Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13412-024-00891-8

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Defining the term watershed to reflect modern uses and functions as

inter- and intra-connected socio-hydrologic systems
Katherine L. Meierdiercks1 · Michael H. Finewood2 · Christianna Bennett3

Accepted: 12 January 2024

© The Author(s) 2024

Abstract
Despite the many programs focused on watershed education, the watershed concept is poorly understood, which can lead
to a number of wide-ranging consequences from poor watershed planning and policy to inaccurate scientific studies. We
argue that the definition of the term watershed, and the images that accompany the definition, contribute to these misun-
derstandings. The definition has remained very much the same since it was first documented in Europe in the mid-18th
century. However, watershed uses and functions have evolved considerably in the past three centuries, notably in the many
ways water moves within and across traditionally-defined watershed boundaries. In this study, content analyses of the defi-
nitions of the term watershed from textbooks and online sources, and the accompanying images, highlight that watersheds
are nearly universally defined as an area of land that drains to a point on a river. More than half the images that accom-
pany these definitions depict forested landscapes or high mountain relief. While over one half of online images depict
human activities or developed landscapes, few textbook images do. These incomplete definitions and idealized images do
not reflect the diversity of landscapes and watershed functions. The narrow description can contribute to an individual’s
disconnection to their own watershed. Furthermore, the description of watersheds as lumped areas, rather than inter- and
intra-connected socio-hydrologic systems, misses a fundamental element of the watershed concept: that activities at every
point in a watershed impact all points downstream and are impacted by activities at all points upstream. Thus, we propose
a revised definition of a watershed that better captures this connectivity: a watershed defines the boundaries of a system
of hydrologically connected people, places, and things.

Keywords Watershed · Hydrology · River network · Socio-hydrology

Introduction

Many communities face one or more water challenges,

including flooding, poor surface water, lack of clean drink-
ing water, and degraded ecosystem health, all problems that
are predicted to worsen due to climate change (Pörtner et
Katherine L. Meierdiercks al. 2022). To combat these problems, we need citizens who
[email protected]
better understand water and are therefore more likely to sup-
Michael H. Finewood port water conservation, management, and policy solutions
[email protected]
(Dean et al. 2016; Gunckel et al. 2012; Schueler and Hol-
Christianna Bennett land 2000). However, water concepts such as the hydrologic
[email protected]
cycle and watersheds are not well understood (McCarroll
1
Department of Environmental Studies & Sciences, Siena and Hamann 2020).
College, 515 Loudon Rd, Loudonville, NY 12211, USA To aid in the understanding of the watershed concept,
2
Department of Environmental Studies and Science, Pace much work has been done to develop and evaluate water-
University, 861 Bedford Road, Pleasantville, NY shed education, which has resulted in measurable gains in
10562, USA comprehension. Watersheds are often used for place-based
3
School of Architecture, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 inquiry and education in K-12 through higher education (ex.
8th Street - Greene Bldg, Troy, NY 12180, USA

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 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences

Endreny 2010; Peters and Spaulding 2022; Santelmann et could choose the correct definition of a watershed (Dean
al. 2011; Vallor et al. 2016) and there are many watershed et al. 2016; Giacalone et al. 2010). Those with training in
education programs and frameworks for K-12 students (ex. water and watershed education also find the term watershed
Gill et al. 2014; Krauss et al. 2022; Zint et al. 2014). The difficult to define. Shepardson et al. (2002) showed that after
watershed concept may be introduced to students as part of teacher professional development training, where the defini-
their regular science curriculum, as in K-12 environmental tion of a watershed as “an area that drains water into a stream
or earth science textbooks, or as part of a watershed educa- was highlighted”, only 66% of adult participants were able
tion program (typically developed by organizations such as to correctly define a watershed in a post-program assess-
the Environmental Protection Agency or through federally ment compared to 31% in the pre-program assessment.
grant-funded research programs). Yet watersheds remain So why then, even when people receive watershed-
particularly challenging to conceptualize for students and specific training, is the watershed concept so difficult to
adults (McCarroll and Hamann 2020). When asked to draw understand and define? Some misconceptions of water con-
a watershed, grade 4 through 12 students were more likely cepts, such as the hydrologic cycle, have been attributed
to associate a watershed with mountains and high relief to incomplete depictions in textbooks and online (Ben-zvi
and elements of the hydrologic cycle and did not include Assarf & Orion 2005; Ben-zvi Assarf et al. 2012; Vinisha
humans or human activities in their drawings (Shepardson et and Ramadas 2013). Though watershed images have not
al. 2007). However, as (grade 5) students better understand been as extensively studied as those of the water cycle, it
watersheds, their drawings of them also improve (Endreny is hypothesized that the misunderstanding of watersheds is
2010). In a study of children’s drawings of watersheds, also associated with the way they are graphically depicted
on websites, textbooks, and other educational sources
The findings suggest that as understanding improves, (Shepardson et al. 2007; Zint and Kraemer 2012). McCar-
the presence of ‘non-fluvial landscape features’ and roll and Hamann (2020) argue that we need visualization
‘river bank’ features disappears from drawings to be tools that “capture the dynamic and complex nature of water
replaced by more appropriate geographical details. systems and are adaptable to a range of learners.” Moreover,
The results suggest that children with a limited under- we argue that the way the term watershed is defined equally
standing of river basins perceive them in terms of a contributes to misunderstandings.
stretch of river bank where common features include The definition of a watershed as an area that drains to
bridges, trees and fish… In contrast, as understand- a point, overemphasizes watersheds as lumped areas with
ing improves, children’s perspectives widen and rivers a singular geographic function, despite the growing body
are set within the context of a river basin (Dove et al. of literature on the interconnectedness and complexity of
1999). socio-hydrologic systems within and across watersheds.
Though people have been contemplating the relationships
Despite these gains, the connectivity of natural and human- between water and society for a long time (Wesselink et al.
built hydrologic systems, such as stormwater networks and 2017), in the last several decades there has been an increase
drinking water distribution systems, is a particularly diffi- in studies examining human-water systems (Xu et al. 2018;
cult concept to comprehend. Few students, from elementary Ross and Chang 2020), notably within the field of socio-
to higher ed, can trace water or water contaminants through hydrology, which “is aimed at understanding the dynamics
these systems (Attari et al. 2017; Covitt et al. 2009; Gill and co-evolution of couple human-water systems” (Sivapa-
et al. 2014). Covitt et al. (2009) argue this is because of lan et al. 2012), and the closely related fields of hydroso-
the difficulty in understanding watershed elements that can- cial theory, coupled human and natural systems (CHANS),
not easily be seen, such as underground stormwater pipes, water resources systems, and earth systems science (Madani
but also the whole of a water distribution system. However, & Shafiee-Jood 2020; Ross and Chang 2020; Wesselink et
as above, as high school students’ understanding of natural al. 2017). Socio-hydrology, focused on the impact of society
and built water systems improves, so does their ability to, on hydrologic systems (Ross and Chang 2020; Wesselink
“trace water and substances in water along multiple path- et al. 2017) emerged out of, “the need to consider the two-
ways across visible and invisible boundaries” (Gunckel et way feedbacks between human and water systems in order
al. 2012). to interpret and understand puzzles, paradoxes, and united
Still, even with these watershed education programs, consequences that arise in the context of management of
when asked to define the term watershed, few people can human-water systems” (Pande and Sivapalan 2017).
correctly do so (Schueler and Holland 2000; Shepardson et Though increasingly interdisciplinary (Ross and Chang
al. 2007). When presented with a multiple-choice survey 2020), as a subdiscipline of hydrology, socio-hydrology is
question, only between 24 and 44% of adult respondents rooted in the biophysical sciences. Hydrosocial theory, on

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Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences

the other hand, draws from the social sciences, particularly promote public participation and empowerment, but with
political ecology (Ross and Chang 2020). Similar to socio- varying success (Cohen and Davidson 2011), and many
hydrology1, hydrosocial theory advances the idea that, “The are still excluded from the process of watershed gover-
ways in which water flows over space and time is… shaped nance (Sarna-Wojcicki et al. 2019). Solving the complex
by human institutions, practices and discourses that deter- water problems of today and the future will require broad
mine modes of control, management and decision-making” participation, inclusive communication, and interdisciplin-
(Linton and Budds 2014). But the field moves beyond just ary thinking (Vogel et al. 2015; Younos et al. 2019; 2021).
thinking about humans’ influence on water; rather, hydro- Several have called on educators to do the work of training
social theory argues that water is inseparable from society future water professionals in not only disciplinary depth,
(Budds et al. 2014; Meehan et al. 2023) and it is “impos- but interdisciplinary breadth and the communication skills
sible to abstract water from the social context that gives it needed to work in interdisciplinary teams that can include
meaning and from the socio-political processes that shape policy makers and the public (Konar et al. 2019; National
its material flows and its discursive presentation” (Budds Research Council 2012). Furthermore, the research com-
et al. 2014). munity needs social and biophysical scientists to share
Given these insights into the complexity and intercon- a common vocabulary to discuss water-related concepts
nectedness of human-water systems, watersheds as areas (Wesselink et al. 2017). We argue that a concept as funda-
that drain to a single point, are more challenging to delin- mental to water management as the watershed, requires a
eate than topography alone might suggest. Socio-hydrology definition that is relevant and useful across disciplines to aid
recognizes that the water that drains to a point on a river interdisciplinary thinking and communication, and can sup-
channel is dynamic both in space and in time, and that port inclusive participation by diverse stakeholders in water
understanding these connections, “becomes crucial as the management and governance processes.
world becomes increasingly globalized, and human-water The goal of this manuscript is to examine how the term
systems are no longer isolated, but are highly interconnected watershed is defined in the sources the public, students,
at a hierarchy of scales, through upstream-downstream and and professionals go to learn about watersheds: online dic-
upwind-downwind connections, interbasin transfers of real tionaries and educational websites; K-12 textbooks; and
water, and interbasin, interregional and international trans- watershed, hydrology and water resource textbooks. We
fer of virtual water through commodity trade” (Pande and offer a critique of the most common definition of the term
Sivapalan 2017). Furthermore, water management agencies, watershed. Next, we conduct a content analysis of current
influenced by existing knowledge and value systems (i.e. definitions and, where available, the associated images of
policy and funding priorities), can configure and reconfig- watersheds to identify common themes. This provides an
ure socio-hydrologic systems by building dams, stormwater empirical basis from which we propose a new definition.
management infrastructure, and irrigation systems. These We have come to recognize that most people are unfamiliar
decisions, in turn, can impact where and how people live with how a watershed functions, sometimes unaware that
and interact with the watershed and other “hydrosocial ter- they live in a watershed or the name of the one they live
ritories” (Boelens et al. 2016; Bouleau 2014; Flaminio et al. in. A stronger definition would reflect both the conventional
2022). Thus human-water systems very much impact which conceptualization but also include the ways water, infra-
waters and areas drain to a point. But watersheds are still structure, and people are connected by and connect differ-
described and depicted as topographically-delineated areas, ent watersheds. We propose the following definition of a
rather than inter- and intra-connected socio-hydrologic watershed:
bounded systems (see below for further critique).
Resource managers, NGOs, and other stakeholders A watershed defines the boundaries of a system of
increasingly utilize the watershed concept because it pro- hydrologically connected people, places, and things;
vides useful, mappable boundaries for integrated water the activities at every point in a watershed impact all
management and governance. The watershed approach points downstream and are impacted by activities at
to water resource management and governance aims to all points upstream.

1
There are both distinctions and overlap between the fields of socio-
hydrology and hydrosocial theory (Ross and Chang 2020; Wesselink Critique of the definition of the term watershed
et al. 2017). Our goal is to examine the contributions of each field to
the understanding of the human-water connections within and across
watersheds. We chose the term “socio-hydrological system” for the Watersheds are typically defined as the area of land that
title and subtitles of this paper because of the close association of the drains to a single point on a water body, such as stream,
watershed concept to the field of hydrology (of which socio-hydrology lake or ocean, or some close variation of this language.
is a subdiscipline).

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 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences

This definition reflects the basic hydrologic functions of A part of the surface of the earth that is occupied by
a watershed: collecting, storing, and discharging water a drainage system, which consists of a surface stream
(Black 1997) and provides useful, mappable boundaries or a body of impounded surface water together with
for analysis and governance. Though there is no univer- all tributary surface streams and bodies of impounded
sally agreed-upon definition of a watershed, we contend surface water (Langbein and Iseri 1960).
that the oft-used, conventional definition, the area drain-
ing to a point on a river, is outdated and inadequate, and However, other sources make the distinction between the
does not reflect the many ways watersheds function par- terms and define watershed, catchment, drainage basin, and
ticularly within urbanized landscapes. We offer the fol- river basin differently (see analysis below). Yet there is no
lowing critiques: agreement on what distinguishes these terms, even among
the definitions analyzed as part of this study.
(1) This definition emphasizes watersheds as lumped areas The earliest descriptions of a watershed, as the area
or boundaries and doesn’t capture the many ways water of land draining to a point, have been traced back to the
is connected within watersheds. second half of the 18th century when French cartogra-
(2) This definition does not account for the many ways pher, Philippe Buache, defined a watershed as “the set
water can move across topographically-delineated of all the slopes on which fall the waters that converge
watershed areas. to a same river or creek” (Lacoste 2003 cited in Molle
2009). But while the origin of the watershed concept is
Furthermore, as defined, the term watershed can too easily geographic in nature, and watersheds are widely used as
be misinterpreted and misused by both the general public scientific tools for hydrological, ecological, and conser-
and watershed professionals. vation-based study, the watershed concept is also closely
In this paper, when we discuss how a watershed is associated with systems of politics and power. It is not
defined, we refer to how the term watershed is defined. We possible to separate watersheds as technical units that
recognize that defining a watershed could also refer to how drain water to a point on a river, from their use by and
the boundaries of the watershed are determined and drawn impact on society (Linton and Budds 2014; Norman et
on a map. To make the distinction clear, when referring to al. 2012). Notably, the concept of a watershed has been
the latter, we will use the term “delineated”. closely associated with European and US power - elec-
The term watershed is often used interchangeably with trical, political, economic, and hydraulic. Molle (2009)
the terms river basin, drainage basin, and catchment. argues that since its conception, watersheds have “been
Though sometimes the area draining into a waterbody is associated with various strands of thinking and some-
referred to as a river basin, while the term watershed refers times co-opted or mobilized by particular social groups
to the perimeter of that area, the ridgeline or boundary divid- or organizations to strengthen the legitimacy of their
ing two river basins. The US Geological Survey’s Manual agendas.” For example, in 1921, the French Compag-
of Hydrology: Part 1. General Surface-Water Techniques, nie Nationale du Rhône (CNR) was established, “as part
General Introduction and Hydrologic Definitions, defines a of a regional development plan to provide electricity
watershed as, much beyond its basin limits, up to Paris. The concept
of “hydraulic region” was proposed by industrialists and
The divide separating one drainage basin from urban elites in an effort to substitute the concepts of the
another and in the past has been generally used to river basin and independent/decentralized management
convey this meaning. However, over the years, use for a wider regional/national approach that served their
of the term to signify drainage basin or catchment interest” (Molle 2009). Similarly, in the 1930s, as part
area has come to predominate, although drainage of Roosevelt’s New Deal, the United States established
basin is preferred. Drainage divide, or just divide, the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), which organized
is used to denote the boundary between one drain- Tennessee and its neighboring states into watersheds to
age area and another. Used alone, the term “water- aid in the design of hydroelectric dams. This model of
shed” is ambiguous and should not be used unless harnessing watersheds for their power, regional planning,
the intended meaning is made clear (Langbein and and economic development was exported to non-Euro-
Iseri 1960). pean countries including India, Iran, Afghanistan, South
Africa, and others (Molle 2009). Still today, watersheds
Also according to Langbein and Iseri (1960) the terms drain- are used widely as units for water study, management and
age basin and catchment are interchangeable and defined as: governance (Cohen & Davidson 2011).

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Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences

Hydrologic and socio-hydrologic connection within networks. For example, systems mapping and modeling
watersheds tools can identify missing connections and impacts to aid
in planning, decision-making, and anticipating outcomes
The focus of the traditional definition is on a watershed as (Erban and Walker 2019). Yet, despite the critical impor-
an areal unit. However, watershed areas contain, and are tance of understanding hydrologic, socio-hydrologic and
delineated using connected hydrologic systems. Though hydrosocial systems, few people can trace water through a
a watershed area can be delineated manually by follow- natural and built hydrologic network (Attari et al. 2017; Gill
ing elevation contours on a topographical map, watershed et al. 2014; Gunckel et al. 2012). Thus while understand-
boundaries are increasingly being delineated using com- ing the hydrologic connectivity of watersheds is important
puter algorithms (Kayembe and Mitchell 2018; Maidment for determining the boundaries of a watershed, and under-
and Morehouse 2002) that trace connected flow pathways standing the ways water flows through natural and built
upstream of the watershed outlet using elevation data. Thus water systems is important for policy to protect ecosystems
hydrologic connectivity within a watershed is foundational and humans, when watersheds are defined and depicted as
to determining its boundaries. lumped areas, these connections are lost.
This connectivity affects a number of important hydro-
logical and other biophysical watershed processes. In Hydrologic and socio-hydrologic connection across
natural watersheds, structure and hydrologic connectivity watersheds
impact flood characteristics (Rinaldo et al. 1995), and the
structure and function of ecological communities (Doretto In rural or forested watersheds, tracing upstream flow path-
et al. 2020). Likewise, in urban watersheds, which are com- ways is based primarily on topography. However, in urban
prised of both natural and engineered flow paths (ex. street environments, the determination of these flow pathways is
gutters, stormwater pipes) connectivity of the hydrologic less straightforward (Kayembe and Mitchell 2018). Urban
network impacts a number of ecological, chemical, and bio- infrastructure such as stormwater pipes, wastewater sys-
geochemical processes (Kaushal and Belt 2012). Flooding tems, and municipal water systems can alter and reshape
and water quality characteristics can be impacted by patterns topographically determined flow pathways. For example,
of development and urban infrastructure within a watershed differences in watershed area of between 5 and 25% have
(Meierdiercks et al. 2010, 2017; Ogden et al. 2011), location been observed when the watersheds were delineated using
and connectivity of impervious surfaces (Mejía and Moglen topographic versus stormwater network2 data (Jankowsky
2010; Roy and Shuster 2009), and location of stormwater et al. 2013; Kayembe and Mitchell 2018). Furthermore,
management infrastructure (Meierdiercks and McCloskey water regularly moves across these boundaries in a range
2022; Smith et al. 2015). of ways. Virtual water and interbasin water transfer are just
The interactions of humans with natural and built hydro- a few examples of the permeability of conventional water-
logic networks are equally as important. Recognizing water- shed boundaries. And with the world becoming increasingly
sheds as connected human-water systems (Linton and Budds urban - the World Bank estimates that 56% of the world’s
2014; Norman et al. 2012) is necessary “for participating in population lives in cities, with that percentage increasing to
decision-making about environmental issues such as pro- about 70% by 2050 (World Bank 2023) - the traditional defi-
tecting fresh water supplies,” (Gunckel et al. 2012) and it nition of a watershed will become more and more outdated
is critically “important in order for public policy makers to and obsolete.
more fully understand which parts of the integrated system Interbasin water transfer (IBT) is one of the most signifi-
are most at risk. When systems thinking is limited, catas- cant ways water can move across topographically-delineated
trophes ensue. With respect to water, lead contamination in watershed areas. IBTs move water from one watershed to
Flint, Michigan is a clear example of systems thinking fail- another using pipes, canals, or aqueducts for irrigation, pub-
ure” (Attari et al. 2017). The poisoning of Flint’s drinking lic water supply, flood control, and navigation (Siddik et al.
water (2014–2016) was a result of failures in the City’s tech- 2023). Globally, MacDonald et al. (2014) estimate 12.2% of
nical, financial, and managerial systems (Sokolow 2017). large cities use IBTs for a portion of their water supply. In
While lead leaching out of Flint’s pipes caused the poison- the United States, though construction of new IBT projects
ing (technical failure), the decision to switch to a new, more had ceased by the late 1960s due to environmental concerns
corrosive water source without corrosion control was made
to save money (failures in the managerial and financial sys- 2
Watershed areas delineated using stormwater infrastructure data are
tems). Systems thinking can be used to better understand often referred to as stormwater “sewersheds”. However, we argue that
Flint’s and other complex water distribution systems, as the terms watershed and sewershed are synonyms and a sewershed is
well as watershed systems comprised of natural and built simply a watershed that considers hydrologic connectivity within and
across topographically-delineated watershed areas.

13
 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences

and high social and economic costs (Ghassemi and White Units, depicted as separate polygon areas in the Watershed
2007), there are currently a total of 615 IBT projects in Boundary Dataset, may be two parts of the same hydrolog-
the US (Siddik et al. 2023), most are concentrated in cities ically-connected watershed, though the polygons do not
(Dickson and Dzombak 2017), and many provide signifi- represent that connectivity.
cant amounts of drinking water to those cities. For example, As a result, Hydrologic Units and other watershed areas
90% of New York City’s drinking water is supplied by the are misused in technical, “watershed scale” studies. Omernik
Catskill/Delaware and Croton watersheds, located up to 125 et al. (2017) cite numerous peer-reviewed and government
miles away in upstate New York (New York City Depart- studies that have treated Hydrologic Units as traditional
ment of Environmental Protection 2021). watersheds thereby potentially missing upstream and down-
The area that drains to a point in a river in increasingly stream connectivity: “hydrologic units and watersheds are
urbanized landscapes is therefore very different than it was commonly treated as synonymous, and this misapplication
in 18th century France, where the term was first ‘invented’ and misunderstanding can have some serious scientific and
(Molle 2009). In developed areas, where most of the world’s management consequences.” For example, water quality
population now lives, the area that drains to a river can data (which is representative of the entire upstream area),
include neighboring topographically-delineated areas, as if applied to a Hydrologic Unit, could misrepresent stream
well as areas miles away. Yet all of these areas are hydro- conditions in that region (Omernik et al. 2017). Other poten-
logically and socio-hydrologically connected. Therefore tial consequences include flood peaks being underestimated
we suggest watershed definitions and depictions should be or failures to understand the ways aquatic species move
inclusive of both natural waterways and complex human- up and down a river system. Furthermore, the Watershed
built systems of networks that move water between various Boundary Dataset is widely used to depict watersheds on
basins throughout the world. public websites. By defining these as watersheds, a com-
munity might not fully understand to which watershed they
Misuse of the term watershed and the consequences belong and that they are connected to upstream and down-
stream Hydrologic Units.
Given the inadequacies in the ways the term watershed is These tools, and the way they define and depict scientific
defined and depicted, and that many people do not under- concepts, have given us a certain picture of ‘the way the
stand the watershed concept, it is not surprising that the world works’, but we must be critical of the situations under
term watershed is not only misused by the general public which these concepts were “invented” and how they’ve been
but also by watershed professionals. The term watershed is used over history. Moreover, we need to evaluate whether
regularly applied to areal units that are not true topograph- they are the appropriate tool at all (Cohen & Davison 2011;
ically-delineated watersheds, as in the publicly available Sarna-Wojcicki et al. 2019). The widely used “Watershed
and widely used Watershed Boundary Dataset. Despite Boundary Dataset” is mapped as lumped areas and incom-
its name, it is not a dataset of watershed boundaries, but plete watersheds, a useful geometry and scale for a num-
Hydrologic Unit areas that can be either a watershed or ber of purposes. But these data can be treated as watershed
a piece of a watershed, and only 40–60% of Hydrologic boundaries without careful consideration of how these
Units are true topographical watersheds (Omernik et al. areas fail to depict the ways water, people, and places are
2017). Given the misleading title, the dataset is often used connected to upstream and downstream neighbors. When
synonymously with watersheds, and Hydrologic Units municipalities and local organizations then use these data to
can be treated as topographically-delineated watersheds, make decisions, even though it is ‘not a true representation
although they are not (Omernik et al. 2017). Hydrologic of the watershed’, they may mislead those trying to work
Unit Code (HUC) maps, first published in 1987 were within the watershed system.
described as “a set of maps depicting approved boundar-
ies of, and numerical codes for, river-basin units of the
United States” as a way to standardize and organize hydro- Methods
logic data (Seaber et al. 1987). Hydrologic Unit data are
available as maps and GIS data as the Watershed Bound- Definitions of the term watershed were collected from
ary Dataset, defined as, “a nationally consistent watershed online sources and from textbooks (from K-12 to higher
dataset that is subdivided into 6 levels (12-digit HUCs) and education). Any images that accompanied or were associ-
is available from the USGS and USDA-NRCS-National ated with the definition were also collected. Definitions and
Cartographic and Geospatial Center’s (NCGC)” with each images were coded and analyzed in Dedoose using a content
polygon representing all or part of a watershed (https:// analysis approach. Each of these steps is described in addi-
water.usgs.gov/GIS/huc.html). Thus two Hydrologic tional detail below.

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Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences

Obtaining definitions of the term watershed and Identifying codes

associated images
A content analysis approach was used to identify themes in
Online definitions were obtained through a Google search the text definitions of the term watershed (Schreier 2012)
of the phrase “define watershed”. The definitions from the and the images associated with those definitions (Banks
top result web pages were compiled for a total of 51 defini- 2014; Bell 2001). Initial coding was used on a subset of
tions. For the web pages that included an image of a water- the definitions to identify major themes. These codes were
shed along with the text definition, the images were also then refined based on the literature describing watershed
compiled, for a total of 30 images from 24 sources (some literacy, particularly studies describing conceptual models
websites contained multiple images associated with a single of watersheds (Shepardson et al. 2007), ideal watershed lit-
text definition). A list of all sources of definitions used in eracy standards (Endreny 2010; Gunckel et al. 2012), and
this study is provided in Appendix A. common misconceptions of watersheds (Covitt et al. 2009;
K-12 textbooks included in the analyses were identified Dove et al. 1999; Shepardson et al. 2007). Additional codes
using the list of recommended textbooks by the Advanced were added during the coding process to account for themes
Placement Board for AP Environmental Science, the not already captured during the initial coding process. For
National Science Teaching Association (NSTA) list of ease of analysis, separate codes were applied to text defini-
recommended earth science books, and through a Google tions and their associated images (Tables 1 and 2), however,
search (15 total, Appendix B). For higher ed textbook there is significant overlap between the two, particularly
definitions, Open Syllabus Explorer (https://opensyllabus. with regard to depictions of internal or external connectivity
org/) was used to find the top 20 textbook titles with the and function.
term “watershed” in the title, 20 with “water resources” Definitions and images were coded using Dedoose
in the title, and 20 with “hydrology” in the title. These (Salmona et al. 2020). To test inter-reliability, two research-
textbooks, as well as the K-12 textbooks, were obtained ers independently coded all images and definitions, code
through Siena College’s interlibrary loan service. Dupli- applications were compared, and where there was disagree-
cate titles, or textbooks for which a definition could not ment in codes, they collaboratively decided on the most
be identified, were removed from the sample. Whenever appropriate code to apply (Wilber and Pasricha 2017). Inde-
possible, the newest edition of the textbook was used, but pendent variables, called “descriptors” in Dedoose were
in some cases, the edition of the textbook used was deter- also determined and applied. Salmona et al. (2020) define
mined by availability through the interlibrary loan service. descriptors as information that describes the data and helps
Three additional textbooks from the Siena College library the researcher distinguish between data points or groups of
stacks and three from the first author’s personal collection data. For this study, descriptors were used to enable com-
were also included, for a total of 38 higher ed textbooks parisons between definitions and images from online versus
analyzed (Appendix C). textbook sources.
Definitions were found for both K-12 and higher ed
textbooks by first looking at each textbook’s glossary, if
available. Then definitions were identified within the pages Results
indicated in the subject index. If a definition of the term
watershed was not identified in either a glossary or within Results of the content analysis of the text definitions and
the watershed subject index pages, the introductory chapter associated images are shown in Tables 3 and 4, respectively.
or any chapters on watersheds was explored for a defini- Percentages indicate the prevalence of each code for all
tion. Definitions for the terms river basin, catchment, and sources, online sources, and K-12 and higher ed textbooks.
drainage basin were identified using this same procedure.
It was noted when one of these terms was used in place of, Text definitions
interchangeably with, or in addition to the term watershed.
If a figure or image was referenced with the text definition, While the majority (96%) of text definitions describe a
the associated image (7 from 7 K to 12 textbooks, and 18 watershed as an area (98% of online sources, 93% of K-12
from 16 higher ed textbooks) was saved along with the def- textbooks, and 89% of higher ed textbooks), there are many
inition text. For six sources, no definition of a watershed variations on this theme (Table 3). Most (82%) area defini-
was provided, but a common synonym (catchment or drain- tions describe a watershed as the area draining to or through
age basin) was provided. For these sources, an assumption an outlet or point on a waterbody (82% of online sources,
was made that the term was used as a synonym for the term 67% of K-12 textbooks, and 84% of higher ed textbooks use
watershed. this definition). The variations of the area definition include:

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 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences

Table 1 Codes and subcodes of text definitions of the term watershed

Code Subcodes
Geometry -Area of land:
● Divide: area of land separated, surrounded, or bounded by a divide, ridge or mountains
● Topography: area of land defined or delineated by topography (also, topographically-defined areas, topographic area)
● Captures rain: area of land that captures or collects water, rainwater or precipitation
● Captures runoff: area of land that captures or collects runoff or surface streamflow
● Drains to outlet: area of land that drains to, or drains through an outlet, point or water body (also, channels or flows to,
contributes to, empties to, delivers to)
● Drains to low point: area of land that drains to a low point or from high points to low points; area of land above an outlet
● Drained by: area of land that is drained by a river or waterbody
● Separates: area of land that separates two waterbodies
-Perimeter, divide, or ridge
Internal -Built network: description of one or more elements of a built or engineered hydrologic network (including storm drains,
connectivity/ wastewater, irrigation canals, dams)
systems and -Non-water: description of flow, movement or connection to non-water biological, chemical or physical elements
processes -Water cycle: mention of one or more components of the water cycle (other than runoff, groundwater, or clouds)
-Groundwater: mention of groundwater
-Natural network: description of the natural hydrologic or tributary network (one or more connected rivers or waterbodies,
excluding the watershed outlet)
-Runoff: mention of land surface runoff or overland flow (other than at watershed divide)
-Runoff, divide: mention of runoff at the watershed divide
-Single channel: description of a single channel
External -Interbasin water transfer: description of removal or flow of water across topographical defined watershed areas
connectivity/ -Pollution: mention of water or land contaminants
systems and -Human activity: mention of the built environment, or human activities or influences
forces
Utility -Political: described as separate from or crossing political or municipal boundaries
-Management: described as units for watershed management or planning
-Technical: described as technical units of scientific or engineering analysis (ex. water balance)
-Bio-physical: described as a bio-physical or ecological unit
-Hydrological: described as a hydrological unit
Synonyms -Synonymous: described as synonymous with terms river basin, drainage basin, and/or catchment
-Distinction: distinction made between this and terms river basin, drainage basin, and/or catchment

Table 2 Codes and subcodes of images associated with text definitions (Table 1) of the term watershed
Code Subcodes
Media -GIS map: a map or image generated using geographic information systems mapping tools
-Schematic: a simplified schematic drawing or diagram
-Photograph: photograph of a landscape
-Technical: a drawing or diagram depicting a technical aspect
Dimensions -Two: depicts length and width (x, y)
-Three: depicts length, width, and height (x, y, z)
-Four: depicts length, width, height, and time (x, y, z, t)
Geography -Mountains: presence of mountains and/or high relief
-Urban: presence of a dense development, or urban or industrial land uses
-Suburban: presence of low to medium density development
-Agricultural: presence of agriculture (farm, orchard) land use
-Forested: presence of a cluster of one or more trees or forested land use
Internal connectivity/sys- -Built network: presence of one or more elements of a built or engineered hydrologic network (including
tems and processes storm drains, wastewater, irrigation canals, dams)
-Non-water: depiction of flow, movement or connection to non-water biological, chemical or physical elements
-Water cycle: one or more components of the water cycle (other than runoff, groundwater, or clouds)
-Groundwater: presence of groundwater
-Natural network: presence of the natural hydrologic network (one or more connected rivers or waterbodies)
-Runoff: land surface runoff or overland flow (other than at watershed divide)
-Runoff, divide: runoff at the watershed divide
-Single channel: presence of a single, and not more than one, stream channel or waterbody
External connectivity/sys- -Interbasin water transfer: removal or flow of water across topographical defined watershed areas
tems and forces -Pollution: presence of water or land contaminants
-Human activity: presence of the built environment, or human activities or influences

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Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences

Table 3 Prevalence of codes (n/N) for all text definition sources, combined (N = 102), online (N = 51), K-12 textbook (N = 15), and higher ed
textbook (N = 38). n is the number of sources for which the code was applied at least once
All (%)a Online (%) K-12 Textbook (%) HE Textbook (%)
1 - Geometry
Area 96 98 93 89
   Captures rain 12 12 0 16
   Captures runoff 4.9 3.9 0 7.9
   Divide 5.9 5.9 0 7.9
   Drained by 17 9.8 60 7.9
   Drains to low point 8.8 9.8 0 11
   Drains to outlet 82 82 67 84
   Separates 3.9 5.9 0 2.6
   Topography 13 2.0 0 32
Perimeter 19 24 0 18
2 - Internal
Built network 1.0 0 0 2.6
Groundwater 7.8 10 6.7 5.3
Natural network 22 14 80 7.9
Non-water 8.8 9.8 20 2.6
Runoff 26 18 40 32
Runoff, divide 1.0 0 0 2.6
Single channel 13 10 33 7.9
Water cycle 17 18 0 21
3 - External
Human activity 7.8 5.9 6.7 11
Interbasin water transfer 0 0 0 0
Pollution 2.0 2.0 0 2.6
4 - Utility
Biophysical 2.9 2.0 0 5.3
Hydrological 10 0 0 26
Management 4.9 0 0 13
Political 2.9 2.0 0 5.3
Technical 2.9 0 0 7.9
5 - Synonyms
Distinction 5.9 0 0 16
Synonymous 35 5.9 53 66
a
Percentages do not add up to 100 because one source could include any number of codes. For example, a single source could describe a water-
shed as an area draining to a river and the area that captures precipitation

area of land drained by a river (17% of all sources, 9.8% of 2.6% of higher ed textbooks). About one fifth of sources
online sources, 60% of K-12 textbooks, 7.9% of higher ed (19%) define a watershed as a divide (24% of online sources,
textbooks), area of land defined by topography (13% of all 0% of K-12 textbooks, 18% of higher ed textbooks).
sources, 2.0% of online sources, 0% of K-12 textbooks, 32% For internal processes, about one fifth of sources (22%)
of higher ed textbooks), area of land that captures rainwater describe hydrologic connectivity through a natural net-
or precipitation (12% of all sources, 12% of online sources, work within the watershed (14% of online sources, 80% of
0% of K-12 textbooks, 16% of higher ed textbooks), area K-12 textbooks, 7.9% of higher ed textbooks). Only 1.0%
of land draining to a low point (8.8% of all sources, 9.8% describe built drainage networks (0% of online sources,
of online sources, 0% of K-12 textbooks, 11% of higher ed 0% of K-12 textbooks, 2.6% of higher ed textbooks),
textbooks), area of land separated or surrounded by a divide and 13% describe a single channel within the watershed
(5.9% of all sources, 5.9% of online sources, 0% of K-12 (10% of online sources, 33% of K-12 textbooks, 7.9% of
textbooks, 7.9% of higher ed textbooks), area of land that higher ed textbooks). A greater percentage (26%) describe
captures runoff (4.9% of all sources, 3.9% of online sources, surface runoff (18% of online sources, 40% of K-12 text-
0% of K-12 textbooks, 7.9% of higher ed textbooks), and books, 32% of higher ed textbooks); one or more elements
area of land that separates two water bodies (3.9% of all of the water cycle, typically precipitation (17% all, 18% of
sources, 5.9% of online sources, 0% of K-12 textbooks, online sources, 0% of K-12 textbooks, 21% of higher ed

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 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences

textbooks); groundwater (7.8% all, 10% of online sources, 50% of K-12 textbooks, 50% of higher ed textbooks),
6.7% of K-12 textbooks, 5.3% of higher ed textbooks); and 40% depict a two-dimensional watershed (25% of
the flow, movement or connection to non-water biologi- online sources, 63% of K-12 textbooks, 50% of higher
cal, chemical, and/or physical elements (8.8% all, 9.8% of ed textbooks). Only 2.1% of the images are four-dimen-
online sources, 20% of K-12 textbooks, 2.6% of higher ed sional, depicting either the movement of water or human
textbooks); or runoff at the watershed divide (1.0% all, 0% activities, or the dynamic nature of urbanized land-
of online sources, 0% of K-12 textbooks, 2.6% of higher scapes (0% of online sources, 0% of K-12 textbooks,
ed textbooks). 6.3% of higher ed textbooks). Code co-occurrence anal-
For external forces, 7.8% describe any human activity ysis indicates that three-dimensional schematics are the
(5.9% of online sources, 6.7% of K-12 textbooks, 11% of most common type of images associated with watershed
higher ed textbooks), and 2.0% specifically describe pollu- definitions.
tion (2.0% of online sources, 0% of K-12 textbooks, 2.6% The most common geography depicted in the images is
of higher ed textbooks). None describe interbasin transfer mountains or high relief (65% all, 71% of online sources,
or movement of water between topographically-delineated 50% of K-12 textbooks, 63% of higher ed textbooks), while
areas. Several different uses of watersheds are described: forested landscapes are also common (52% all, 79% of
10% are described as hydrological units (0% of online online sources, 38% of K-12 textbooks, 19% of higher ed
sources, 0% of K-12 textbooks, 26% of higher ed textbooks), textbooks). Other land use types are not as well represented,
4.9% are described as planning or management units (0% of including suburban (29% all, 54% of online sources, 13%
online sources, 0% of K-12 textbooks, 13% of higher ed of K-12 textbooks, 0% of higher ed textbooks), urban (25%
textbooks), 2.9% are described as biophysical units (2.0% all, 50% of online sources, 0% of K-12 textbooks, 0% of
of online sources, 0% of K-12 textbooks, 5.3% of higher higher ed textbooks), and agricultural (27% all, 50% of
ed textbooks), 2.9% are described as separate or crossing online sources, 13% of K-12 textbooks, 0% of higher ed
political or municipal boundaries (2.0% of online sources, textbooks). Code co-occurrence analysis indicates a high
0% of K-12 textbooks, 5.3% of higher ed textbooks), and occurrence of images with high relief also including for-
2.9% are described as technical units (0% of online sources, ested landscapes compared to other land use types.
0% of K-12 textbooks, 7.9% of higher ed textbooks). Compared to text definitions, the associated images are
Over one-third (35%) of text definitions mention that much more likely to depict internal functions or processes
the term watershed is synonymous with one or more of within the watershed. The majority (81%) show a natural
the terms river basin, drainage basin, and/or catchment hydrologic network (88% of online sources, 63% of K-12
(5.9% of online sources, 53% of K-12 textbooks, 66% of textbooks, 81% of higher ed textbooks), 31% depict ground-
higher ed textbooks). Much fewer (5.9%) make a distinc- water (58% of online sources, 0% of K-12 textbooks, 6.3%
tion between these terms (0% of online sources, 0% of K-12 of higher ed textbooks), and 35% show one or more other
textbooks,16% of higher ed textbooks). elements of the water cycle (54% of online sources, 13%
of K-12 textbooks, 19% of higher ed textbooks). Overland
Associated images runoff or runoff at the watershed divide is less likely to be
depicted (respectively, 19% all, 25% of online sources, 13%
For the images that are associated with these text defini- of K-12 textbooks, 13% of higher ed textbooks; 15% all,
tions, half (50%) are an idealized or simplified drawing 25% of online sources, 13% of K-12 textbooks, 0% of higher
or diagram of a watershed with three-fourths (75%) of ed textbooks). Fewer images include the built hydrologic
all online images, and one-quarter (25%) of both K-12 network (10% all, 17% of online sources, 13% of K-12 text-
and higher ed textbook images are shown as a sche- books, 0% of higher ed textbooks); a single stream channel
matic (Table 4; Fig. 1). 40% of all images are shown as (8.3% all, 4.2% of online sources, 25% of K-12 textbooks,
a geographic information systems (GIS) generated map 6.3% of higher ed textbooks); or flow, movement or connec-
(29% of online sources, 75% of K-12 textbooks, 38% tion to non-water biological, chemical, or physical elements
of higher ed textbooks). Fewer (21%) include an image (2.1% all, 4.2% of online sources, 0% of K-12 textbooks,
that depicts a technical aspect of watersheds, such as 0% of higher ed textbooks). Overall, one-third of all images
parameters included in a water balance (0% of online depict some type of human activity (33% all, 58% of online
sources, 0% of K-12 textbooks, 63% of higher ed text- sources, 13% of K-12 textbooks, 6.3% of higher ed text-
books), while only 10% include a landscape photograph books). Only 2.1% depict pollution (4.2% of online sources,
(8.3% of online sources, 13% of K-12 textbooks, 13% of 0% of K-12 textbooks, 0% of higher ed textbooks). One
higher ed textbooks). Most (67%) of the images depict a K-12 textbook image depicts interbasin transfer. Code co-
watershed in three dimensions (83% of online sources, occurrence analysis indicates a high occurrence of images

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Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences

Table 4 Prevalence of codes (n/N) for all associated image sources, combined (N = 47), online (N = 24), K-12 textbook (N = 7), and higher ed
textbook (N = 16). n is the number of sources for which the code was applied at least once
All (%)a Online (%) K-12 Textbook (%) HE Textbook (%)
1 - Media
GIS map 40 29 75 38
Photograph 10 8.3 13 13
Schematic 50 75 25 25
Technical 21 0 0 63
2 - Dimensions
2, Two 40 25 63 50
3, Three 67 83 50 50
4, Four 2.1 0 0 6.3
3 - Geography
Agricultural 27 50 13 0
Forested 52 79 38 19
Mountains 65 71 50 63
Suburban 29 54 13 0
Urban 25 50 0 0
4 - Internal
Built network 10 17 13 0
Groundwater 31 58 0 6.3
Natural network 81 88 63 81
Non-water 2.1 4.2 0 0
Runoff 19 25 13 13
Runoff at divide 15 25 13 0
Single channel 8.3 4.2 25 6.3
Water cycle 35 54 13 19
5 - External
Human activity 33 58 13 6.3
Interbasin water transfer 2.1 0 13 0
Pollution 2.1 4.2 0 0
a
Percentages do not add up to 100 because one source could include any number of codes. For example, a single source could include a sche-
matic diagram and a landscape photo

Fig. 1 Representative images associated with the text definition of the term watershed. Categories of images include GIS map (left), schematic
(center), and landscape photograph (right)

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 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences

with a natural stream network with high relief or forested and where, as humans settled, simple logic demanded that
landscapes, and in three-dimensions. they become part of the ‘community’” (Brown 1997). How-
ever, this definition is still problematic. Like the personal
and professional lives of many in the environmental move-
Discussion ment’s historical (and modern) past, Powell’s contributions
to the field of watershed hydrology warrants careful exami-
Watersheds as inter- and intra-connected socio- nation and scrutiny. As the second director of the United
hydrologic systems States Geological Survey, Powell proposed dividing the arid
west into these watershed communities. However, given the
Results of the content analysis of the definition of the term views of his contemporaries, and arguably Powell himself
watershed indicate a striking uniformity in the way water- (Pico 2019), Powell’s “communities” may have excluded
sheds are defined in both online sources and textbooks. many. Thus we argue that a definition of a watershed should
About one fifth of sources define a watershed as a ridge or include connections between water and people as Powell’s
boundary separating two areas. However, the vast major- did, but avoid defining so narrowly what and who those con-
ity (96%) of definitions describe a watershed as an area nections are (Koppes 2022; Sarna-Wojcicki et al. 2019).
(Table 3). Though there are many slight variations of this Understanding and mapping the socio-hydrologic con-
definition, most (82%) describe a watershed as an area that nections within a watershed is critical for identifying
drains to or through a waterbody or outlet (Table 3). all of the upstream people, places and things that impact
Only one image and no definitions describe hydrologic a point on a stream channel and for correctly identifying
connectivity across topographically-delineated watersheds. the boundary of the watershed system. When watersheds
While most (81%) images do depict a surface channel net- are defined, depicted and treated as areas rather than inter-
work, fewer (22%) text definition sources describe the chan- and intra-connected systems, connections to water sources,
nel system. Fewer still describe (8.8%) or depict (2.1%) the even those that drain to the same point on a river system,
flow of or connection to non-water physical, biological, or may be missed. For example, many studies aim to corre-
chemical elements. While one-third (33%) of images depict late flooding or other water quality data, collected at a point
human activity, only 7.8% of definitions describe human on a river channel, to other biophysical, or demographic or
activities. Notable exceptions include the following. Water- socioeconomic information (Hill et al. 2018; Liu et al. 2009;
sheds are, Meierdiercks et al. 2017; Neville et al. 2022, for example).
The water quality data is a measure not only of the water
1. “interconnected systems of land, water, air, and the plant quality at that point, or even the area within close proxim-
and animal species they support - including humans” ity to the point or the surrounding civil boundary (ex. zip
(Riverside-Corona Resource Conservation District, code, census tract), but rather, all points upstream including
Appendix A). water transferred through interbasin water transfer or water
2. “spatially explicit landscape units that contain a range from a neighboring Hydrologic Unit (see discussion of the
of interacting physical, ecological and social attributes” misnamed Watershed Boundary Dataset above). Therefore,
(ResearchGate, Appendix A). a factory in a neighboring Hydrologic Unit or an area miles
3. “that area of land, a bounded hydrologic system, within away but connected through IBT, will impact nutrient or
which all living things are inextricably linked by their bacteria levels measured at a point more than a farm that
common water course and where, as humans settled, is close in proximity to the point but not hydrologically
simple logic demanded that they become part of the connected. And water quality may be poor throughout an
community” (Watershed Discipleship, Appendix A). entire watershed system, not just at the point, census tract,
municipality, or Hydrologic Unit it is measured. A defini-
This third definition is notable in that it captures both con- tion is needed that better reflects the watershed as a system,
nectivity and community. The definition is often attributed to rather than points or areas, so that connections and commu-
John Wesley Powell. However, Drucshe (2011) identifies its nity are identified using upstream and downstream proxim-
original source as an essay written by Christopher N. Brown ity, not just linear distances. Otherwise, a management plan
about Powell in a 1997 edition of River Voices, a newslet- or study may misattribute poor water quality to a nearby
ter published by River Network. Brown writes, “Powell farm rather than a socio-hydrologically connected, but dis-
understood in the 1870s not only the geological but also the tant factory.
political and social significance of a watershed: that area of We acknowledge that an analysis of the definition of a
land, a bounded hydrologic system, within which all living watershed as presented here is an important, but limited in
things are inextricably linked by their common water course scope step toward a fuller understanding of misconceptions

13
Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences

and misuse of the watershed concept. Many factors not fully students’ understanding of the watershed concept (Endreny
explored as part of this study (ex. educational or cultural 2010). Yet, place-based watershed education is not feasible
background) impact a person’s understanding and view of a in all contexts and many students and adults, alike, must
watershed, and could be the subject of subsequent analyses. learn about watersheds from online sources and through
We also acknowledge that the oft-used, conventional defi- textbooks. There is some evidence to suggest that students’
nition of a watershed, that of a topographically-delineated limited or incomplete understanding of watersheds is associ-
area that drains to a single point, is apt and accurate in many ated with the way they are graphically depicted on websites,
contexts, and in these contexts, the definition proposed textbooks, and other educational sources where students
here introduces unnecessary complexity. Our aim is not to are learning about water (Shepardson et al. 2007; Zint and
entirely replace the conventional definition with another, Kraemer 2012). Good visuals can contribute to learning
but rather to encourage those who use and teach about the by allowing readers to “interpret and integrate information
watershed concept, to consider an alternative way of think- with minimum cognitive processing, and should accompany
ing about watersheds. text definitions” because, according to the dual processing
theory and conjoint retention hypothesis, “the presence of
Misconceptions tied to watershed depictions online graphics along with text has additive effects on learning
and in textbooks because visual information is represented separately from
verbal information in long-term memory” and can support
The results of this study can be used to further examine students with diverse learning styles and preferences (Vekiri
the hypothesis that inaccurate or incomplete depictions of 2002). These visuals are among the many factors that may
watersheds contribute to common misunderstandings of the influence and shape the way people think about a concept
watershed concept (McCarroll and Hamann 2020; Shepa- (Fandel et al. 2018), which makes it particularly alarming
rdson et al. 2007; Zint and Kraemer 2012). When students when the visuals do not accurately depict these concepts.
were tasked with drawing a picture of a watershed, the For example, Abbott et al. (2019) found that four flaws in
accuracy and detail of their drawings varied from draw- the water cycle diagrams, “correspond directly with cur-
ing a literal shed containing water for grade 4–12 students rent failings in water management”, though they note that
(Shepardson et al. 2007) to relatively complex, and nearly the inaccuracies could also reflect current misconceptions
complete, water systems including both natural and built rather than, or in addition to, leading directly to them.
flow pathways for undergraduate students (Attari et al. However, the results of this study suggest that the rela-
2017). Reviews of these studies highlight several themes in tionship between the depictions of watersheds and common
elementary to higher ed students’ incomplete understanding misunderstandings about the watershed concept is not so
of watersheds (Covitt et al. 2009; McCarroll and Hamann direct.
2020; Zint and Kraemer 2012). These include:
1. Mountains and high relief. As suggested by Shepardson
● Drawing mountains or high relief, even when that to- et al. (2007), most images of watersheds do depict high
pography does not represent the student’s own water- relief or mountains. This includes 65% of all images
shed (ex. Shepardson et al. 2007). (71% of online images, 50% of K-12 textbook images,
● Not including elements of watershed that are not readily and 63% of higher ed textbook images).
visible such as groundwater (Covitt et al. 2009; Gill et 2. Groundwater. Many students were not able to draw the
al. 2014). invisible elements of a watershed such as groundwater
● Drawing a watershed in a natural setting with little or (Covitt et al. 2009; Gill et al. 2014). Nearly one-third
no elements of the built environment or human activ- (31%) of all image sources depict groundwater. How-
ity (Dove et al. 1999; Endreny 2010; Shepardson et al. ever, while 58% of online sources depict groundwater,
2007). 0% of K-12 textbooks, and 6.3% of higher ed textbooks
● Not depicting hydrologic connectivity such as drawing a do.
single stream rather than a network of streams channels 3. Natural setting/no human activity. Students tend to
(Covitt et al. 2009; Dove et al. 1999; Gill et al. 2014; draw watersheds in a natural setting. One third (33%)
Gunckel et al. 2012; Shepardson et al. 2007). of the images of watersheds analyzed in this study
show some evidence of human activity. However,
Place-based education can help students build a sense of while 58% of online sources show some evidence
place and connection to an area, resulting in enhanced envi- of human activity, only 13% of K-12 textbooks, and
ronmental stewardship of those places (Ardoin 2006; San- 6.3% of higher ed textbooks do. Our results show that
telmann et al. 2011; Vallor et al. 2016), and can improve while forested land use dominates all three categories

13
 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences

of sources of watersheds (52% of all images, 79% This landscape is typical of a temperate deciduous forest
of online images, 38% of K-12 textbooks, and 19% climate located in the Northern hemisphere and does not
of higher ed textbooks show forested landscapes), reflect the many other biomes that exist globally. The over-
other land uses are also present, but more so in online representation of a single watershed landscape may contrib-
images. 29% (54% of online sources, 13% of K-12 ute to an individual’s inability to connect the images of the
textbooks, 0% higher ed textbooks) show town and watersheds to their own watershed. Many people don’t know
suburban land uses, 25% (50% of online sources, 0% they live in a watershed and don’t know the name of their
of K-12 textbooks, 0% higher ed textbooks) show watershed (McCarroll and Hamann 2020) and most students
urban, city, or industrial land uses, and 27% (50% of drew watersheds in mountains although that landscape did
online sources, 13% of K-12 textbooks, 0% higher not reflect their local topography (Shepardson et al. 2007).
ed textbooks) show agricultural land uses. 10% of Furthermore, half of the images (50%) are simplified sche-
all images (17% of online images, 13% of K-12 text- matic drawings. While 40% of images are GIS maps, only
books, 0% higher ed textbooks) show some elements one of these was drawn at a scale so viewers could iden-
of the built water networks such as wastewater treat- tify distinguishable features such as roadways. The lack of a
ment discharges or irrigation channels. representation of real-life, distinguishable features may also
4. Hydrologic connectivity. Several studies point to stu- hinder a person’s connection to their local watershed.
dents’ inability to describe or depict hydrologic con-
nectivity within watersheds. However, of the images
analyzed in this study, 81% (88% online, 63% K-12 Conclusion
textbook, 81% higher ed textbook) depict a drainage
network with tributary streams emptying into larger The term watershed is widely misused and misunderstood
water bodies, and 19% (25% online, 13% of K-12 text- by the general public, researchers, practitioners, and poli-
book, and 13% higher ed textbook) depict overland cymakers. The consequences are wide-ranging from techni-
flow. cal mistakes in watershed studies to not fully understanding
how a community’s water is impacted by upstream neigh-
Thus the hypothesis that suggests watershed images con- bors. Moreover, these definitions can lead to policies and
tribute to common misunderstandings about watersheds, is decisions made about a watershed that are misleading, and
both supported and contradicted by the empirical evidence at worst, catastrophic as in the Flint Michigan water cri-
from this study. Of the images analyzed in this study, most, sis. Some may argue that, given all of these inadequacies,
across all three categories of sources, do show hydrologic we should jettison the word completely. Yet, we argue that
connectivity of the natural stream network. However, while instead, a critical examination of the definition and use of
many online images also depict groundwater and human the term watershed is needed, and requires both a critique of
activities and land uses, fewer K-12 and higher ed textbooks the traditional, oft-used definition, and a content analysis of
do, supporting the hypothesis that images in these sources the definition. Furthermore, an updated version is well over-
can lead to incomplete understandings of the watershed con- due that incorporates the diverse uses of and within modern
cept, particularly for these elements. One explanation for watersheds, better reflects one’s personal connection to their
the inconsistency between online and textbook images may own watershed, and is inclusive of the many sociocultural
be that the more modern online images have been updated understandings of hydrologic connectivity.
to reflect common misunderstandings of watersheds. Online Content analyses of definitions of the term watershed
images were collected in 2022, while K-12 textbooks range from online sources and from textbooks (K-12 to higher ed),
in publication date from 2009 to 2023 (mean 2017) and the highlight the uniformity of how watersheds are defined and
higher ed textbooks range in publication date from 1988 to depicted. The majority of definitions are close variations of:
2019 (mean 2004). Yet, in content analyses of images of the the area of land that drains to a single point. Watersheds are
water cycle, Abbott et al. (2019) found no significant gain in depicted as a simplified schematic with mountainous and
the number of images depicting human activity in the time forested landscapes, and are not representative of the water-
period before 2006 and after 2005. We argue that another sheds in which most people live. Though many include river
plausible explanation is that inadequate text definitions of networks in these images, few describe other forms of con-
the term watershed - particularly definitions that do not nectivity within a watershed. A notable exception is Brown’s
describe socio-hydrologic connectivity - equally contribute interpretation of John Wesley Powell’s understanding of
to misunderstandings of the watershed concept. watersheds as: “that area of land, a bounded hydrologic sys-
However, most images, across all three categories of tem, within which all living things are inextricably linked by
sources, depict mountainous regions with forested land uses. their common water course and where, as humans settled,

13
Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences

AMRclearinghouse.org, WHAT IS A WATERSHED,

simple logic demanded that they become part of the com-
http://www.amrclearinghouse.org/Sub/WATERSHEDba-
munity” (Brown 1997). We build on Brown’s definition, the
sics/WhatIsAWatershed.htm.
understanding of watersheds as inter- and intra-connected
Britannica Dictionary, Watershed Definition & Mean-
socio-hydrologic systems and propose the following defini-
ing | Britannica Dictionary, https://www.britannica.com/
tion of a watershed:
dictionary/watershed.
ByJus, Watershed Definition - Discover the meaning of
A watershed defines the boundaries of a system of
watershed, its implications and FAQs, https://byjus.com/
hydrologically connected people, places, and things;
biology/watershed-definition/.
the activities at every point in a watershed impact all
Cambridge Dictionary, WATERSHED | definition in
points downstream and are impacted by activities at
the Cambridge English Dictionary, https://dictionary.cam-
all points upstream.
bridge.org/us/dictionary/english/watershed.
City of Lincoln Nebraska, What is a Watershed? –
The image that accompanies this definition, in contrast to
City of Lincoln, NE, https://www.lincoln.ne.gov/City/
the definition, which is necessarily broad and inclusive,
Departments/LTU/Utilities/Watershed-Management/
should be precise and specific. When possible, the image
What-is-a-Watershed.
should be of the watershed to which the viewer belongs and
Collins Dictionary, Watershed definition and meaning |
include the land use types in that watershed, both the natural
Collins English Dictionary, https://www.collinsdictionary.
and built water systems, IBTs, and culturally-important ele-
com/us/dictionary/english/watershed.
ments (parks, restaurants, roadways, etc.) that would help
Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental
the viewer place themselves within and to the watershed.
Protection, Watershed Management - Overview, https://
Though Hydrologic Units are more convenient to map, when
portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Water/Watershed-Management/
a watershed community or classroom requires such a map
Watershed-Management---Overview.
they could partner with groups offering technical assistance
Dictionary.com, Watershed Definition & Meaning |
such as a local college or university or mapping software
Dictionary.com, https://www.dictionary.com/browse/
such as USGS Streamstats could be modified to show IBTs,
watershed.
land use, and user-generated features. These images should
Earth.com, What is a Watershed? Am I In One? •
be used as tools to connect communities to the watersheds
Earth.com, https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/
they occupy and manage.
what-is-a-watershed-am-i-in-one/.
While place-based watershed education and hydrosocial
EPA, Basic Information and Answers to Fre-
and socio-hydrological research can deepen our understand-
quent Questions | US EPA, https://www.epa.gov/hwp/
ing of the connections between people and water within
basic-information-and-answers-frequent-questions.
watersheds, those who participate in these endeavors are
Erie.gov, What is a Watershed? | Environment & Plan-
limited. The definition and associated images of a watershed
ning, https://www3.erie.gov/environment/what-watershed.
are likely the first, or only, exposure many have to the water-
Extension Utah State University, What is a Water-
shed concept, despite its importance for an environmentally
shed, https://extension.usu.edu/waterquality/
literate and civically engaged population. Results from this
learnaboutsurfacewater/watersheds/whatisawatershed.
study demonstrate that the most-often used definition of the
Freie Universtat Berlin, What is a watershed?, https://
watershed concept is inadequate and there is an opportunity
www.geo.fu-berlin.de/en/v/iwm-network/learning_content/
to present the watershed concept in a better, and more holis-
introduction_iwm/definition-watershed/index.html.
tic, relatable, and inclusive way.
Georgia Aquarium, What is a Watershed? | Georgia
Aquarium, https://www.georgiaaquarium.org/wp-content/
uploads/2018/10/What-is-a-Watershed.pdf.
Appendix
H2OC, What Is A Watershed? - H2OC Stormwa-
ter Program, https://h2oc.org/resources/runoff-101/
what-is-a-watershed/.
Appendix A. sources for online definitions
Indiana Department of Environmental Management,
and images used in this study (accessed, July
IDEM: Nonpoint Source: What is a Watershed, https://
2022)
www.in.gov/idem/nps/what-is-a-watershed/.
Learning to Give, https://www.learningto-
Alabama ACES, What Is A Watershed? - Alabama Coopera-
give.org/units/watershed-sos-saving-our-sources/
tive Extension System, https://www.aces.edu/blog/topics/
what-watershed.
watershed-stewardship/what-is-watershed/.

13
 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences

Lee County, SW Florida, What is a Watershed Basin?, Roanoke VA, What is a Watershed? | Roanoke, VA,
https://www.leegov.com/naturalresources/WaterQuality/ https://www.roanokeva.gov/2152/What-is-a-Watershed.
watersheds. Rocky Mountain Research Station, https://www.fs.fed.
Lexico, Dictionary.com, https://www.lexico.com/en/ us/rm/boise/research/techtrans/projects/scienceforkids/
definition/watershed. watersheds.shtml.
Long Tom Watershed Council, What Is A Watershed?, Science How Stuff Works, What Is a Watershed? | How-
https://www.longtom.org/about-ltwc/watershed-diagram/. StuffWorks, https://science.howstuffworks.com/environ-
MacMillan Dictionary, WATERSHED (noun) definition mental/conservation/issues/watershed1.htm.
and synonyms | Macmillan Dictionary, https://www.mac- Stroud Water Research Center, What is a Watershed?
millandictionary.com/us/dictionary/american/watershed. - Leaf Pack Network, https://leafpacknetwork.org/learn/
Merriam-Webster, Watershed Definition & Meaning watersheds/.
- Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/ Study.com, Watershed Facts & Examples | What Is
dictionary/watershed. a Watershed? | Study.com, https://study.com/academy/
Michigan Environmental Education Curriculum, http:// lesson/what-is-a-watershed-definition-facts-protection.
techalive.mtu.edu/meec/module01/whatiswatershed.htm. html.
Milwaukee River Keeper, What’s a River Basin? What’s The Free Dictionary, definition of watershed by The Free
a Watershed? | Milwaukee Riverkeeper, https://milwauke- Dictionary, https://www.thefreedictionary.com/watershed.
eriverkeeper.org/whats-a-river-basin-whats-a-watershed/. The Watershed Institute, What Is A Watershed? | thewa-
Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, What is a tershed.org, https://thewatershed.org/what-is-a-watershed/.
Watershed? | Minnesota DNR, https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/ University of Minnesota Extension, What is a watershed?
whaf/key-concepts/ws_def.html. | UMN Extension, https://extension.umn.edu/watersheds/
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, Watershed approach what-watershed.
to water quality | Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, urban dictionary, Urban Dictionary: watershed, https://
https://www.pca.state.mn.us/water/what-watershed. www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=watershed.
Mississippi Watershed Management Organization, What USGS, Watersheds and Drainage Basins |
is a Watershed? - MWMO, https://www.mwmo.org/learn/ U.S. Geological Survey, https://www.usgs.gov/
watershed-and-stormwater-basics/what-is-a-watershed/. special-topics/water-science-school/science/
NatGeo, Watershed, https://education.nationalgeo- watersheds-and-drainage-basins.
graphic.org/resource/watershed. Virginia Cooperative Extension, What Is a Water-
National Park Service Lesson Plan, LESSON 2: WHAT shed?, https://www.hanovercounty.gov/DocumentCenter/
IS A WATERSHED?, https://www.nps.gov/common/ View/4746/What-is-a-Watershed-PDF.
uploads/teachers/lessonplans/What-is-a-Watershed-pdf.pdf. Vocabulary.com, Watershed - Definition, Meaning &
New Jersey Gov, https://www.nj.gov/dep/watershedres- Synonyms | Vocabulary.com, https://www.vocabulary.com/
toration/docs/shedbrochure.pdf. dictionary/watershed.
NSRWA, What is a Watershed?, https://www.nsrwa.org/ Wake County North Carolina, What is a Water-
what-we-care-about/what-is-a-watershed/. shed? | Wake County Government, https://www.
Ocean Service, What is a watershed?, https://oceanser- wakegov.com/departments-government/water-quality-
vice.noaa.gov/facts/watershed.html. programs/watershed-management-erosion-sedimenta-
Onondaga Environmental Institute, Definition of Water- tion-control-floodplain-and-stormwater-management/
shed - Onondaga Environmental Institute, https://www. stormwater-and-environment/what-watershed.
oei2.org/our-watershed/definition-of-watershed/. Watershed Discipleship, What is a Watershed?, https://
Oxford, https://www.google.com/search?q=define+wate watersheddiscipleship.org/what-is-a-watershed/.
rshed. Wiktionary, watershed - Wiktionary, https://
Plansponsor, TRIVIAL PURSUITS: Mean- en.wiktionary.org/wiki/watershed.
ing and Origin of the Idiom “Watershed Moment?” Wiley Online Library, A Watershed Integrity Defini-
| PLANSPONSOR, https://www.plansponsor.com/ tion and Assessment Approach to Support Strategic Man-
trivial-pursuits-meaning-origin-idiom-watershed-moment/. agement of Watersheds - Flotemersch − 2016 - River
Quick and Dirty Tips, https://www.quickanddirtytips. Research and Applications - Wiley Online Library, https://
com/education/grammar/what-is-a-watershed-moment. onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/https://doi.org/10.1002/
Riverside-Corona Resource Conservation District, What rra.2978.
is a Watershed? - Riverside-Corona Resource Conservation WVCA, WVCA - WHAT IS A WATERSHED?, https://
District, https://www.rcrcd.org/what-is-a-watershed. www.wvca.us/envirothon/a5.cfm.

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Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences

DeBarry, Watersheds: Processes, Assessment, and Man-

Appendix B. sources for K-12 textbook and
agement, Wiley, 2004.
resource definitions and images used in this
Dingman, Physical Hydrology, Waveland, 2008.
study
Gordon, Stream Hydrology: An Introduction for Ecolo-
gists, Wiley, 2004.
Berg, Environment, John Wiley and Sons, 2018.
Heathcote, Integrated Watershed Management: Princi-
Chiras, Environmental Science, Jones and Barlett, 2016.
ples and Practice, Wiley,1998.
CK-12 Foundation, CK-12 Earth Science for Middle
Holden, Water Resources An Integrated Approach, Rout-
School, 2012.
ledge, 2014.
Cunningham, Principles of Environmental Science:
Hornberger, Elements of Physical Hydrology, Johns
Inquiry and Applications, McGraw-Hill Higher Education,
Hopkins University Press,1998.
2023.
Jones, Global Hydrology, Routledge, 1997.
Friedland, Environmental Science for the AP® Course,
Linsley, Water-Resources Engineering, McGraw-Hill,
Bedford, Freeman, and Worth, 2023.
1992.
Hassenzahl, Visualizing Environmental Science, John
Maidment, Handbook of Hydrology, McGraw-Hill,1993.
Wiley and Sons, 2016.
Mays, Water Resources Engineering, Wiley, 2001.
Inspire Science: Earth G9-12, McGraw Hill Education,
Murty, Watershed Management, New Age International,
2020.
2004.
Keeley, Uncovering student ideas in earth and environ-
Raghunath, Hydrology: Principles, Analysis, and Design,
mental science: 32 new formative assessment probes. NTA
New Age International, 2006.
Press/National Science Teachers Association, 2016.
Rajora, Integrated Watershed Management: A Field
McKinney, Environmental Science: Systems and Solu-
Manual for Equitable, Productive and Sustainable Develop-
tions, Jones and Bartlett Learning, 2019.
ment, Rawat Publications,1998.
Mead, Earth Science, Holt McDougal, 2009.
Roni, Stream and Watershed Restoration: A Guide to
Miller, Exploring Environmental Science for AP, Cen-
Restoring Riverine Processes and Habitats, Wiley, 2013.
gage Learning, 2021.
Rose, An Introduction to the Environmental Physics of
Miller, Living in the Environment, Cengage Learning,
Soil, Water, and Watersheds, Cambridge University Press,
2021.
2004.
Sampson, Student Lab Manual for Argument-driven
Satterlund, Wildland Watershed Management, Wiley,
Inquiry in Earth and Space Science: Lab Investigations for
1992.
Grades 6–10. National Science Teachers Association, 2018.
Singh, Watershed Planning and Management, Yash Pub-
Withgott, Environment: The Science Behind the Stories,
lising House, 2000.
AP Edition, Pearson Education, 2021.
Singh, Handbook of Applied Hydrology, McGraw-Hill,
Wright, Environmental Science: Toward A Sustainable
2017.
Future, Pearson Education, 2017.
Singh, Computer Models of Watershed Hydrology, Water
Resources Publications,1995.
Subramanya, Engineering Hydrology, Tata McGraw-Hill
Appendix C. sources for higher ed textbook
Publishing Company Limited, 2009.
definitions and images used in this study
Tideman, Watershed Management Guidelines for Indian
Conditions, Omega Scientific, 1996.
Asawa, Irrigation and Water Resources Engineering, New
Viessman, Introduction to Hydrology, Pearson, 2008.
Age International Ltd, 2015.
Ward, Environmental Hydrology, CRC Press, 2004.
Bedient, Hydrology and Floodplain Analysis, Pearson,
Wurbs, Water Resources Engineering, Pearson / Prentice
2019.
Hall, 2002.
Black, Watershed Hydrology, Ann Arbor Press, 1996.
Brooks, Hydrology and the Management of Watersheds, Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Brenna Knibbs
for assistance with collecting online definitions and images, Sydney
Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.
Levison for assisting with coding and inter-variability analysis using
Cech, Principles of Water Resources: History, Develop- Dedoose, and Jane Toyber for assisting with the literature review.
ment, Management, and Policy, Wiley, 2003.
Chin, Water-Resources Engineering, Pearson / Prentice Declarations
Hall, 2013.
Chow, Applied Hydrology, McGraw-Hill,1988. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no known
Davie, Fundamentals of Hydrology, Routledge, 2019. competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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 Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences

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