 95%
India. The results are measured in terms of odds ratio. The CI)

overall effect size of variables are socio economic status Note: Method of combining odds ratio from different studies is called Mantel-Haenszel
method (Abbreviated as MH here), Confidence interval is abbreviated as CI and Effect
(2.62 @ 2.04-3.36 confidence interval), Knowledge level Size abbreviated as ES. The confidence intervals are given with Effect sizes in brackets.
(3.40 @ 2.96-3.90 confidence interval), extent of
adoption (2.01@ 1.73- 2.33 confidence interval) and The impact of KVK activities on socio economic
farmer's income (1.37 @ 1.05-1.79 confidence interval). status of farmers are depicted in forest plot (figure 2).
This indicates that the farmers reached by KVK activities
 4 INDIAN JOURNAL OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

overall effect of KVK interventions where the best

estimate of the intervention is 2.62 with confidence
interval of 2.04-3.36 and the statistical test results indicate
that the P value (<0.01) is statistically significant. This is
interpreted as the farmers who are reached by KVK
activities has 2.62 times more likely to be in higher socio
economic status than the farmers who are not reached by
KVKs. It is also observed in the forest plot that there is
considerable heterogeneity. It is indicated by chi-square
and P value. The chi-square test resulted that the studies
under analysis are not evaluating the same effect and the P
value is less than 0.01 and the 12 value is more than 75 per
cent which is a result of presence of significant
heterogeneity across studies. This is could be due to
availability of limited number of quality studies in the
subject domain, lack of rigorous statistical analysis in the
Figure 2. Forest Plot for Impact of KVKs on Socio-economic studies and diverse nature of KVK activities.
status of farmers
As Table 1 discussed about the overall effect size
The forest plot represents the results both of Knowledge level, extent of adoption and farmers
graphically and quantitatively. Under present analysis, income, the forest plots for these drivers of socio
the KVK activities (Frontline demonstrations, Trainings, economic status are provided in appendix for further
other KVK activities) are considered as intervention reference.
under study. Each study results considered in the analysis
are represented by a horizontal line in the graph and the Bias estimation
event rates of each study are listed under experimental and Bias in the study are presented graphically using
control columns. The weights of each study in meta- funnel plot. This depicts the existence of bias in the study.
analysis considered are inverse of variance of particular The 'y' axis indicates inverse standard error of odds ratio
study. The final results are presented in odds ratio by and 'x' axis indicates the odds ratio. We are able to observe
summarizing individual study results using meta-analytic the existence of bias during selection or data entry
technique. The same is depicted graphically where the process, as few studies are falling outside the funnel.
size squares on the horizontal line indicates the point Maximum studies considered under the studies have
estimate of each study and size indicates the weight given significant results and are falling inside the funnel and to
to that particular study in meta-analysis. The length of line the tip of the funnel due to higher sample sizes leading to
is confidence interval given for that particular study. The lower standard errors in estimation.
vertical line seen in the graph is called, line of no effect.it
indicates that the intervention has no effect on the
outcome. As the unit of measure is ratio, the no effect a)
value will be “1”. The meta-analysis statistically
combines all the studies into more precise estimate of
effect.

It is observed from the forest plot that the effect

estimate of training is 1.85 with confidence interval of
1.36- 2.51, front line demonstration is 1.99 with
confidence interval of 0.98-4.05 and other KVK activities
is 9.95 with confidence interval of 5.61- 17.63. The
statistical test result indicate that the P value (<0.01) for
training and Other KVK activities is statistically
significant whereas the P value (>0.01) for front line
demonstrations is non-significant. It is evident from the
graphical representation of forest plot that there is no
effect of intervention on the socio-economic status of
farmers. But, considering the odds, the summarized
 IMPACT OF KRISHI VIGYANA KENDRAS (KVKS) ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC 5
STATUS OF FARMERS: A META- ANALYSIS
b) Though there are many studies on impact of KVK
on socio economic status, most of the studies are
conducted at small scale with smaller samples, which
limits the confidence that we can place on the estimates as
well as the usability of the estimates. Through meta-
analysis, we show that it is possible to synthesise the
smaller studies and statistically combine them and test the
level of significance. The results conclusively indicate
that KVKs have been successful in transferring the
technological knowledge from research labs to farmers
through trainings, demonstrations and other KVK
activities. The focus is proven that there is inclusive
growth of farmers who are in contact with KVKs with
respect to his agricultural and allied sectors knowledge
level, scientific cultivation practices adoption and
enhanced income which are ultimately contributing to get
a recognition for himself in the society with improved
c) socio-economic status.

Limitation
There are few limitations of the study. As KVK's cater for
smaller areas like district, most studies on KVK are
location specific, often not find place amongst peer
reviewed journals. Hence, we had to depend mostly on
unpublished sources like theses and reports. Further, most
studies have used scales and classified the farmers in to
different categories based on the mean scores. However,
mean scores for each categories and standard deviations
were not reported, limiting the statistical applications.
However, if the mean scores of qualitative variables or
quantitative indicators of impact would have allowed us
to use statistically superior and robust measure for
aggregating the impact.
Forest plot indicating impact of KVK activities on
d) Extent of adoption of scientific

Figure 3. Funnel plot for a) Socio economic status, b) Knowledge level

c) Extent of adoption and d) Farmers income
 6 INDIAN JOURNAL OF EXTENSION EDUCATION

Forest plot indicating impact of KVK activities on Paper received on : September 04, 2019
Knowledge level of farmers in relation to agriculture Accepted on : October 04, 2019
and allied activities
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