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Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
CONTINUUM MECHANICS
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Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
CONTINUUM MECHANICS
ANDRUS KOPPEL
AND
JAAK OJA
EDITORS
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
New York
Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Copyright © 2010 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Continuum mechanics / [edited by] Andrus Koppel, Jaak Oja.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN: (eEook)
1. Continuum mechanics. I. Koppel, Andrus. II. Oja, Jaak.
QA808.2.C66 2009
531--dc22
2009027482
Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. †New York
Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
CONTENTS
Preface vii
Chapter 1 Manifolds on Continuum Mechanics 1
Jari Mäkinen
Chapter 2 Analysis of Shell Structures Applying Triangular Finite Elements 53
C. W. S. To
Chapter 3 Transport Control of Fluid and Solutes in Microchannels Using AC
Field and Semiconductor Diodes 85
Dimiter N. Petsev and Orlin D. Velev
Chapter 4 Continuum Description of Flow-Like Landslide Dynamics 105
M. Pirulli
Chapter 5 Examination of Cracks Based on Continuum-Mechanics 147
Agnes Horvath
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Chapter 6 Review on Methodologies of Progressive Failure Analysis
of Composite Laminates 173
P. F. Liu and J.Y. Zheng
Chapter 7 Differential Form of Continuum Mechanics: Operators
and Equations 193
Kazuhito Yamasaki
Chapter 8 Stress Dependent Morphogenesis Continuum Mechanics
and System of Trusses 223
J.J. Munoz, V. Conte and M. Miodownik
Chapter 9 Nearest-Nodes Finite Element Method 245
Yunhua Luo
Chapter 10 Mesh Adaptation Algorithm Based Gradient
of Strain Energy Density 273
Yunhua Luo
Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
vi Contents
Chapter 11 The Natural Approach -- an Appraisal in the Context
of Continuum Mechanics 295
Ioannis St. Doltsinis
Index 325
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
PREFACE
Continuum mechanics is a branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of the
kinematics and mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuum (e.g., solids and
fluids, liquids and gases). A continuum concept assumes that the substance of the body is
distributed throughout — and completely fills — the space it occupies. Differential equations
can be employed in solving problems in continuum mechanics. Some of these differential
equations are specific to the materials being investigated and are called constitutive equations,
while others capture fundamental physical laws, such as the conservation of mass (the
continuity equation), the conservation of momentum (the equations of motion and
equilibrium), and the conservation of energy (the first law of thermodynamics). This new and
important book gathers the latest research from around the globe in this field.
Chapter 1 - The authors study differential geometry very elementarily, but hopefully in a
practical way. The authors divide vector spaces into material and spatial spaces since these
spaces behave differently in the observer transformation and with objective derivatives (Lie-
derivatives). All the vector spaces, which they consider, have a metric tensor thus they are
metric vector spaces, and all the finite dimensional manifolds are Riemannian manifolds that
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
are embedded in a Euclidean space. Additionally, the authors may identify a dual vector space
by its primary vector space. In classical tensor analysis, this identification is applied, but here
they make distinction between primary and dual spaces in the formulation, and the
identification can be accomplished later. If the identification of dual and primary vector
spaces is done a priori, then push-forward and pull-back operations are not uniquely defined.
As an example, the authors will study the rotation manifold and its underlying geometric
structure in the terms of differential geometry.
In continuum mechanics, the authors have different manifolds. The placement field of
continuum medium takes values in a Hilbert space, where a chart parametrization maps
vector-valued functions into vector-valued functions. The placement field needs an infinite
number of basis functions in order to present an arbitrary placement field on continuum,
yielding infinite-dimensional manifolds.
In Lagrangian mechanics, forces are divided differently into constraint forces and applied
forces. In addition, rich mathematical methods like variational calculus and other mechanical
principles are included. In terms of differential geometry, Lagrangian mechanics describes a
motion on an event manifold with a Lagrangian functional on the tangent bundle of the event
manifold. An event manifold is a time-placement manifold which is also a constraint
manifold, i.e. the time and placement variables satisfy all the constraints.
Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
viii Andrus Koppel and Jaak Oja
The authors think that there is a need for another type of mechanics between Newtonian
and Lagrangian mechanics, as it is sometimes done. This mechanics could be named
d‘Alembertian mechanics where the principle of virtual work is its cornerstone. Here the
authors include inertial forces also in the virtual work form. The virtual work may be viewed
as a linear form on the tangent field-bundle. This field-bundle is also a tangent bundle of the
placement manifold at fixed time. The authors give definitions for the virtual work in the
finite-dimensional and infinite-dimensional cases. In addition they give definition for the
variation, Lie derivative and Lie variation. The concept of push-forward and pull-back
operators is essential for understanding Lie derivatives and variations.
Finally, the authors consider constraint point-manifolds that arise from point-wise
holonomic constraint equations. The usual geometric joints of a multibody system like
spherical, revolute, cylindrical, universal, helical, prismatic, and sliding joints can be
presented via holonomic constraint equations that only depend on displacement at
corresponding geometric points. All these constraints generate a smooth point-manifold that
can be parametrized. Also, the principle of virtual work and its geometric structure are
naturally related with the parametrization of the constraint manifold
Chapter 2 - Over the years many shell finite elements has been developed for applications
in aerospace, automotive and shipbuilding industries. Misuse or abuse of some of these shell
finite elements in the relatively mature shell finite element technology is not uncommon.
Some of these shell finite elements were based on the principles of classical shell theory in
which the simplest one is the theory of Love. Others were based on intuitive or heuristic
arguments. For reasons of economy, mathematical simplicity and accuracy, lower order flat
triangular shell finite elements are popular among designers. This article is concerned with
the review, development and application of triangular shell finite elements. Emphasis is on
mixed formulation based lower order flat triangular shell finite elements. Finite element
representation of shell structures is introduced. Linear analysis of static and dynamic, and
nonlinear analysis of static and dynamic problems, are included in this article.
Chapter 3 - This chapter presents an overview of recent results on the electric field
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
control and manipulation of fluids in microfluidic devices. The newer approaches are based
on using alternating or a combination of alternating and direct current fields. The alternating
field can be locally converted to direct by semiconductor diodes that may be placed at key
locations where an electroosmotic force has to be applied to the fluid. Such techniques allow
to design and fabricate small micrometer sized pumps and mixers. The latter are important
because of the inherent low Reynolds characteristics of the flow in microchannels. The diode
mixers are simple to fabricate and can be turned on and off depending on the operational
requirements. Combining alternate and direct current fields and diode pumps makes possible
the decoupling of the electroosmotic fluid flow from the electrophoretic particle or
macromolecular mass flux. This can be exploited for precise analyte focusing,
preconcentration and separation.
Chapter 4 - Landslide run-out is a complex phenomenon, much more difficult to simulate
by models than flow of fluids. The main complicating aspects concern that landslide material
is often heterogeneous and its characteristics may change during the landslide movement due
to drainage, hydraulic interaction between fluid and grains, comminution of grains or mixing
with surface water or partly or fully liquefied superficial material entrained from the path.
The continuum mechanical theory, treating the heterogeneous and multiphase moving
mass as a continuum, has emerged in the last years as a useful tool for describing the evolving
Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Preface ix
geometry and the velocity distribution of a mass flowing down a surface. A hypothetical
material, ―equivalent fluid‖, whose rheology is controlled by a small number of parameters is,
in fact, introduced to represent the bulk behaviour of a landslide.
After a brief introduction on landslide characteristics and dynamics, new advances in the
continuum mechanical description of flow-like landslides are discussed in dedicated sections.
Each section deals with one of the main aspects that characterize the physical behaviour of a
landslide and presents the simplifying, but nevertheless realistic, assumptions made to
streamline their mathematical formulation.
The mathematical formulation is then implemented in a numerical code (RASH3D) to
test the capability of each mathematical assumption in allowing the modelling of real
phenomenon dynamics. Results of numerical simulations of laboratory tests and real events
are discussed in this chapter to this aim.
Chapter 5 - The phenomenon of failure by catastrophic crack propagation in structural
materials poses problems of design and analysis in many fields of engineering. Cracks are
present to some degree in all structures. They may exist as basic defects in the constituent
materials or they may be induced in construction or during service life. The continuum-
mechanics can be applied for macro cracks.
Over the past decades the finite element technique has become firmly established as a
useful tool for numerical solution of engineering problems. In order to be able to apply the
finite element method to the efficient solution of fracture problems, adaptations or further
developments must be made. Using the finite element method, a lot of papers deal with the
calculation of stress intensity factors for two- and three-dimensional geometries containing
cracks of different shapes under various loadings to elastic bodies. In order to increase the
accuracy of the results, special singular and transition elements have been used. They are
described together with methods for calculating the stress intensity factors from the computed
results. These include the displacement substitution method, J-integral and the virtual crack
extension technique. Despite of the large number of published finite element stress intensity
factor calculations there are not so many papers published on J-integral to elastic-plastic
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
bodies.
At the vicinity of a crack tip the strains are not always small, but they may be large ones,
too. In this case the J-integral can also be applied to characterise the cracks in elastic or
elastic-plastic bodies.
This chapter describes the computation of the two dimensional J-integral in the case of
small and large strains to elastic and elastic-plastic bodies and represents some numerical
examples, too.
Chapter 6 - Stiffness degradation for laminated composites such as carbon fiber/epoxy
composites is an important physical response to the damage and failure evolution under
continuous or cyclic loads. The ability to predict the initial and subsequent evolution process
of such damage phenomenon is essential to explore the mechanical properties of laminated
composites. This chapter gives a general review on the popular methodologies which deal
with the damage initiation, stiffness degradation and final failure strength of composite
laminates. These methodologies include the linear/nonlinear stress calculations, the failure
criteria for initial microcracking, the stiffness degradation models and solution algorithms in
the progressive failure analysis. It should be pointed out that the assumption of constant
damage variable which is introduced into the constitutive equations of laminated composites
to simulate the stiffness degradation properties is less effective and practical than that of
Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
x Andrus Koppel and Jaak Oja
changed damage variable with loads in the framework of continuum damage mechanics
(CDM). Also, different damage evolution laws using CDM should be assumed to describe
three failure modes: fiber breakage, matrix cracking and interfacial debonding, respectively.
Chapter 7 - The continuum mechanics in terms of the differential forms is proposed. The
authors introduce the dual material space-time which consists of the strain space-time and the
stress space-time. In this case, there is a one-to-one correspondence between the kinds of the
basic equations in the continuum mechanics and the kinds of the basic operators in the
differential forms. That is, the kinematic and constitutive equations can be derived by the
exterior differential operator and the Hodge star operator, respectively. Other compound
equations such as the Navier equation, Laplace (wave) equation and the incompatibility
equation can be derived by the combination of the basic operators. This systematic approach
allows us to find (i) the anti-exact solution of the Navier equation and (ii) the J-integral in
fracture mechanics. The result (ii) means that the continuum mechanics in terms of the
differential forms describes a partial aspect of the fracture mechanics. Moreover, the
differential form approach allows us to link the deformation field with the non-deformation
field such as the electromagnetic field. As an example, the authors take up the piezoelectric
and Villari effects and derive the constitutive equations for these effects. These constitutive
equations can be interpreted geometrically as the interaction among the geometrical objets of
the space-time.
Chapter 8 - In this chapter the authors develop a general framework for the modelling of
morphogenesis by introducing a growth process in the structural elements of the cell, which
in turn depends on the stress state of the tissue. Some experimental observations suggest this
feedback mechanism during embryo development, and only very recently this behaviour has
started to be simulated.
The authors here derive the necessary equilibrium equations of a stress controlled growth
mechanism in the context of continuum mechanics. In these derivations the authors assume a
free energy source which is responsible for the active forces during the elongation process,
and a passive hyperelastic response of the material. In addition, they write the necessary
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
conditions that the active elongation law must satisfy in order to be thermodynamically
consistent. The authors particularise these equations and conditions for the relevant elements
of the cytoskeleton, namely, microfilaments and microtubules. The authors apply the model
to simulate the shape changes observed during embryo morphogenesis in truss element. As a
salient result, the model reveals that by imposing boundary stress conditions, unbounded
elongation would be obtained. Therfore, either prescribed displacements or cross-links
between fibres are necessary to reach a homeostatic state.
Chapter 9 - In the nearest-nodes finite element method (NN-FEM), finite elements are
mainly used for numerical integration; for each quadrature point, shape functions are
constructed from a set of nodes that are the nearest to the quadrature point, nodes from
neighbour elements may be involved in the construction. Based on this strategy, there are
several techniques available for constructing shape functions. In this paper, the moving local
polynomial interpolation method is adopted. Benefiting from the above strategy, NN-FEM
has several attractive features. High-order shape functions can be constructed from simplex
finite element meshes; Analysis accuracy of NN-FEM is not influenced by element distortion;
NN-FEM can deal with extremely large deformation, etc. Furthermore, NN-FEM provides a
favourable environment for implementing an adaptive algorithm.
Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Preface xi
Chapter 10 - In this chapter, an adaptive finite element method is formulated based on the
newly developed nearest-nodes finite element method (NN-FEM). In the adaptive NN-FEM,
mesh modification is guided by the gradient of strain energy density, i.e. a larger gradient
requires a denser mesh and vice versa. A finite element mesh is iteratively modified by a set
of operators, including mesh refinement, mesh coarsening and mesh smoothing, to make its
density conform with the gradient of strain energy density. The selection of a proper operator
for a specific mesh region is determined by a set of criteria that are based on mesh intensity.
The iteration loop of mesh modification is stopped when the relative error in the total
potential energy is less than a prescribed accuracy. Numerical examples are presented to
demonstrate the performance of the proposed adaptive NN-FEM.
Chapter 11 - The natural finite element approach introduced by John Argyris in the early
sixties is characterized by the distinction between rigid body motion and deformation, on the
one hand, and by the description of the latter in compliance with the element purpose and
geometry, on the other hand. For triangular and tetrahedral elements the concept suggests
strain and stress measures defined along the sides or the edges respectively as homogeneous
normal quantities, free of shear. In the mechanics of continua the corresponding infinitesimal
elements represent minimum configurations to define local deformation in two- and three
dimensions.
This treatise concerns utilization of the natural approach on the continuum level within a
consistent theoretical framework. It is proposed to begin with a reference system of
supernumerary coordinates associated with the elementary tetrahedron in the space or with
the triangle in the plane. Vectorial quantities are defined, the operations of gradient and
divergence are interpreted in this system. The natural deformation rate is deduced from the
velocity field, the stress is introduced as work conjugate measure. The condition for local
equilibrium is presented in natural quantities as well as the stress definition in association
with the resultant forces. The set up of material constitutive relations is exemplified for the
elastic solid and for viscous media. Beyond the description of the momentary kinematics as
from the velocity field, the appearance of finite deformation is considered basing on
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
displacements. Illustration of the methodology for a plane elastic case terminates the part
regarding the mechanics of solids. Extension to fluid motion and to thermal phenomena is
appended.
Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
In: Continuum Mechanics ISBN: 978-1-60741-585-5
Editors: Andrus Koppel and Jaak Oja, pp.1-52 ©2010 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
MANIFOLDS ON CONTINUUM MECHANICS
Jari Mäkinen*
Tampere University of Technology, Department of Mechanics and Design, P.O. Box 589,
FIN-33101 Tampere, Finland
ABSTRACT
We study differential geometry very elementarily, but hopefully in a practical way.
We divide vector spaces into material and spatial spaces since these spaces behave
differently in the observer transformation and with objective derivatives (Lie-
derivatives). All the vector spaces, which we consider, have a metric tensor thus they are
metric vector spaces, and all the finite dimensional manifolds are Riemannian manifolds
that are embedded in a Euclidean space. Additionally, we may identify a dual vector
space by its primary vector space. In classical tensor analysis, this identification is
applied, but here we make distinction between primary and dual spaces in the
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
formulation, and the identification can be accomplished later. If the identification of dual
and primary vector spaces is done a priori, then push-forward and pull-back operations
are not uniquely defined. As an example, we will study the rotation manifold and its
underlying geometric structure in the terms of differential geometry.
In continuum mechanics, we have different manifolds. The placement field of
continuum medium takes values in a Hilbert space, where a chart parametrization maps
vector-valued functions into vector-valued functions. The placement field needs an
infinite number of basis functions in order to present an arbitrary placement field on
continuum, yielding infinite-dimensional manifolds.
In Lagrangian mechanics, forces are divided differently into constraint forces and
applied forces. In addition, rich mathematical methods like variational calculus and other
mechanical principles are included. In terms of differential geometry, Lagrangian
mechanics describes a motion on an event manifold with a Lagrangian functional on the
tangent bundle of the event manifold. An event manifold is a time-placement manifold
which is also a constraint manifold, i.e. the time and placement variables satisfy all the
constraints.
We think that there is a need for another type of mechanics between Newtonian and
Lagrangian mechanics, as it is sometimes done. This mechanics could be named
*
Academy Research Fellow, E-mail: [email protected], Fax: +358 3 3115 2107, Phone: +358 50 5366632
Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
2 Jari Mäkinen
d‘Alembertian mechanics where the principle of virtual work is its cornerstone. Here we
include inertial forces also in the virtual work form. The virtual work may be viewed as a
linear form on the tangent field-bundle. This field-bundle is also a tangent bundle of the
placement manifold at fixed time. We give definitions for the virtual work in the finite-
dimensional and infinite-dimensional cases. In addition we give definition for the
variation, Lie derivative and Lie variation. The concept of push-forward and pull-back
operators is essential for understanding Lie derivatives and variations.
Finally, we consider constraint point-manifolds that arise from point-wise holonomic
constraint equations. The usual geometric joints of a multibody system like spherical,
revolute, cylindrical, universal, helical, prismatic, and sliding joints can be presented via
holonomic constraint equations that only depend on displacement at corresponding
geometric points. All these constraints generate a smooth point-manifold that can be
parametrized. Also, the principle of virtual work and its geometric structure are naturally
related with the parametrization of the constraint manifold
1. INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY
In this Section, we study differential geometry very elementarily way. Some knowledge
on differential geometry is essential comprehending the quantity of finite rotation. In addition,
dividing vector spaces into material and spatial spaces is necessary since these spaces behave
differently in observer transformation and in objective derivatives (Lie-derivatives).
All the vector spaces, which we consider, have metric tensors thus they are metric vector
spaces, and all the finite dimensional manifolds are Riemannian manifolds that are embedded
in an Euclidean space. Hence, we can always choose an orthonormal set of basis vectors and
we will get rid of those informative (read: terrible) subscript and superscript tensor notation
and Christoffel symbols. Additionally, we may identify a dual vector space by its primary
vector space. In classical tensor analysis, this identification is applied, but here we make
distinction between primary and dual spaces in the formulation, and the identification is
accomplished later in the finite element implementation. If the identification of dual and
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
primary vector spaces is done a priori, then push-forward and pull-back operations are not
uniquely defined. We also itemize terms a vector space and a linear space where the linear
space is considered as a trivial manifold (or a linear manifold, or a flat manifold). Vector
spaces usually appear from the tangent spaces of the manifold which are distinct at different
points of a nontrivial manifold
1.1 Manifolds and Tensors on Manifolds
In this section, we give the definitions for vector and tensor algebra on topological vector
spaces1, definitions for manifolds, and tensor algebra on manifolds. We recommend
consulting, especially, the paper [Stumpf & Hoppe 1997], and the textbooks [Wang &
Truesdell 1973] or [Marsden & Hughes 1983] for tensors on manifolds, and textbooks
[Arnold 1978] or [Abraham et al. 1983] for differentiable manifolds. A reader is assumed to
1
We consider the topological vector space as a general vector space without explicit knowledge of a metric.
Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Manifolds on Continuum Mechanics 3
be familiar with classical tensor algebra on Euclidean spaces2, text books like [Ogden 1984]
or [Truesdell 1977] or [Bonet & Wood 1997].
1 Definitions for Covector Space, Dot Product, and Adjoint Operator
The covector space V of the vector space V is defined by the space of linear maps
V R , i.e. V :=L (V , R) . These linear maps are represented by the dot product (duality
pairing) defined as
:V V R, bf , ag f a R ,
which have two properties: bilinearity, i.e. it is linear with respect to each of its two members,
and definite, i.e. if f V is fixed and f a 0 a V , then a 0 . Conversely, if a V is
fixed and f a 0, f V , then f 0 . If f a 0 , the vector a is said to be orthogonal to the
covector f, and vice versa. Note that a covector space is also a vector space satisfying the
vector space properties. Because the vector space and its co-covector space are canonically
isomorphic3, i.e. V V , we have the symmetry property of the dot product: f a a f .
Let F L (V ,W ) be a linear operator from V W . The adjoint operator
F L (W ,V ) is defined with the aid of the dot product as
Fw a w Fa R a V , w W ,
where the first dot product is on the vector space V , and the latter on the vector space W ,
see Figure 1.
On notation: we omit -symbol when there is no source of confusion. Then the terms Fa
and F a are identical. The brackets are used for purpose of dependency, e.g. F(x) a denotes
the linear operator F(x) acts (linearly) on a where the operator depends on x. In this case, the
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dot symbol may not be omitted. In addition, in the composite mapping of operators, like FG ,
the dot symbol is omitted.
F 1
V W
F
bf v g
V
R bt w g W
R
F
V W
F
Figure 1. The diagram of domains and ranges for the operator F Liso (V ,W ) and its derivatives.
2
The Euclidean space is a real, finite-dimensional, linear, inner-product space with an Euclidean metric.
Topological vector spaces are isomorphic, denoted by , if there exists a (continuous) linear bijection, called
3
isomorphism, between these spaces. Two vector spaces are isomorphic iff they have the same dimensions.
Vector spaces are canonical isomorphic, denoted by , if there exists a natural (‗almost trivial‘) isomorphism.
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4 Jari Mäkinen
A covector space is commonly called a dual vector space, and the elements of the
covector space are called covectors, or dual vectors, or linear forms (which never make any
sense). Additionally, the dot product is also called duality pairing, and an adjoint operator is
called a dual operator. We do not make any notational difference between the elements in the
vector and covector spaces since we desire to use the notation similar to classical tensor
algebra. For example, force quantities like moment and force vectors, and Lagrange
multiplies are the elements of covector spaces. We will use the byte ‗co-‘ instead of the word
‗dual‘ because of its simplicity and compactness.
2 Definition for Inverse Operator, and Inverse Adjoint Operator
If the operator F is a linear bijection (isomorphism), denoted F Liso (V ,W ) , the inverse
operator F1 Liso (W ,V ) exists and it is unique. The inverse operator is defined by formulas
I F1F and i = FF1 ,
where I Liso (V ,V ) is the identity on V , and i Liso (W ,W ) is the identity on W . The
inverse of the adjoint operator F Liso (W ,V ) is defined similarly by formulas
i FF and I = FF
,
where i Liso (W ,W ) is the identity on W , and I Liso (V ,V ) is the identity on V .
Note that an inverse adjoint operator is an operator F Liso (V ,W ) , see Figure 1.
3 Definition for Tensor Product and Tensor Space
The tensor product between the vector a V 4 and the covector f W is defined via the
dot product by the formula
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(a f ) w (f w) a V , w W ,
where the tensor a f belongs to the tensor space produced by V and W , i.e.
a f V W L (W ,V ) . The tensor product is a linear mapping for each member
separately, i.e. a bilinear operator, because of the bilinearity of the dot product. The tensor is
called a two-point tensor if it is defined on two different vector spaces. The general two-point
tensor space T can be denoted by
T : V V V V W W W W
r s t u
that is the space of r-fold on the vector space V , s-fold on the covector space V , t-fold on
the vector space W , and u-fold on the covector space W . This can be shortly denoted by the
tensor space T (r, s; t, u) with the order of r s t u .
4
This vector space V could be a covector space, or more generally, a tensor space
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Manifolds on Continuum Mechanics 5
Note that any other permutation of vector spaces is possible, thus e.g. the notation
, ;0,1) could mean the tensor spaces V W or W V . In the case of one-point tensor
(10
spaces, defined on the same vector or covector space, we use a simplified notation: e.g. the
tensor space T (1,1) for the tensor spaces V V or V V defined on V , or
correspondingly for the tensor spaces W W or W W defined on W .
There are two possible points of view to comprehend a tensor: operational or quantitative.
The operational aspect informs ‗how it works‘, and quantitative responds to ‗how much is it‘.
Mathematicians represent the operational point of view and engineers the quantitative point of
view. Although we will define the tensor by quantitative, we shall keep in mind its
operational aspect: a tensor is a multilinear operator.
4 Definition for Tensors
A tensor is defined an element of a tensor space. Thus after the property of tensor
product, the two-point tensor T of the tensor space T (r, s; t, u) , given in Def. 3, is a
multilinear mapping
T:V V V V W W W W R
r s t u .
The two-point tensor T is an element of two-point tensor space such that it assigns a
tensor for its two-point domain.
The tensor space is a vector space itself by satisfying all vector space properties. Then we
may state that the tensors are vectors and the vectors are tensors. However, we consider the
first-order tensors as vectors, and the higher-order tensors as tensors. Sometimes the tensors
are characterized by their component transformation laws under the change of the basis: the
object is a tensor if its components change like tensor components under a coordinate
transformation. For example, Christoffel symbols are not tensors. Conversely, the vectors are
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characterized by direction, magnitude, and, especially, by the parallelogram law: the vector
can be added to another vector by the parallelogram law. For example, it is often incorrectly
claimed that the finite rotation does not satisfy the parallelogram law, whereupon the finite
rotation vector is not a vector quantity. We keep these characterizations rather old-fashioned
and they can lead to serious misunderstandings. The vectors and tensors may be characterized
by studying if they are elements of corresponding vector and tensor spaces, respectively.
The trace of the second order tensor is usually defined by the contraction of its
components. This is a contradiction with the component independence of the tensor, although,
the trace is component-independent. We follow the definition of the trace given in [Truesdell
1977; App. II].
5 Definition for Trace and Double-Dot Product
The trace tr L (V V , R) of the one-point tensor f a V V is a scalar-valued
linear operator defined via the dot product as
b g
tr f a : f a R
.
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6 Jari Mäkinen
Also the trace operation for the tensor on V V can be applied by noting V V , but it
is not defined for two-point tensors. The double-dot product for the tensors f t V W
and v w V W is defined via the ordinary dot product
bf tg:bv wg : bf vg bt wg
V W
R
,
where the subscripts indicate the vector space of the corresponding dot product. Therefore,
the double-dot product is a mapping L (V W V W , R) that is a four-linear operator.
All tensors, which we have considered, have been presented by the tensor product of the
vectors, e.g. the tensor f a . However, a general tensor can not be expressed directly in that
way. We may present a common tensor with basis vectors of tensor space. Let {Gi } , with the
index i 12, ,3 , be an ordered basis for the vector space V and let {g i } ( i 12, ,3 ) be an
ordered basis for the vector space W, then we may present a general second-order two-point
tensor T V W by the linear combination of the basis vectors, namely (with the
conventional summation)
T TijGi g j (1)
where Gi g j V W corresponds the basis vector of the tensor with the coefficient Tij R .
The coefficient matrix [Tij ] R33 is called the component matrix of the tensor T with respect
to the bases {Gi } and {g i } 5. Higher order tensors are represented a similar way. In order to
represent tensors on covector spaces, we have to define the bases for the covector spaces.
6 Definition for Bases of Covector Spaces
Let {Gi } and {g i } be ordered bases of the vector spaces V and W, respectively. The
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bases (dual bases) {Gi } and {g i } on the covector spaces V and W are defined by formulas
Gi G j ij , gi g j ij ,
where ij is the Kronecker‘s delta symbol. Then, for example, the tensor T V W may be
represented by T TijGi gj .
We have defined a tensor algebra on a topological vector space. These vector spaces are
often induced by a manifold, yielding a tensor algebra on the manifold that we define next.
7 Definition for Manifold
A set M En is a manifold with dimension d, if there exists a bijection6 i :Ui En
from an open domain Ui Ed in a d-dimensional Euclidean parameter space onto some open
set in the manifold, i :Ui i (Ui ) M , such that every point of the manifold is an image
5
The component matrix is an isomorphism between the tensor space V W and the Cartesian space R33 .
6
a mapping is a bijection if it is injective and surjective, i.e. one-to-one and onto mapping
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Manifolds on Continuum Mechanics 7
under a mapping, see Figure 2. A pair (Ui , i ) is called a chart or a parametrization chart, and
the mapping i is called a chart mapping or a parametrization mapping
8 Definition for Differentiable Manifold
A manifold M is a differentiable manifold if for every point a M there exist images
1 (U1 ) and 2 (U2 ) where the point a M belongs to, such that the composite mapping
21 1 is a diffeomorphism from 11 (1 (U1 ) 2 (U2 )) onto 21 (1 (U1 ) 2 (U2 )) . The
7
composite mapping is called the change of parametrization, see Figure 2.
We note that usually a chart mapping is defined by an inverse mapping from an open set
of a manifold into a parameter space. We have defined a chart mapping differently since we
could use this terminology when constraint equations are parametrized; also, we note the
connection between the finite element method. A vector space, where a manifold is
embedded, is called a embedding space; the Euclidean space E n in Figure 2.
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Figure 2. A geometric interpretation for a parametrization of a manifold, when n 3 and d = 2 .
9 Definition for Tangent Vector and Tangent Space on Manifold
Let (t ) be a parametrized vector-valued curve in the manifold M through the point
x M such that (t 0) x . The tangent of curve (or equivalent class of curves) (t ) at
t 0 on the manifold M is defined as
(t ) (0)
x lim , where (0) x, (t ) M
t 0 t .
The tangent vector x belongs to a tangent space of the manifold, namely x Tx M , see
Figure 3. The tangent (vector) space Tx M is a set of tangent vectors at x M .
7
a diffeomorphism is a bijection with continuously differentiable mapping and its inverse mapping
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8 Jari Mäkinen
Tx M
x x
( t )
Figure 3. The tangent vector x and its tangent space Tx M on the manifold M at the point x .
10 Definition for Tangent Bundle on Manifold
A tangent bundle TM is defined a union of the tangent spaces on the manifold M at its
every point
b
TM := x , Tx M
x M
g
.
The dimension of the tangent bundle is twice the dimension of the manifold M .
Especially, the pair of state vectors, the placement x(t ) and velocity vectors v(t ) , belongs to
the tangent bundle, (x, v)(t ) TM .
For a two-point tensor, its domain of points is divided into two separate but not
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independent regions which are defined in the vector spaces V and W . It is convenient to
choose a material body B, containing all material points of body, for one region of the domain
and another region which is obtained via a mapping of the material body B. The material
body B is a set of points and its elements are denoted X , Y, Z,B.
11 Definition for Current and Initial Reference Placements
Let t : B E3 be a smooth time-dependent embedding of the material body B into the
Euclidean space E3 . For each fixed time t, the mapping (t ,) is defined as a current
placement of the body B along with the current place vector x of a body-point, namely
B: (t , B), x: (t , X ), X B .
The initial reference placement B0 is defined as the special case of the current placement
B by setting t 0 , giving
B0 : (t 0, B), X: (t 0, X ) X B
,
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Manifolds on Continuum Mechanics 9
where X is an initial reference place vector.
Since the initial reference placement B0 is uneffected in the observation transformation
(see e.g. [Ogden 1984; Ch. 2]), we call vectors and tensors defined on the initial reference
placement B0 as material quantities. For example, a reference place vector X is called a
material place vector, and B0 the material placement. Sometimes the material description is
named as referential or Lagrangian description, and occasionally, some distinction has been
accomplished between these phrases.
Contrary to the material placement B0 , the current placement B and vectors and tensors
defined on it are concerned in the observation transformation. Vector and tensors defined on
the current placement B are called spatial quantities, e.g. a current place vector x is also
named as a spatial place vector, and B as a spatial placement. A spatial description is
sometimes called an Eulerian description.
We will apply the phrases ‗material‘ and ‗spatial‘ for placements, vectors, tensors, fields,
spaces and descriptions. A geometric interpretation of the material body B, the material
placement B0 , and the spatial placement B is given in Figure 4. Note that placements,
likewise place vectors, should be regarded as mappings, not the images of these maps,
according to Def. 11.
In Figure 4, it is demonstrated that a body-point X B , which is represented by a vector-
valued mapping X: 0 ( X ) , assigns a material vector A on the material placement B0 . The
material vector belongs to the tangent space of the material placement B0 , namely TXB0 ,
where X corresponds a base point8 of manifold. Correspondingly, the body-point X B ,
which is represented by the mapping x: ( X ) , assigns the spatial vector a on the spatial
placement B . The spatial vector belongs to the tangent space of the spatial placement B , i.e.
a TxB , where x represents a base point of manifold. Note that the placements B0 and B
are manifolds.
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Figure 4. The material body B with the body-point X , the material placement B0 with the material
place vector X and the material vector A , and the spatial placement B with the spatial place vector
x and the spatial vector a .
8
A base point is a point of the manifold where a tangent space is induced.
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10 Jari Mäkinen
Now we could set V =TXB0 , W =TxB giving, for example, the type of (1,1;1,1) two-
point tensor at a body-point X B with mappings X 0 ( X ) and x ( X )
T:TXB0 TXB0 TxB TxB R , where TXB0 and TxB are the covector spaces for the
vector spaces TXB0 and Tx B , respectively. The two-point tensor T is an element of
multilinear operators, denoted as T L (TXB0 TXB0 TxB TxB , R ) . For the sake of
simplicity, we omit body points and mappings when expressing tensors and vectors, and we
call the place vectors X and x as the material base point and the spatial base point,
respectively.
So far we have studied vectors and tensors in vector spaces without knowledge about its
metric. A metric of the vector space is a symmetric positive-definite bilinear operator9 , called
a metric tensor. Let pairs (V , G) and (W , g) indicate metric vector spaces in the material and
spatial representation, with the (material) metric tensor G L (V ,V ) and the (spatial) metric
tensor g L (W ,W ) . Metric tensors are used for measuring distances and deformation,
which is impossible without introducing metric. Since manifolds are embedded in the
Euclidean space E3 , we could choose metric tensors as the identity elements. This can be
achieved by identifying the metric vector spaces (V , G) and (W , g) with the Euclidean vector
space E3 . However, this identifying is not accomplished at this moment since it is
informative to comprehend the existence of the metric tensor in different operators like
deformation and strain tensors.
12 Definition for Inner Product and Transpose Operator
The inner product for a metric vector space (V , G) is defined by
, :V V R, (a, b) a, b G : Ga b ( a b)
,
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where the dot product is defined in Def. 1. For simplicity, the covector Ga is often denoted by
b g
a . The tensor F L (V , G),(W , g ) , its transpose operator F T is defined via the inner
product
FTw, v w, Fv g
w W , v V
G .
Hence, the transpose operator is a mapping FT L (W ,V ) . After the definition of the
inner product, we found a relation between the transpose F T and the adjoint operator F ,
yielding FT G1Fg . Note that the transpose operator depends on metric tensors on contrary
to the adjoint operator.
9
a metric is a scalar valued function that induces a linear bijection (isomorphism), called a metric tensor
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Manifolds on Continuum Mechanics 11
1.2 Rotation Manifold
A rotation vector is one of the most misunderstood quantities in applied mechanics. In
this section, we will demonstrate how a rotation vector and a differentiable manifold are
connected. We derive a rotation operator in terms of the rotation vector, see e.g. [Argyris
1982]. At this point, we assume that all vectors live in the Euclidean space E3 . This
assumption is not contradictory since vectors in any three-dimensional topological vector
space can be identified by an isomorphism with vectors in the Euclidean space E3 .
We are trying to find an expression for the rotated vector p1 in the terms of the original
vector p 0 , the unit rotation axis e , and the non-negative rotation angle about the rotation
axis. The original projector vector r0 and the rotated projector vector r1 in the rotation
plane are, see Figure5
b
r0 e p 0 e ,g (2)
r1 r0 cos e p 0 sin p 0 , e, r0 , r1 E 3 , R ,
where denotes the cross product on E3 . Now the rotated vector p1 can be expressed with
the aid of (2)
p 1 p 0 r0 r1
b g b g
p 0 1 cos e e p 0 e p 0 sin p 1 , p 0 , e, r0 , r1 E 3 , R ,
(3)
r1
r0
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E3 p1 r1 e p 0 sin
e p0
r0
Figure5. A rotational motion about e -axis where p 0 is the original vector and p1 is the rotated vector.
(Note that e r0 e p0 ).
13 Definition for Rotation Vector in Euclidean Space E3
A rotational motion can be represented by a rotation vector defined as
: e e 1, e E3 , R (4)
where the unit rotation axis vector e and the non-negative rotation angle are oriented such
that they form a right-handed screw, see Figure5.
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12 Jari Mäkinen
Note that the length of the rotation vector is equal to the rotation angle, i.e. |||| . Here
we do not restrict the angle of rotation; it may have any non-negative values. The rotation
vector lives in a three-dimensional vector space that is isomorphic to the Euclidean space
E3 . This issue will be realized later.
Now Eqn (3) can be written in terms of the rotation vector, which yields the expression
of the rotation operator
sin 1 cos
p1 p 0
p0
2
b
p0 g
F sin ~ 1 cos ~ IJ p
GI
(5)
H
2
K 2 0 ,
~
where the skew-symmetric tensor called the rotation tensor, is defined by formula
~ 3 , or more formally ~
a a, a E : .
14 Definition for Rotation Operator in Euclidean Space E3
A rotation operator transforms linearly and isometrically a vector into another vector in a
rotational motion that is represented by a rotation vector. The rotation operator
R Liso (E3 , E3 ) is defined with the aid of the rotation vector E3 by equation:
sin ~ 1 cos ~ 2
R: I ,
2
.
Then in Figure5, the rotation operator R transforms the vector p 0 into the vector p1 , i.e.
p1 Rp0 .
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Now a rotational motion, represented by a rotation vector, is directly involved in a
rotation operator. In addition, the definition gives explicitly a canonical10 parametrization of
the rotation operator that is a point of a manifold itself. This rotation manifold, namely SO(3),
is a three-dimensional smooth manifold embedded in the Euclidean space E33 that is
isomorphic to the nine-dimensional Cartesian space R 9 . We note that a rotation operator is an
element of the rotation manifold, i.e. R SO(3) .
Expanding the trigonometric terms in Def. 14 and using the realities that
2n1 1 b g,
b g 2n 1 b g 2
b g
~ n1 2 n1 ~ ~ n1 2 n1 ~
(6)
gives the exponential representation of the rotation operator
~ 1 ~ 1 ~ ~
R I 2 3 :exp .
2! 3!
e j (7)
10
There exists no effective criterion for the term canonical.
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Manifolds on Continuum Mechanics 13
This is a significant property of the rotation operator and offers the shortest relationship
between the rotation vector and the rotation operator. We also note that the transpose of the
rotation operator is equal to the reverse rotational motion
sin
e~ j 1 cos e~ j b g
2
RT I R , (8)
2
~T ~
due to the skew-symmetry of the rotation tensor, .
This yields the proper orthogonal features of the rotation operator
R T R RR T I,
b g
det R 1 ,
(9)
where I is the identity element. It is evident since the inverse of the rotation operator is the
reverse rotation operator. If an operator satisfies Equation (9a) solely, there exist two possible
values for its determinant, namely det(R) {1,1} , where the first value (+1) produces the
preservation of the orientation.
A rotation operator can be written also with the aid of a rotation axis e , yielding
R I sin ~
e (1 cos )~
e2, , (10)
This relation makes it comprehensible that the rotation operator does not depend on the
multiples of the rotation revolution counts, i.e. R() R( 2ie), i N .
Def. 14 gives a canonical parametrization of the rotation manifold SO(3). The
parametrization can represent a rotation operator only locally, and there exists no
parametrization that is global as well as non-singular. Note that a parametrization is a
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mapping from an open set of Euclidean space into some open set of the manifold. The
rotation vector parametrization is singular at the rotation angle equal to 2 and its multiples.
It is clear that the singularity naturally appears in dynamical analysis with large rotations, and
cannot be omitted. Singularity should be considered as a non-differentiable hole that must not
be omitted by skipping. The singularity is due to fact that the rotation manifold is compact,
and there does not exist a single continuous parametrization from an open set of the Euclidean
space E 3 onto this compact manifold, see details in [Stuelpnagel 1964].
A rotation operator can be presented by higher dimensional, singularity-free
representations where a unit quaternion is a four-parametric example. The coordinates of a
quaternion are not independent, in fact, a quaternion produces a three-dimensional manifold
into a four-dimensional Euclidean space, that is a unit three-sphere S3 (surface) embedded in
E 4 . Hence, we do not speak about parametrization when considering a mapping between
different manifolds, for example in the case of a unit quaternion this mapping is S 3 SO(3) .
The description of a rotation motion has been studied for a long time, so there exists a
large number of different representations of a rotation motion. Three-dimensional
representations are rotation vectors, Euler angles, Bryant angles, Rodrigues parameters
(Gibbs vector), and four-parametric representations are unit quaternions (Euler-Rodrigues
parameters), linear parameters, Euler rotation, and Cayley-Klein parameters, see [Spring
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14 Jari Mäkinen
1986] and a historical aspect for Euler-Rodrigues parameters in [Cheng & Gupta 1989]. In
addition, there exists a higher dimensional representation of a rotation operator, like a rotation
matrix, that has a dimension equal to nine.
Four-dimensional descriptions are topologically connected with a unit three-sphere S3 and
to the proper unitary group SU(2) that is a group of complex 2-by-2 matrices, and their joined
algebra is an even Clifford subalgebra (quaternion algebra) and an algebra of 2-by-2 skew-
Hermitian traceless matrices (Lie-algebra su(2)), respectively, see [Choquet-Bruhat et al.
1989].
Correspondingly, three-dimensional descriptions are the parametrizations of the rotation
manifold and their algebras are the cross product in the Euclidean space E 3 (Lie-algebra in
E 3 ) and an algebra of skew-symmetric tensors (Lie-algebra so(3)). We consider three-
dimensional descriptions and especially the rotation vector a simple, geometrical significance
representation. The major drawback of the rotation vector parametrization, singularity, can be
passed by introducing another parametrization chart such that the parametrization mappings
cover the rotation manifold globally.
15 Definition for Complement Rotation Vector
Let a rotation vector with a rotation angle larger than zero and less than perigon (full
angle), i.e. 0 2 , then its complement rotation vector C is defined as
C : 2 ,
.
Then the rotation angle of the complement rotation vector is C 2 and the
rotation axis is e C e .
After substituting the complement rotation vector into Def. 14, we notice that the rotation
vector and its complement represent the same rotation operator, i.e. R(C ) R() . Def. 15
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is a change of parametrization in the parameter space E3 , see Figure 2 and Figure 6. This
change of parametrization is a continuously differentiable mapping on the open domain
0 2 , giving a smooth construction of the rotation manifold SO(3) at this domain.
Note that the complement of a complement rotation vector is a rotation vector itself, i.e.
(C )C , hence there is no priority over these parametrization charts.
We could represent the rotation manifold globally with these two parametrization charts.
When a rotation angle exceeds straight angle ( ), we accomplish the change of
parametrization according to Def. 15, giving a new rotation angle smaller than straight angle.
Thus, we never get into trouble with singularity at 2 . As it is illustrated in
Figure 6, the change of parametrization maps rotation angle outside of straight angle into
inside of straight angle. Note that there exists no other canonical parametrization with rotation
less than perigon such as those parametrizations given in Def. 15.
The zero rotation vector is an isolated point, the centre of the domain, for the
parametrization change. Using a limit process, we find out that the rotation operator
approaches to the identity element when the rotation angle is decreased. Hence, we could
modify the domain of the parametrization where the rotation angle is less than perigon, i.e.
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Manifolds on Continuum Mechanics 15
< 2 including the zero rotation angle. This domain is still an open domain in the Euclidean
space E 3 , indeed, it is an open ball in E 3 with 2-radius.
rotation manifold SO(3)
parametrization
~
parametrization
~ exp( C )
exp( ) mapping
mapping
2 2
change of
parametrization
parametrization chart complement parametrization chart
3
Figure 6. The change of parametrization in the parameter space E for the canonical representation of
the rotation manifold.
1.2.1 Lie Group and Lie Algebra
The concept of Lie group and Lie algebra gives an algebraic structure for the rotation
manifold. Since general groups and their special cases, Lie groups with corresponding Lie
algebra, are quite unfamiliar to engineering literature, we give definition for these objects. We
recommend the textbooks like [Choquet-Bruhat et al. 1989], [Marsden & Ratiu 1999] and
[Selig 1996] for more details. As it was shown that rotation operators form the smooth
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manifold, called the rotation manifold, we show that the rotation manifold is a Lie group, too.
This issue is significant especially in composite rotations.
16 Definition for Group
A group G is a set with an internal operation G G G by (A, B) AB , such that
b g b g
[1] the internal operation is associative A BC AB C, A, B, C G ,
[2] there is a unique element I G called identity such that AI IA A, A G ,
[3] for each A G there exists a unique element of G called the inverse of A such that
A 1A AA 1 I .
The group is called an Abelian group or a commutative group if AB BA, A, B G .
For example, a set of vectors with an internal operation, the vector addition, is an Abelian
group where the identity element is the zero vector. In addition, a set of matrices equipped the
matrix addition is an Abelian group with a zero matrix as the identity element.
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16 Jari Mäkinen
If an internal operation is not commutative, then a group is called a non-Abelian group,
or a non-commutative group. For example, a set of invertable n-by-n matrices with an internal
operation the matrix multiplication is a non-Abelian group where the identity element is the
identity matrix.
17 Definition for Special Orthogonal Group SO(3)
A special orthogonal (non-commutative) group in the Euclidean space E3 is defined by
o
SO(3): R: E3 E3 linear R T R RR T I, det( R ) 1 t.
Since SO(3) is a group it has to fulfill all group properties given in Def. 16.
A rotation operator defined in Def. 14 is also an element of the special orthogonal group
as it was shown in Equation (9). The rotation operators form a non-commutative group with
the internal operation, called composite mapping, and an identity element as the identity
operator I . Hence, we may denote R SO(3) .
18 Definition for Lie Group
A Lie group L is a group that is also a differentiable manifold such that an internal
operation L L L by ( A, B) AB A, B L is a continuously differentiable mapping.
This is short but not so an easily manageable definition. We have shown that the set of
rotation operators form the differentiable manifold, called the rotation manifold; moreover,
the set of rotation operators is a non-commutative group, special orthogonal group SO(3). So,
only the continuity of internal operation has not been shown. To prove this, it has to be shown
that a change of parametrization mappings under composition is continuously differentiable
on its domain. A procedure is similar to one for showing a manifold is differentiable. The
prove that the group SO(3) is a Lie group is omitted here, but can be found in [Choquet-
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Bruhat et el 1989; pp. 181-182]. It is based on reality that any two composite rotations can be
represented by Eulerian angles, giving a differentiable change of parametrization mappings
between different sets of Eulerian angles.
19 Definition for Lie Algebra
A Lie algebra l of the Lie group L is a tangent vector space at the identity, TI L , together
with a bilinear, skew-symmetric brackets [a, b] satisfying Jacobi‘s identity
a, b, c b, c, a c, a, b 0, a, b, c l
.
The skew-symmetry means that [a, b] [b, a], a, b l .
How to obtain Lie brackets is still an open question and we have to define a Lie algebra
adjoint transformation.
20 Definition for Lie Algebra Adjoint Transformation
An adjoint transformation Ad R of the Lie algebra l is defined by
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Ad R:l l, Ad Rb : RbR1 , R L .
Note that b l is an element of the Lie algebra l and R is an element of the Lie group L.
The Lie algebra adjoint transformation maps an element of the Lie algebra into another Lie
algebra element.
21 Determination for Lie Brackets
Lie brackets can be obtained by differentiating the adjoint representation Ad Rb with
respect to R() L at the identity in the direction a l such that R( 0) I and
dR( 0)/d a where is a parameter, giving
a, b
e b
d R()b R( ) gj
1
d 0.
Lie brackets is a bilinear skew-symmetric form and satisfies Jacobi‘s identity, given in
Def. 19.
Especially, let R() SO(3) be a -parametrized rotation operator, an element of the
~
special orthogonal group, given by formula R() exp() . Differentiating the expression
~
exp() with respect to the parameter at 0 gives the tangent vector space at the
identity I SO(3) , yielding
~
d exp( ) ~
. (11)
d 0
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~
Thus, the skew-symmetric tensor belongs to the tangent space of the rotation manifold
~
SO(3), denoted by TI SO(3) , where the identity I SO(3) represents a base point of the
~
rotation manifold. The skew-symmetric tensor is also an element of Lie algebra so(3) for
corresponding Lie group SO(3). We could also mark so(3) TI SO(3) , i.e. Lie algebra is
canonical isomorphic to the tangent space of the rotation manifold at the identity. Moreover,
we may denote the Lie algebra so(3) as a set of skew-symmetric operators (tensors)
~
{ ~ ~
so(3) : E3 E3 linear T . } (12)
We obtain the Lie brackets of the Lie algebra so(3) by differentiating the Lie algebra
~
adjoint representation Ad R ( ) with respect to at 0
~ ~ ~ ~
d(Ad R ( 0 ) ) d(exp( ) exp( )) ~ ~ ~~
. (13)
d d 0
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18 Jari Mäkinen
~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~
Hence, the Lie brackets for the Lie algebra so(3) is [, ] , , so(3) .
The vector cross product (): E3 E3 E3 in the Euclidean space E3 is a Lie algebra
with Lie brackets defined by
[x, y]: x y, x, y E3 . (14)
The vector cross product () is a bilinear, with respect to vector addition and scalar
multiplication, and a skew-symmetric operator over E3 and satisfies Jacobi‘s identity in Def.
19. The Lie algebra so(3) can be identified with the cross product on E3 by formula
~
a a, a E3 , (15)
~
where the vector E3 is the axial vector for the skew-symmetric tensor so(3) .
22 Definition for Lie Algebra Homomorphism and Isomorphism
Let l and g be two Lie algebras. A mapping :g l is homomorphism, that is
b g b g bg
[, ]g , l , , g
.
A homomorphism is an isomorphism if the mapping : g l is a vector space
isomorphism, i.e. a linear bijection. The Lie algebras as isomorphic, denoted l g , if an
isomorphism exists between these algebras.
The tilde mapping ~ : E3 so(3) is an homomorphism between the cross product on E3
and the Lie algebra so(3), i.e.
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b g~
~~ ~~
, (16)
see proof e.g. in [Marsden & Ratiu 1999; p. 290]. The tilde mapping is also a linear bijection
giving isomorphic correspondence between the elements of the Lie algebras, denoted by
E3 so(3) . For computational purposes, the Lie algebra in the Euclidean space E3 is simpler
than the Lie algebra so(3) and, hence, it will be utilized in following. The Lie algebra in the
Euclidean space E 3 equipped with the cross product as the Lie bracket is a rather unusual Lie
algebra since, by our knowledge, there does not exist a Lie group whose the Lie algebra it is.
1.2.2 Compound Rotation
A rotation operator is an element of Lie group that is a differentiable manifold as well as
a non-commutative group. A compound of rotations is also a rotation itself and induces a Lie
group structure. The compound rotation can be defined by two different, nevertheless
equivalent ways: the material description, and the spatial description.
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Manifolds on Continuum Mechanics 19
23 Definition for Material Description of Compound Rotation
We define the material description of a compound rotation by the left translation mapping
Left R : SO(3) SO(3) as
~
mat
Left R R inc : RR inc
mat
R exp(R ), mat
R inc , R SO(3)
,
where R inc
mat is a material incremental rotation operator, and
R is a material incremental
rotation vector with respect to the base point R SO(3) . This description is called material
since the incremental rotation operator acts on a material vector space.
24 Definition for Spatial Description of Compound Rotation
We define the spatial description of a compound rotation by the right translation mapping
Right R: SO(3) SO(3) as
Right R R spat spat ~
e j
inc : R inc R exp R R , inc , R SO(3)
R spat
,
inc is a spatial incremental rotation operator, and R is a spatial incremental rotation
where R spat
vector with respect to the base point R SO(3) . This description is called spatial since the
incremental rotation operator acts on a spatial vector space.
We use majuscules for material vectors and minuscules for spatial vectors. The material
and spatial incremental rotation tensors and their rotation vectors are related by
~ ~
inc RR inc R ,
R spat R R R R T , and R R R ,
mat T
(17)
where the first relation is called an inner automorphism that is an isomorphism onto itself, the
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~ ~
second relation is a Lie algebra adjoint transformation AdR R RR RT , see Def. 20, and
the last relation is another Lie algebra adjoint transformation on the Euclidean space with the
vector cross product as the Lie algebra ( E3 , ) .
T SO ( 3)
spat I
~
~
exp b g
T SO ( 3)
d i
~
exp
~
mat I I
T SO ( 3)
left I
T SO ( 3)
spat R
I ~ R
R
T SO(3)
mat R
R SO( 3)
~
R leftTI SO ( 3)
SO( 3)
T SO ( 3)
left I
Figure 7. A geometric representation of the material (on the left) and spatial tangent spaces (on the
right) on the rotation manifold.
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20 Jari Mäkinen
25 Definition for Material Tangent Space11 of Rotation
~
Differentiating the material expression of the compound rotation R exp() with respect
to the parameter and setting 0 , yields the material tangent space at the base point
R SO(3) . This material tangent space on the rotation manifold SO(3) at any base point R is
defined as
~
{ ~ ~ ~
T SO(3): R : (R , ) with R; R SO(3), so(3)
mat R },
~
where an element of the material tangent space R matTR SO(3) and is a skew-symmetric
~ ~
tensor, i.e. R so(3) . The notation (R, ) , the pair of the rotation operator R and the skew-
~
symmetric tensor , represents the material skew-symmetric tensor at the base point
~
R SO(3) , see Figure 7. Hence, we may express that R is a skew-symmetric tensor, or a
tangent tensor, at the point R in the manifold SO(3) . For simplicity, we could omit the base
~
point R by denoting matTR SO(3) if there is no danger of confusion.
26 Definition for Spatial Tangent Space12 of Rotation
A spatial tangent space on the rotation manifold SO(3) at any base point R is defined
~
{ ~ ~ ~
T SO(3): R : (R , ) with R; R SO(3), so(3)
spat R },
~
where an element of the spatial tangent space R spatTR SO(3) and is a skew-symmetric
~ ~
tensor, i.e. R so(3) . The notation (R, ) , the pair of the rotation operator R and the skew-
~
symmetric tensor , represents a spatial skew-symmetric tensor at the base point R , see
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~
Figure 7. Again, we could omit the base point R , i.e. spatTR SO(3) if there is no danger of
confusion.
Rotation operators, the elements of the Lie group SO(3), are defined as linear operators
R L ( E3 , E3 ) . Eqns (17b,c) give another interpretation to a rotation operator, it is an adjoint
transformation between material and spatial tangent spaces. Additionally, a rotational motion
induces the rotation operator, since the rotation operator maps the material place vector
X B0 into the spatial place vector x B by the equation x(t ) R(t )X , i.e. R L (B0 , B ) .
More generally, a rotation operator transforms material vectors into spatial vectors, that is
R L (TXB0 , TxB ) .
1.2.3 Isomorphisms and Tangential Transformations
The Lie algebra so(3) , which consists of the skew-symmetric tensors, and the Lie algebra
(E , ) in the Euclidean space are isomorphic with the Lie algebra isomorphism
3
11
Usually this space is called left-invariant vector field.
12
Usually is called as right-invariant vector field
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Manifolds on Continuum Mechanics 21
~ : E 3 so(3) that is the tilde mapping. The spatial and material tangent spaces are
isomorphic where the isomorphism is an adjoint transformation
Ad R:mat TR SO(3) spatTR SO(3) , given in (17b). Additionally, the Lie algebra so(3) is
isomorphic in the material tensor space with an isomorphism so(3) matTR SO(3) by
~ ~
R . Then we may express
E3 so(3) T SO(3)
mat R T SO(3) .
spat R (18)
Isomorphism states that for any element from a vector space we can take an element from
an isomorphic vector space with a linear one-to-one correspondence. Therefore, the
isomorphic spaces have the same structure and we may associate the elements of the
isomorphic spaces.
27 Definition for Virtual Rotation Tensor and Virtual Rotation Vector
~
A virtual rotation tensor R is an element of the corresponding tangent space TR SO(3)
for any base point R SO(3) such that it satisfies all linearized constraint equations, which
naturally arise from joints and boundary conditions. A virtual rotation vector R at the base
~
point R is the associated axial vector of the virtual rotation tensor R .
Let us consider the material form of compound rotation, given in Def. 23, with the aid of
-parametrized exponential mappings
e
~ ~
j ~
e j e
~
exp exp exp R , j (19)
~
where we are finding an incremental rotation tensor, the virtual rotation tensor , such that
~ ~ ~
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it belongs to the same tangent space as the rotation tensor , i.e. such that , matTI SO(3)
~
with the identity as a base point omitted for simplicity. Note that R = exp() , and
~ ~ ~
R matTR SO(3) . We point out that the skew-symmetric tensors and R do not belong
~ ~ ~ ~
to the same tangent space of rotation as it can be verified that exp()exp() exp( ) ,
~
generally. The associated rotation vector for the skew-symmetric tensor is called the
total material rotation vector whose base point is the identity. Taking the derivatives of
(19) with respect to the parameter at 0 gives after the aid of isomorphism
(18), see e.g. [Ibrahimbegović et. al. 1995]
R T ,
sin 1 cos ~ sin
T I , (20)
2 3
, R exp( ), lim T( ) I,
0
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22 Jari Mäkinen
where the material tangential transformation T T() is a linear mapping between the
virtual material tangent spaces matTI SO(3) matTR SO(3) . Now, we could make another
verification that the virtual rotation vector R and the virtual total rotation vector
belong to different vector spaces on the manifold. This is because the tangential
transformation T is equal to the identity only at 0 . Note that the transformation T has
an effect on the base points, changing the base point I into R.
By examining the tangential transformation T in Eqn (20), we found that the
transformation is non-singular when the rotation angle is less than perigon, i.e. 2 . It is
worth noting that the tangential transformation T() , the corresponding rotation operator
~
R() and the skew-symmetric rotation tensor have the same eigenvectors. Hence, T() ,
~
R() , and are commutative, see [Ibrahimbegović et. al. 1995].
28 Definition for Material Vector Space of Rotation
For convenience, we define a material vector space on the rotation manifold at any point
R as
{ b g ~
e j
T : R : , R exp SO(3), E 3
mat R },
where an element of the material vector space is R matTR , which is an affine space with the
rotation vector as a base point and the incremental rotation vector as a tangent vector.
Hence, the tangential transformation T is a mapping T: matTI matTR . Note that the
elements of this material vector space can be added by the parallelogram law only if they
occupy the same affine space, i.e. if their associated skew-symmetric tensors belong to the
same tangent space of the rotation manifold. Def. 28 for a material vector space matTR should
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be considered as a useful and simple notation with an equivalence relation with a material
tangent space matTR SO(3) , defined in Def. 26.
Respectively, we could determine the spatial tangential transformation, yielding
~ ),
R TT , T T( ), R exp( ( ) , (21)
where T is the same linear operator as in the material form (20).
29 Definition for Spatial Vector Space of Rotation
We define a spatial vector space on the rotation manifold at any point R as
spat R o b g bg
~ SO(3), E 3 .
T : R : , R exp t (22)
An element of the spatial vector space is R spatTR .
Hence, the spatial tangential transformation TT is a mapping between vector spaces on
the rotation manifold spatTI spatTR . The spatial and the material vector spaces are related by
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Manifolds on Continuum Mechanics 23
the rotation operator as given in the Eqn (17c),. From Eqn (17c), it follows with the base point
I SO(3) (note that matTI ).
I II I I , (23)
where ‗ ‘ denotes the canonical isomorphism between the spatial and material vector spaces.
The identity I maps between the vector fields matTI spatTI . Now, the relation between the
spatial and material vectors can be given as (, ) (I, R) where and represent the
base points in the spatial and material vector spaces, respectively. This relation can be written
more compactly as R RR , called a push-forward, where the rotation operator should be
considered as a mapping between the material and the spatial vector spaces of rotation,
R: matTR spatTR , see Figure 8. A push-forward operator maps a material vector space into a
spatial vector space (one-to-one and onto). It makes sense since the rotation operator is a two-
point tensor. We note that the push-forward operator R has no influence on the base point of
the rotation. Another push-forward operator for rotation tensors is given in (17b) where
~ ~
R R R R T is a mapping between the material and spatial tangent spaces of rotation
R()RT: matTR SO(3) spatTR SO(3) .
R R
R R matTR T
spat R
T T
R R
T TT T TT
I I
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I I T
mat I
T
spat I
Figure 8. A commutative diagram of virtual material and spatial rotation vectors on the rotation
manifold (on the left), and their corresponding vector spaces (on the right).
1.2.4 Angular Velocities, Accelerations and Curvatures
In this Section, we give definitions in the material and spatial representations for angular
velocities, angular accelerations, and curvatures.
30 Definition for Material Angular Velocity
A material angular velocity (skew-symmetric) tensor is defined with the aid of rotation
operator R SO(3) and its time derivative by
~
R : RT R
where the dot represents to the time derivative. See justification in [Marsden & Ratiu 1999;
Ch. 8.6 & 15.2].
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24 Jari Mäkinen
The rotation tensor can be viewed as a mapping, a push-forward of a material vector,
R: matTR spatTR between the material and spatial vector spaces. Then the material angular
~
velocity tensor is a mapping R : matTR matTR . Thus, the material angular velocity tensor is
indeed a true material tensor. The skew-symmetry can be observed by taking derivative for
the equation R T R I .
If the rotation operator is expressed with the aid of exponential mapping by
~ ~
R new R(I R O (2R )) , where the fixed rotation R is superimposed by an infinitesimal
~
rotation ( I R ) plus higher order terms and substituting this into Def. 30 yields after the
~
limit process R ~ 0
~ ~ .
R R R R (24)
This states that the angular velocity vector is the time derivative of the incremental
rotation vector R ; moreover, (if the base point is omitted) , , mat TR , which is the
material rotation vector space on the rotation manifold. The result in Eqn (24) is often given
as definition for the angular velocity vector in the elementary text books.
Similar expression and derivation can be accomplished for the spatial angular velocity
tensor and vector, yielding
T,
~ : RR
R
~ (25)
~
R R R R ,
where the spatial incremental rotation vector R , its time derivative vector R and the spatial
angular vector R belong to the same spatial vector space on the manifold , , spat TR , the
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base point R omitted.
31 Definition for Angular Accelerations
A material and spatial angular acceleration tensor and vector are defined as the time
derivative of corresponding angular velocity term, giving
~ ~ ~
R : R , R matTR SO(3) ,
: , R matTR ,
R R
~ ,
~ : ~ T SO(3) ,
R R R spat R
R : R , R spatTR ,
where A R and R are the material and spatial angular acceleration vectors at the base R .
Note that the material incremental rotation vector R , the material angular velocity
vector R and the material angular acceleration vector R (majuscule of alpha-letter) belong
to the same material vector space on the rotation manifold, i.e. R , R , R matTR with the
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Manifolds on Continuum Mechanics 25
~
base point R exp(I ) . At separate moments, these vectors, however, occupy different
vector spaces because the rotation operator depends on time, namely R R(t ) . The base point
is moving in process of time. Vector quantities of this kind may be called spin vectors. Spin
vectors are rather tricky in numerical sense as they always occupy a distinct vector space on a
manifold. Correspondingly, the spatial spin vectors are R , R , R spatTR .
Angular velocity vectors and the time derivative of total rotation vectors are related by,
see (20-21)
R T( I ) , T , for material description,
where R matTR ,
I I I mat I
(26)
R T T ( I ) I where R spatTR , I , I spatTI , for spatial description,
where the tangential transformation depends on the total rotation vector, and the rotation
~ ~ ) . Similar expression for the angular acceleration vector can
operator is R exp(I ) exp( I
be obtained by differentiating the above formulas, giving
+ T
R T where R matTR , I , , T for material description,
I I I I mat I
(27)
R T
T
I + T I where R spatTR , I , I ,
T
I spatTI for spatial description .
L ( matTI , matTR ) and TT , T
Note that the tangential transformations T, T T L ( spatTI , spatTR )
operate with the different base points.
32 Definition for Curvatures
~
A material curvature tensor R of s-parametrized curve is defined as
~ dR
R : R T R TR
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ds ,
whose axial vector is called the material curvature vector R (majuscule of kappa-letter). A
spatial curvature tensor ~ is defined, respectively
~ : R RT
R
,
where prime denotes the derivative with respect to the length parameter s.
Material and spatial curvature tensors and corresponding curvature vectors are related by
~ Ad ~
R R R R R R ,
T
R ad R R R R , (28)
where the rotation operator R is a push-forward operator R L ( matTR ,spatTR ) between
material and spatial vector spaces and keeps the base point unaltered. A relation between
curvature vectors and total rotation vectors becomes from an analogy of Eqns (26)
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26 Jari Mäkinen
R T( I ) I where R matTR , I matTI , for material description,
(29)
R T T ( I ) I where R spatTR , I spatTI , for spatial description,
where the prime denotes the derivative with respect to the length parameter s , and R is the
base point.
1.3 Constraint Point-Manifolds
So far we have studied only finite-dimensional manifolds. The placement field of
continuum medium takes values in a Hilbert space13, where chart parametrization maps
vector-valued functions into vector-valued functions. The placement field needs an infinite
number of basis functions in order to present an arbitrary placement field on continuum,
yielding infinite-dimensional manifolds.
In multibody mechanics, constraint equations naturally arise from kinematic relations
between bodies, boundary conditions and kinematic assumptions. Different joints like
revolute and prismatic joints are examples of point-wise kinematic relations that can be
described geometrically, i.e. these joints can be presented by holonomic finite-dimensional
constraints. A kinematic assumption like Timoshenko-Reissner hypothesis is correspondingly
a continuous kinematic relation (infinite dimensional) and it reduces an internal
dimensionality by mapping a three-dimensional solid into a one-dimensional solid, called a
beam. Beams are internally one-dimensional but infinite manifolds, whose generalized
placement fields are presented by functions. Hence, beam models have only one spatial
parameter, called a length parameter.
A beam can be considered as a vector bundle on a manifold, where for each position of
the length parameter there is a two-dimensional vector plane where a cross-section belongs.
This vector bundle occupies a set, the volume of the beam, in the Euclidean space.
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33 Definition for (Holonomic) Point-Constraints
A holonomic point-wise constraint equation in a vectorial form is defined as a smooth
mapping h: R En End ( d n ) by
h(t, x) 0 ,
where the arguments are time t and the generalized place vector x(t ) En . Constraint
equations are assumed to be an independent set of equations.
A constraint equation, which is impossible to present in a holonomic form, Def. 33, is
nonholonomic, i.e. it is not and cannot be integrated into a holonomic form. It is clear that we
cannot describe nonholonomic constraint equations, they are just kinematic relations, which
are not holonomic. Different kinematic relations are shown in
Figure 9, where geometric constraints include all holonomic and the so called unilateral
constraints, which are given by inequality equations with the function of time and a
13
Hilbert space is a complete inner-product space, and here especially a complete infinite-dimensional inner-
product vector-valued function space, see Hilbert spaces e.g. in [Debnath & Mikusinski 1990]
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Manifolds on Continuum Mechanics 27
generalized place vector only. Unilateral constraints arise when modeling a kinematic relation
between bodies in a contact. Especially in multibody systems, a joint clearance (play) and
collision problems may be modeled by a contact formulation.
Kinematic
Nonholonomic
Holonomic Geometric
h( t , x ) 0 h( t , x ) 0
Figure 9. Different types of kinematic constraints and their occupying areas.
34 Definition for (Holonomic) Constraint Point-Manifold
A holonomic point-wise constraint equation (Def. 33) induces a d-manifold that is
defined by
o b g
M := t x R En h t , x 0 En d t.
The constraint point-manifold M is a d-dimensional smooth manifold with time as 1-
parameter family. The constraint manifold at fixed time t t0 is denoted by M t0 .
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Although a constraint point-manifold is smooth, its master, an infinite-dimensional
constraint field-manifold in a multibody system, is usually smooth inside a body but has
nonsmooth points at various joints, elbows, the sudden change of cross-section, etc,
depending on different types of models. It is also informative to find out that a holonomic
constraint manifold does not have a boundary at all, on the contrary geometric constraints
with at least one unilateral constraint do, see Fig. 10.
A particular interesting nonholonomic constraint is presented by an equality equation
(bilateral) with the function of time, a placement vector, and linearly on a velocity, see e.g.
nonholonomic discrete systems in [Rabier & Rheinboldt 2000] and [Rosenberg 1980]. A
rolling coin on the surface without sliding is a classic example, see Fig. 10 where the
nonholonomic constraint describes the rolling coin problem. A virtual displacement is closely
associated with constraint manifold, see Fig.10, and needs a proper definition. We note that
virtual quantities are finite, not necessary infinitesimal.
35 Definition for Tangent Point-Bundle
A virtual displacement x at any generalized place vector x En and a fixed time t t0
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28 Jari Mäkinen
{ b g
TM t0 := (x, x ) En En x Mt0 , Dx h t0 , x x 0, Dx h is surjection },
where Dx h is a Fréchet partial derivative of holonomic constraints with respect to x at
t t0 . The definition limits the singular (nonregular) points of the constraint manifold out by
demanding the derivative of the constraints is a surjective (onto) mapping.
This surjectivity request yields that dimensionality do not vary in the manifold that has
importance when accomplishing the finite element method, the constraint manifold has a
fixed dimensional independent on constraints. It can be proven, see e.g. [Rheinboldt 1986; p.
44-45], that the null-space of Dx h , denoted ker Dx h (kernel), is equal to the tangent space.
Thus, TM t0 is indeed a tangent bundle.
A vector bundle establishes a tangent vector space for each regular point of the manifold
M at the fixed time t0 . For practical reasons, we need a tangent space that is an element of
the tangent bundle.
36 Definition for Tangent Point-Space
For the fixed time t t0 , we could set x0 x(t0 ) , giving a tangent point-space at the
point x 0 Mt0
{
Tx 0 M := x En ( x 0 , x ) TM t0 }.
Then we may denote for any virtual displacement vector x Tx0 M , where the base
point x 0 is included in the notation as a subscript.
A geometric interpretation of tangent space and its element virtual displacement have
been illustrated with the holonomic and nonholonomic cases in Fig.10..
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nonholonomic
tangent space Tx 0 M
constraint atx 0
holonomic constraint manifold x0
Mt 0 (without boundary)
geometric constraint
manifold (with boundary)
x
virtual displacement with
nonholonomic constraint
boundary of constraint
x
virtual displacement without
nonholonomic constraint
Figure 10. A geometric interpretation of kinematic constraints.
Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Manifolds on Continuum Mechanics 29
1.4 Constraint Field-Manifolds
In this Section, we give definitions for Gâteaux and Fréchet differentials, and for a
constraint manifold modeled in infinite-dimensional Hilbert spaces, called field-manifolds14
here. We assume that any operator we consider is Fréchet differentiable, which is stronger
than Gâteaux differentiable. Hence, we use Gâteaux differential for more useful and simple
way to calculate a Fréchet differential or derivative. We note that if an operator is Fréchet
differentiable then its Fréchet and Gâteaux differential are equal, see more details in [Oden &
Reddy 1976; Ch 2].
In following definition, we consider an operator f:X H1 H2 , later called a vector,
from a set X of the Hilbert space H1 into the Hilbert space H 2 . The vector f is a general
vector-valued nonlinear mapping between function spaces. We also assume that the vector
f(x) is Fréchet differentiable, i.e. it has a unique Fréchet derivative.
37 Definition for Fréchet Derivative and Differential
The Fréchet derivative of the vector f:X H1 H2 at fixed x X is defined as a
continuous linear operator Df (x): H1 H2 such that
f (x u) f (x) Df (x) u r(x, u) ,
r(x, u)
0 . Df (x) u is called Fréchet
H2
where the remainder obeys the condition lim
u 0 u H1
differential.
A vector is called Fréchet differentiable if its Fréchet derivative exists. This derivative is
also a linearized form, or better its affine form with together f(x), for a nonlinear vector
f (x u) at x. Def. 37 is rather simple but not so practical way to calculate Fréchet derivative,
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
hence we define Gâteaux differential for a more practical formula to calculate Fréchet
differential and derivative for Fréchet differentiable vector.
38 Definition for Gâteaux Differentia
The Gâteaux differential of the vector f:X H 1 H 2 at fixed x X is defined as a
limit
D f ( x ) u : lim
f (x u) f (x )
b
d f x u g
0 d 0
,
where the limit is to be interpreted in the norm of H 2 . The later formula is a practical and
simple way to compute the directional derivative that is the term Df (x ) u where u H 1
indicates direction.
14
We use the name (infinite-dimensional) field-manifold contrast to a (finite-dimensional) point-manifold.
Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
30 Jari Mäkinen
We have assumed that X is a set, but next we give a more structure. We denote this
structured set as C .
39 Definition for Constraint Field-Manifold
A set C of a Hilbert space H 1 is defined as infinite-dimensional constraint manifold
embedded in Hilbert space such that it satisfies all the kinematic constraints of the holonomic
type by
o b g
C : t x R H 1 h t, x 0 H 2 t,
where h(t, x) indicates an independent set of the holonomic constraint equations. A constraint
manifold at a fixed time t t0 is denoted by Ct0 .
Compare the constraint field-manifold with the constraint point-manifold defined in Def.
34. A similar way as in the point-wise case, we could define a tangent field-space which is a
space of vector-valued functions
40 Definition for Tangent Field-Bundle
A virtual displacement field15 x at any place field x X 0 and the fixed time t t0 is
defined as
{ b g
TCt0 := ( x, x ) H1 H1 x Ct0 , Dx h t0 , x x 0, Dx h is surjection },
where Dx h is the Fréchet partial derivative of the holonomic constraints with respect to x at
t t0 . The definition limits the nonsmooth isolated points of the constraint manifold out by
demanding the existence of the Fréchet derivative.
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
41 Definition for Tangent Field-Space
For the fixed time t t0 , a tangent field-space at the base point x0 Ct0 is defined
{
Tx 0C := x H 1 ( x 0 , x ) TCt0 },
where the tangent field-bundle is defined in Def. 40. We may denote any virtual displacement
field x Tx0C , where the base x 0 is included in the notation as a subscript.
Note that the place field x is a vector-valued function satisfying all the constraints
equations (holonomic), called the constraint field-manifold C .
42 Definition for Velocity Field-Space
A velocity field-space is closely related with the tangent field-space and is defined by
formula
15
a vector-valued function, more precisely
Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Manifolds on Continuum Mechanics 31
n
H 1 ( x, x
TxC := x ) TC s,
where now time is free, not fixed, like in the virtual displacement. Compare with Def. 9, a
tangent vector in a finite-dimensional case. The velocity field that is an element of the
velocity field-space is also denoted by v: x TxC
1.5 Variation, Lie Derivative and Lie Variation
In this Section, we give definition for the variation, Lie derivative and Lie variation. The
concept of push-forward and pull-back operators is essential for understanding Lie derivatives
and variations.
43 Definition for Variation Operator
The variation operator is defined as the special case of Fréchet differential at the fixed
time t t0 by
b g b g b g
h t0 , x, v : Dxh t0 , x, v x Dv h t0 , x, v v
,
where x Ct0 is a place field, x Tx0C is a virtual displacement field, v TxC is a velocity
field, and v: x Tx0C is a virtual velocity field. Moreover, Dx , Dv are Fréchet partial
derivatives with respect to place and velocity, correspondingly.
The variation operator depends linearly on the virtual displacement and the virtual
velocity. Note a minor notational difference between the virtual and variation operators,
and . Calculating the place and velocity variation, after Def. 43, yields
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
x x and v v . (30)
This should be interpreted: the variation of place vector x is equal, not the same thing,
as the virtual displacement x . The variation has an operational meaning whereas the virtual
displacement is a geometrical quantity. In generally, the variation of ‗something‘ and the
virtual ‗something‘ are not equal, e.g. a virtual work may exists although there does not exist
a work function at all and neither the work variation.
44 Theorem
Generally, the variation operator and the time derivative operator do not commutate.
Proof: We will prove this theorem by a counter example. Let consider the constraint
equation x t y 0 , where t represents time. Its variation is x t y 0 . On the other hand,
the virtual displacement of the constraint equation is x t y 0 x t y 0 , whose time
derivative is respectively
Continuum Mechanics, edited by Andrus Koppel, and Jaak Oja, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2010. ProQuest Ebook Central,
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Nas naves lateraes, os altares são divididos por pequenos
zimborios. Grande cupula central.
O templo é em fórma de cruz latina.
San Telmo—Tambem é em fórma de cruz latina e encerra treze
altares dourados. Occupam-a tres naves, as lateraes muito estreitas,
em proporção á central, e em grande parte occupadas pela
demasiada grossura dos pilares divisorios, que formam seis arcos.
Sobre estes e nos tectos ha pinturas decorativas. Tem zimborio e
orgão.
Santa Lucia—Elegantissima frontaria granitica, terminando em
campanario, ao centro. O estylo architectonico é original e bello. O
interior é em uma só e vasta nave, em arcaria, com quatro altares
lateraes. Capella-mór de marmore de côres, decorada a mosaicos
metallicos. O altar-mór é guarnecido a columnas de marmore preto
e os altares lateraes teem, cada um, quatro columnas douradas. O
templo é illuminado, de dia, por quatro janellas em meia laranja,
com vitraes coloridos, e á noite por seis grandes lustres de metal
amarello. Enorme crucifixo de madeira.
O altar da padroeira é de marmore branco e cinzento.
S. Domingos—É este o santuario mais importante de Buenos-
Aires, depois da cathedral e, como n’esta, nota-se a excessiva
espessura dos pilares divisorios das naves, o que escurece e desfeia
o monumento. O vestibulo e o côro são demasiadamente baixos, em
proporção á altura da nave central. Os dez altares lateraes são todos
dourados. As duas capellas fundas que ladeiam a capella-mór são
notaveis pelas dimensões e pela decoração, especialmente a do
Santissimo Sacramento, profusamente dourada.
Numerosas janellas com vitraes coloridos, no alto zimborio central
e no transepto, illuminam o interior. Grande orgão, no côro. O
templo foi construido de 1751 a 1779, a expensas de particulares.
La Merced—Aqui, a vastidão da nave central desfaz a má
impressão produzida pela enorme grossura dos pilares que a
dividem das duas estreitas naves lateraes. Treze altares dourados.
Grande zimborio, ou cupula central, sem elegancia. A frontaria,
granitica, é em bello estylo e ladeada por dois campanarios. Este é o
santuario preferido pela alta sociedade da capital.
D’entre os outros templos de Buenos-Aires, em numero de
quarenta, além de vinte capellas, devemos citar os de San Ignacio,
San Francisco, San Nicolás, Pilar, Socorro, Balvanera, Piedad, San
Juan Evangelista, Capuchinas, San Cristóbal, San Miguel e Salvador.
Acatholicas, ha a egreja Metodista Episcopal Norteamericana, a
Anglicana, a Protestante Alemana, a escocesa de San Andrés, a
Ortodoxa e a Israelita.
Quasi todos os santuarios catholicos-romanos foram edificados na
epocha colonial e a expensas de pessôas ricas e devotas, por
architectos europeus.
Commercio e Industria
Foi em 1855 que se effectuou o primeiro censo commercial, em
Buenos-Aires, e o ultimo em 1904. N’aquella data existiam 3:139
estabelecimentos commerciaes, divididos em 9 categorias, e n’esta
época, 17:985, assim especificados:
—Alimentação 9:358
—Construcções 426
—Vestidos e chapéus de senhora 2:465
—Moveis e annexos 289
—Transporte e annexos 903
—Artisticos, adornos e recreio 638
—Tecidos, couros e pelles 56
—Sanidade e chimica 370
—Artes Graphicas e annexas 158
—Depositos e vendas varias 1:169
—Varios negocios 2:153
17:985
O penultimo recenseamento tinha sido feito em 1895, e déra um
numero total de 12:881 estabelecimentos commerciaes, ou seja um
augmento de 5:154 casas de negocio em 9 annos.
O valor d’este commercio, em 1904, era representado por
40:568:000 pesos em immoveis e por 480:138:300 de pesos, em
mercadorias, ou seja um total de 520:706:300 de pesos, cêrca de
230 mil contos em moeda portugueza.
O seguinte quadro é mais elucidativo, se bem que deficiente
quanto á classificação de casas de negocio:
Classe N.º de casas Immoveis Mercadorias
Alimentação 9:358 14:667:500 29:309:000
Construcções 426 2:215:000 10:355:000
Modas e confecções 2:465 3:639:500 28:604:000
Moveis e annexos 289 347:000 2:580:000
Transportes e annexos 903 2:172:500 4:936:000
Arte e decoração 638 1:729:000 6:063:000
Couros e pelles 56 150:000 497:500
Sanidade e chimica 370 1:352:800 4:010:500
Artes graphicas e annexas 158 533:500 2:036:000
Depositos e vendas varias 1:169 1:698:200 4:247:400
Negocios varios 2:153 12:063:000 387:499:900
520:706:300
Todos os estabelecimentos commerciaes eram servidos por 79:547
empregados, 64:154 do sexo masculino e 15:393 do sexo feminino,
49:951 eram estrangeiros e 29:936 argentinos.
Dos proprietarios das casas de commercio, 15:202 eram
estrangeiros e 2:783 argentinos. Dos 17:985 estabelecimentos
commerciaes, que existiam em 31 de Dezembro de 1904, 6:823
negociavam com mercadorias nacionaes, 860 com generos e artigos
estrangeiros e 10:302 com mercadorias mistas.
A Bolsa de Buenos-Aires funcciona em um pequeno mas elegante
e artistico edificio proprio, situado na praça de Mayo. Consta de tres
pavimentos de granito, sendo a frontaria dos dois primeiros em
columnata, que sustenta bellas architraves. A sala das sessões é
simples, com duas meias galerias, e ao centro a indispensavel grade
dos pregões. Ha grandes salas lateraes para os serviços auxiliares,
além dos escriptorios dos correctores.
No 1.º pavimento estão installadas a secretaria e outras
repartições.
Esta instituição foi fundada em 1840, com o titulo de Sala de
Comercio, e era só composta de inglezes. Em 1854 e 1862, foi
mudada de local, na rua San Martin, e em 1885 principiou a
funccionar no actual edificio.
O balancete de 1907 é o seguinte:
Activo
Acções da Empreza do Edificio 49:362
Bancos e Caixa 40:290:72
Credito Argentino Interno 73:186:44
Immovel 756:176:47
Moveis e utensilios 18:734:44
Reparações no edificio 9:593:20
Recibos de subscripção 5:450
Terrenos no Tigre 6:000
Varios 1:210
960:003:27
Passivo
Capital da Empreza do Edificio 770:000
» » Associação 61:162:92
Fundo de Reserva da Empreza 50:525:73
» » » » Associação 16:340:74
» especial para calamidades publicas 8:076:92
Fundo de jubilações de empregados 2:905:34
» » beneficencia 609:07
Dividendos a pagar 2:049
» de 1907, 2.º semestre 42:520
Varios 6:083:55
960:003:27
Resumo do movimento geral de transacções effectuadas, em
1907, na Bolsa de Commercio de Buenos-Aires:
Valores Cotisados A dinheiro A prazo
Divida Interna da Nação 9:382:400 239:500
» » da Municipalidade 1:159:400 17:000
Divida Interna da Provincia de B. Aires 12:345:017 561:000
Divida Interna da Provincia de Santa Fé 1:029:000 33:000
Divida Interna da Provincia de Entre Rios 149:100
Cedulas Hypothecarias Nacionaes 60:945:750 2:167:050
Cedulas Hypothecarias da Prov. de Buenos- 3:485:650 254:000
Aires
Sociedades Anonymas—acções 2:220:730 1:736:267
Sociedades Anonymas—obrigações 164
Sociedades Anonymas—certificados 75:696
90:712:047 5:247:513
A situação dos Bancos de Buenos-Aires era a seguinte, em egual
periodo:
HESPANHOL DO RIO DA PRATA
Deposito em ouro 2:654:572:33
» » papel 114:511:038:59
Descontos e a descoberto, ouro 2:957:256:98
» » » » papel 94:247:299:23
Existencia, ouro 1:385:959:63
» papel 29:992:812:04
FRANCEZ DO RIO DA PRATA
Deposito em ouro 4:438:342:88
» » papel 47:839:625:68
Descontos e a descoberto, ouro 5:810:721:90
» » » » papel 46:659:182:32
Existencia, ouro 3:102:134:53
» papel 12:739:130:30
ALLEMÃO DA AMERICA DO SUL
Deposito em ouro 155:550:98
» » papel 2:121:878:12
Descontos e a descoberto, ouro 343:762:29
» » » » papel 3:794:044:96
Existencia, ouro 393:020:30
» papel 3:470:332:26
LONDRES E RIO DA PRATA
Deposito em ouro 7:367:235:27
» » papel 135:380:899:52
Descontos e a descoberto, ouro 8:269:607:87
» » » » papel 86:773:226:62
Existencia, ouro 4:791:172:42
» papel 41:012:881:27
NOVO BANCO ITALIANO
Deposito em ouro 449:661:43
» » papel 20:545:293:76
Descontos e a descoberto, ouro 833:781:30
» » » » papel 10:844:729:92
Existencia, ouro 135:720:71
» papel 4:180:125:17
BANCO POPULAR ARGENTINO
Deposito em ouro 27:518:96
» » papel 9:187:016:07
Descontos e a descoberto, ouro 5:217:70
» » » » papel 9:208:439:02
Existencia, ouro 156:694:87
» papel 2:914:008:48
BANCO ALLEMÃO TRANSATLANTICO
Deposito em ouro 1:337:050:51
» » papel 26:941:334:79
Descontos e a descoberto, ouro 4:767:855:31
» » » » papel 29:004:868:61
Existencia, ouro 1:756:597:59
» papel 5:624:324:27
BANCO DA ITALIA E RIO DA PRATA
Deposito em ouro 1:971:862:57
» » papel 70:563:247:18
Descontos e a descoberto, ouro 4:075:632:21
» » » » papel 48:409:201:09
Existencia, ouro 2:131:585:94
» papel 18:704:869:81
BANCO LONDRES E BRASIL
Deposito em ouro 850:680
» » papel 7:648:720
Descontos e a descoberto, ouro 2:959:784
» » » » papel 6:278:150
Existencia, ouro 684:484
» papel 2:168:132
BANCO DA NAÇÃO ARGENTINA
Deposito em ouro 1:788:214:90
» » papel 167:989:358:18
Descontos e a descoberto, ouro 1:362:631:48
» » » » papel 170:573:212:13
Existencia, ouro 9:354:376:96
» papel 52:439:174:43
BANCO BRITANNICO DA AMERICA DO SUL
Deposito em ouro 1:472:389:15
» » papel 32:885:443:01
Descontos e a descoberto, ouro 3:828:160:85
» » » » papel 29:189:759:81
Existencia, ouro 1:496:153:66
» papel 8:832:724:11
Total do movimento geral em todos os Bancos mencionados:
Depositos em ouro 22:513:078:98 pesos
» » papel 635:613:854:80 »
Desc. e a descob. ouro 35:214:411:89 »
» » » » papel 534:982:114:41 »
Existencia, ouro 25:387:900:61 »
» papel 182:078:514:14 »
Total geral 1:435:789:874:83 »
A Alfandega de Buenos-Aires funcciona em um immenso e velho
edificio, que tem a frontaria principal para a praça de Mayo.
Os armazens-depositos e as construcções annexas são cerca de
30, em face de 4 diques e de 10:000 metros de cáes acostaveis.
O porto natural é pequeno e formado pela foz do rio Riachuelo;
porém o porto artificial é extenso e grandioso, accessivel por dois
canaes, o do sul com 10:700 metros de largura e 18 de
profundidade; e o do Norte com 9:800 metros de largura e 21 de
profundidade.
O total da superficie liquida do porto é de 660:200 metros, ou 66
hectares. Nos molhes ha 60 kilometros de via ferrea e numeroso
machinismo hydraulico.
Estão gastos mais de 40 milhões em ouro, nas obras do porto,
cujo prolongamento e aperfeiçoamento continuam.
A exportação de mercadorias paga apenas o imposto do sêllo.
Este rendeu, em 1907, 140 mil 470 pesos e 38 centavos. No mesmo
anno a importação rendeu 53:368:154 pesos, ouro e 757:545 pesos,
papel.
O movimento de entrada e saída de embarcações, no mesmo
anno, foi de 29:178, com 13:335:737 toneladas.
Na exportação occupam os primeiros logares, em importancia, as
lãs, 149:110 toneladas, no valor de 58:402:771 pesos, ouro; o
milho, 2:693:739 toneladas, no valor de 53:365:687; o trigo,
2:247:988 toneladas, valendo 66:561:181, ouro; o linho, 538:496
toneladas, no valor, ouro, de 25:915:861, pesos; a carne de vacca,
congelada, 153:809 toneladas, no valor de 15:380:897, e os couros
seccos, cuja exportação foi de 11 milhões de pesos.
Na importação avultam o carvão de pedra, 2:339:634:991 de
kilos, na importancia, em ouro, de 16:377:584 pesos; os tecidos de
algodão, 28 milhões de kilos, no valor de 23 milhões de pesos, ouro;
os tecidos de lã, 8 milhões de kilos, valendo, ouro, 15 milhões de
pesos; os vinhos de mesa e finos, cêrca de 120 milhões de litros no
valôr de 11 milhões e 500 mil pesos; a herva-matte do Brasil e do
Paraguay, 64 milhões de kilos, na importancia, ouro, de 8 milhões de
pesos, e o arroz de varias qualidades, 58 milhões de kilos, no valor
de 4 milhões e 200 mil pesos.
Estes algarismos, numeros redondos, referem-se á importação e
exportação geral da Republica. Para conhecer-se a parte que diz
respeito ao porto de Buenos-Aires, bastará deduzir, da totalidade,
180 por 1:000 na importação e 561 por 1:000 na exportação.
A industria que mais tem progredido n’estes ultimos vinte annos,
na capital argentina, é a que se relaciona com as artes graphicas.
O typo, a lithographia, a photographia e a photogravura taes como
são hoje trabalhados em Buenos-Aires, podem competir,
vantajosamente, com as melhores producções, similares, da
Allemanha e das outras nações europeias onde o culto da divina arte
de Guttemberg é mais aperfeiçoado. Muito contribúe, para este
resultado, o periodismo bonaerense, um dos mais importantes dos
centros civilisados.
As fabricas de congelação de carnes para exportação, occupam
logar primacial na industria da capital.
A ultima estatistica official da industria da metropole porteña data
de 1904, e accusa o numero de 8:877 estabelecimentos fabris, no
perimetro da capital federal, mais 749 do que em 1887, epocha do
penultimo censo industrial. Essas fabricas eram impulsionadas por
motores da força de 19:858 cavallos, e empregavam o capital de 60
milhões de pesos nacionaes. Esses estabelecimentos produziram, em
1904, mercadorias no valor de 183 e meio milhões de pesos.
Sendo a Republica Argentina um paiz tão fertil, abundante e rico
em madeiras para construcções, é lamentavel que, na sua
importação, figure ainda o madeiramento, em somma avultada, o
que tem impedido o desenvolvimento da industria constructora. Já
não succede o mesmo com os elementos empregados na confecção
de productos alimenticios, approveitando-se, o mais possivel, a
materia prima nacional, e por isso é, actualmente, esta industria
uma das mais prosperas da capital argentina.
A preparação do couro e das pelles de animaes, tem tomado
grande desenvolvimento, assim como a fabricação de phosphoros,
cujo preparo é aperfeiçoado e sufficiente para o consumo nacional.
Quadro demonstrativo das fabricas, por categorias, existentes em
Buenos-Aires, em 1904, e do capital n’ellas empregado:
Designação Numero Capital
Alimentação 715 16:093:400
Construcções 915 7:837:940
Vestuario e annexos 3518 16:082:440
Moveis e annexos 932 7:525:030
Metaes e derivados 1093 12:756:360
Arte e adornos 568 3:437:000
Artes graphicas e papel 406 6:655:500
Productos chimicos 126 3:169:600
Emprezas e industrias varias 604 25:418:550
8:877 98:975:820
Tabella reveladora da producção, por cada ramo de industria, e do
pessoal empregado nas fabricas de Buenos Aires, em 1904:
Designação Producção Pessoal
Alimentação 31:131:175 6:420
Construcção 15:510:610 7:873
Vestuario e annexos 29:084:450 15:450
Moveis e annexos 12:147:690 6:315
Metaes e derivados 10:979:850 8:032
Arte e adornos 4:376:230 1:873
Artes graphicas e papel 7:072:300 3:943
Tecidos, couros e pelles 29:909:530
Productos chimicos 6:106:400 2:493
Emprezas e industrias varias 37:134:410 16:113
183:452:645 68:512
Quadro demonstrativo do movimento impulsionador das fabricas
de Buenos-Aires:
Designação Motores Cavallos de força
Alimentação 149, a vapor
74, electricos
50, a gaz 3:773
Construcções 79, a vapor
48, electricos
9, a gaz 2:643
Vestuario, annexos e Tecidos 39, a vapor
56, electricos
27, a gaz 1:640
Moveis e annexos 55, a vapor
42, electricos
13, a gaz 1:064
Metaes e derivados 98, a vapor
78, electricos
25, a gaz 1:976
Arte e adornos 22, a vapor
40, electricos
6, a gaz 283
Artes graphicas e papel 28, a vapor
96, electricos
10, a gaz 882
Productos chimicos 32, a vapor
19, electricos
2, a gaz 787
Varias emprezas e industrias 124, a vapor
74, electricos
21, a gaz 6:870
1:316 19:858
Do pessoal empregado nas fabricas 55:435 individuos pertenciam
ao sexo masculino e 13:077 ao feminino; 7:191 eram menores de 16
annos, dos quaes 4:820 varões e 2:371 meninas. A industria que
maior numero de menores empregava era a de tecidos, com 819, e
a seguir a de phosphoros, com 583, e a de calçado, com 269
menores. 5:270 sabiam lêr e escrever; 1:104 tinham já os quatro
primeiros gráus das escólas communaes, 636 frequentavam as
escólas primarias e 181 não prestaram declarações.
Em 1904, os proprietarios de fabricas eram em numero de 8:431,
7:390 estrangeiros e 1:041 argentinos.
Na média, o salario de um carpinteiro, actualmente em Buenos-
Aires, é de 4 pesos diarios; o de um pedreiro, de 3 pesos e egual o
de cada padeiro.
Em nenhum estabelecimento fabril trabalha-se, actualmente, mais
de 8 horas por dia, se bem que a estatistica official de 1904, inclúa a
seguinte tabella:
Numero das fabricas Horas de trabalho
19 6
27 7
1967 8
491 9
645 9 e 10
1926 10
39 11
75 12
Sem especificar as horas de trabalho, 1:554 fabricas.
D’estes 8:877 estabelecimentos industriaes, 2:306 trabalhavam,
ordinariamente, aos Domingos, incluindo as padarias, 1:262 só o
faziam extraordinariamente, 2:620 não trabalhavam ao Domingo e
2:689 não especificavam.
Das mulheres empregadas nas fabricas, 6:363 eram solteiras,
1:472 casadas, ignorando-se o estado civil das restantes.
Em 1906 houve 23 gréves na capital argentina, em que tomaram
parte 18:317 operarios, motivadas por augmento de salario e por
diminuição de horas de trabalho, havendo transacções entre
operarios e patrões em 10 conflictos, submettendo-se os operarios
em 10 e ganhando a sua causa em 3 questões. Em consequencia
d’essas gréves, os operarios que n’ellas tomaram parte perderam
salarios na importancia de 1:844:000 pesos.
Jardins e Parques
Parque Tres de Fevereiro—O seu nome popular é Parque de
Palermo. Occupa a superficie de 3:677:487 metros quadrados. A
avenida principal, chamada das Palmeiras, lembra, com saudades, as
suas homonymas do Rio de Janeiro, altas e esbeltas, ao passo que
estas não attingem um terço da altura d’aquellas. A vegetação geral
é rachitica, recordando a densa e frondosa vitalidade e pujança do
Bosque de Bologna, a que os bonaerenses comparam o Parque Tres
de Fevereiro.
As avenidas são amplas, bem tratadas e amenisadas por varios
lagos e cursos de agua. No recinto e na orla d’este amplissimo local
de recreio estão o Jardim Zoologico, o Velodromo Nacional, o
Hippodromo Nacional, a Escola Normal de Tiro, o Club Hippico
Argentino, os restaurantes dos Lagos e de Palermo, o Tiro Federal
Argentino, o Cricket Club e muitas outras installações sportivas.
Decoram tambem este magnifico parque, as estatuas de
Domingos Sarmiento, Carlos Burmeister e de Eduardo Costa.
A 1.ª é do esculptor Rodin, e foi inaugurada em 25 de Maio de
1900. A figura está de pé sobre uma base de marmore branco, que
ostenta artistica allegoria, representando Apollo, o deus da Luz, a
espancar as trevas da ignorancia, symbolisadas pela serpente
Python.
O monumento de Burmeister, foi inaugurado em Outubro de 1900,
e é obra do esculptor allemão Ricardo Aigner. O do doutor Eduardo
Costa, data de 19 de Março de 1902, e não é particularmente
notavel como obra de arte.
No recinto d’este parque teem funccionado varias e
importantissimas exposições da Sociedade Rural Argentina,
patrocinada pelo governo. As terças-feiras e sabbados são os dias da
moda para este parque, frequentado então por milhares de
vehiculos e de peões. A melhor construcção architectonica de todo o
recinto é a do Tiro Federal Argentino, com bellissima frontaria
ladeada por duas altas e elegantes torres.
Nos hippodromos de Buenos-Aires, as apostas ascenderam, em
1906, á somma de 47:218:602 pesos.
Jardim Zoologico—Este bello parque está perfeitamente á altura
de uma grandiosa capital, como é Buenos-Aires. D’entre as
installações avultam, pela architectura e sumptuosidade, a dos
zebús, em estylo indiano; dos ursos, a mais imponente; dos leões e
pantheras, um verdadeiro palacio; dos elephantes, em estylo
oriental; a dos asnos e a colossal gaiola de ferro das aves de rapina.
São importantissimas e raras muitas das outras collecções e especies
representadas, como a dos cervos, divididos em varias classes e
cercados; a dos reptis, dos rapinantes e a dos gorillas e chimpanzés,
installados em minusculo templo egypcio.
Nota-se extremo aceio, tanto nas jaulas como no parque. A
entrada custa apenas 50 réis. Aos domingos, o Jardim é frequentado
por milhares de pessôas. No recinto encontram-se cafés e
restaurantes, carrousseis, linha ferrea para creanças e numerosos e
minusculos vehiculos puxados por varios animaes, como o avestruz,
a zebra, o cão e o carneiro.
D’entre os mais raros e notaveis exemplares d’este Jardim,
avultam dois soberbos hippopotamos.
Todo o brasileiro, e especialmente o fluminense, que visitar este
grandioso parque, deve sentir-se vexado do seu similar do Rio de
Janeiro, hoje transformado em posto zootechnico-particular, por cuja
visita paga-se dois mil réis de entrada!
A area d’este Jardim é de 179:400 metros quadrados.
Em 1906 visitaram-n’o 1:022:614 pessôas, rendendo as entradas
102:261:40.
Jardim Botanico—A frente é um extenso gradeado soldado em
cantaria, na rua de Santa Fé, proximidades do Jardim Zoologico e do
Parque Tres de Fevereiro.
O interior está dividido em secções, por continentes, indicados em
placas azues com lettras brancas.
Ha grandes estufas e pequenos tanques para plantas aquaticas,
d’entre as quaes sobresahe a famosa Victoria Regia.
Os principaes e floridos maciços são decorados a estatuas de
marmore branco. Nota-se extremo cuidado na conservação e
limpeza do recinto, assim como na classificação das especies, a
nenhuma das quaes falta a respectiva placa descriptiva. A secção
argentina é, naturalmente, a melhor representada; todavia ha
milhares de curiosos e interessantes exemplares da Asia,
especialmente, da Africa, dos archipelagos da Oceania, e da
Australia.
Na organisação e variedade, este Jardim é superior ao seu
congenere do Rio de Janeiro, que avulta sobre aquelle na extensão,
na magestosa belleza do conjuncto e na formosura e originalidade
de alguns detalhes, como sejam as universalmente famosas
avenidas das Palmeiras e dos Bambús.
Além d’estes, os principaes parques e jardins de Buenos-Aires, são
o Parque Saavedra, com 426:397 metros quadrados de superficie; o
Parque Patricios, com 228:795; o Parque Christovão Colombo, com a
area de 162:000 metros quadrados; o Parque Lezama, amplo de
76:637 metros quadrados; o Paseo de Julio, com 33:085 e o Paseo
Colon, com 20:215 metros quadrados.
Ha ainda os parques Intendente Alvear e de los Andes, bem como
os passeios Rivadavia, Santa Fé, Monte Castro e Gaona, e os jardins
do Sul, Infantil e Japonez.
Todos os logradouros publicos da capital teem a superficie total de
7:100:000 metros quadrados.
Theatros
São 16 os theatros principaes da metropole argentina, em todos
os generos e frequentados, especialmente de Maio a Setembro, por
companhias de primeira ordem, nacionaes e estrangeiras.
Do esplendido theatro Colon, já tratamos no capitulo
Monumentos. Os mais importantes são:
Opera—Ao penetrar na sala da Opera, o visitante comprehende a
necessidade que Buenos-Aires tinha do theatro Colon. Aquella não
está na altura de occupar o primeiro logar entre os grandes theatros
da capital bonaerense. É um edificio pesado, sem architectura e de
tectos baixos, onde apenas se attendeu ao conforto. A triplice ordem
de corredores estreitos, alcatifados e aquecidos por numerosos
fogões de ferro e por grossos e pesados cortinados de velludo,
mantem no interior do theatro, durante as noites de inverno, uma
temperatura elevada. A sala tem cinco pavimentos, sendo um de
frisas, dois de camarotes, um de camarotes e balcões e o mais alto é
a galeria geral. A profusão de lustres, com lampadas electricas, faz
realçar o dourado da sala, em cujo tecto ha uma pintura allegorica.
Do centro pende um soberbo lustre. O foyer é pequeno mas
confortavel e luxuosamente guarnecido.
A entrada principal é pela rua Corrientes, uma das mais animadas
da cidade, principalmente á noite.
A assignatura annual, ordinaria, é de 50 recitas, de Maio a Agosto.
O preço avulso, de cada cadeira, é de 16 pesos, como no Colon. Ao
contrario do que succede n’este monumental theatro, cuja amplidão
e esplendôr da sala eclipsam o brilho das toilettes e a formosura das
senhoras, a sala da Opera é um encanto, nas noites de espectaculo.
A côr grenat-escura da alcatifa, dos cortinados e das cadeiras realça
as côres claras, os decotes e as joias que, por sua vez, augmentam
a belleza do elemento feminino e a perspectiva geral do conjuncto.
Para completar o deslumbrante effeito das soirées, a orchestra e os
cantores são o que ha de melhor em todo o mundo, no genero
lyrico.
Odeon—Na rua Esmeralda.
Não tem architectura especial nem dependencias notaveis. Na sala
ha uma ordem de frisas, uma de camarotes e balcões, e o ultimo
pavimento é o paraiso. Frequentam-n’o, de preferencia, companhias
dramaticas estrangeiras. A concorrencia é selecta e o traje de rigor.
Polytheama Argentino—Rua Corrientes, 1470. Grande hemicyclo
em quatro ordens, sem ornamentação.
É todo pintado de branco. Apesar das suas amplas dimensões,
tem excellentes condições acusticas. É, de preferencia, frequentado
por companhias lyricas de segunda ordem, de Maio a Agosto. No
resto do anno funcciona com varios generos theatraes.
Nacional—Na rua Corrientes.
Ha outro com o mesmo nome, na rua Santa Fé. Tem duas ordens
de camarotes, uma de frisas e a galeria geral. Companhias de
zarzuela.
Marconi—Sala ampla e simples. Apenas contem tres pavimentos,
um de frisas, outro de camarotes e balcões e o ultimo é a galeria, ou
o paraiso. É frequentado por companhias italianas de opera e de
opereta.
San Martin—Vasto recinto, com quatro pavimentos, que tanto
serve para declamação como para circo. É um dos maiores theatros
de Buenos-Aires. Rua Esmeralda, 257.
Mayo—Situado na avenida de egual nome. Sala com tres ordens
de camarotes e a galeria.
O tecto é decorado a pinturas.
Frequentam-n’o companhias hespanholas de zarzuela.
Moderno—A sala, que é pequena, tem quatro ordens de
camarotes. A companhia comico-dramatica que n’elle trabalha
interpreta unicamente as peças approvadas pelo Conservatorio de
Buenos-Aires. Eleva-se na praça Lorea.
Comedia—Rua das Artes, n.º 24. Sala com quatro pavimentos.
Companhias hespanholas de zarzuela.
Apollo—Rua Corrientes, n.º 1386. Minuscula e interessante sala, o
mais pequeno recinto theatral de Buenos-Aires. Exhibe peças
nacionaes, interpretadas por artistas argentinos.
Scala—Novissimo theatro para o genero ligeiro. Revistas,
cançonetas e variedades.
Ha a notar, ainda, o Colyseo Argentino, que funcciona em um
esplendido edificio, o Theatro Victoria, o Argentino, o Casino, o Royal
Theatre, o Rivadavia e o Circo Anselmi.
Como todos os grandes centros populosos, a capital porteña
abriga a praga dos cinematographos, que alli funccionam em
assombrosa quantidade.
A vida theatral e sportiva é intensa, dando os bonaerenses a
preferencia ás corridas de cavallos.
Em 1906, os theatros da capital déram 5:838 representações, que
produziram cinco milhões de pesos. D’esses espectaculos, 485 foram
de operas e operetas, 787 de zarzuelas, 924 de comedias e dramas
hespanhoes, 457 de comedias e dramas em italiano, 17 de comedias
em francez, 1:002 de comedias e dramas argentinos, 409 funcções
de circo, 42 bailes de mascaras e 1:715 representações
cinematographicas.
Esses espectaculos foram frequentados por 3:216:968
espectadores.
No mesmo anno realisaram-se 706 corridas de cavallos, em que
tomaram parte 5:901 animaes e assistiram 519:000 espectadores,
que fizeram apostas na importancia de 47:218:602 pesos.
Curiosidades
Palacio do Governo—Visto do porto, este edificio mostra um
aspecto grandioso e imponente, no conjuncto, com os seus quatro
pavimentos, terraços, balcões e um grupo de gigantescas estatuas a
corôal-o, obra do esculptor Bianchi. Observado da praça de Mayo,
para onde olha a frontaria principal, a perspectiva é muito reduzida,
especialmente pela irregularidade da architectura, sem estylo
definido, antes demonstrativa de que pertence a epochas diversas.
No andar nobre estão installados os ministerios das Obras Publicas,
da Justiça e Instrucção Publica, da Fazenda, das Relações Exteriores,
do Interior e a Presidencia da Republica. Todas as installações
constam, pouco mais ou menos, do mesmo numero de peças, umas
doze para cada ministerio, comprehendendo as salas de espera e de
recepção, os escriptorios e o gabinete do ministro. No Ministerio das
Relações Exteriores ha, a maior, o salão de recepção dos diplomatas,
decorado com simplicidade. A Presidencia da Republica, compõe-se
de sala de espera, gabinete do Presidente, com o retrato, a oleo, de
Rivadavia, saleta de conversação e saleta de fumo. Seguem-se as
secretarias dos officiaes militares e civis. O grupo dos tres salões
principaes do edificio é accessivel por duplo lance de escadaria de
marmore branco. O primeiro é o de recepções simples, o do centro é
o salão Branco, ou das grandes recepções officiaes, e o terceiro é o
das reuniões do Conselho do Governo, presidido pelo Presidente da
Republica. Este salão não tem decoração alguma. Apenas se vê, ao
centro, a mesa, forrada de velludo vermelho-escuro e nove cadeiras
da mesma fazenda. Do tecto pende um lustre. O salão Branco
encerra um soberbo e artistico lustre de metal dourado, com 280
lampadas electricas, trabalho argentino de Azaretto. O recinto é
ainda illuminado por 24 candieiros dourados, a 11 lampadas cada
um. Ha uma galeria circular para o publico. Sobre pedestaes de
marmore preto, circumdam o salão os bustos, em marmore branco,
da Republica, do general Roca, do general Sarmiento, do dr.
Quintana, de Rivadavia, de Bartholomeu Mitre, de Urquiza, e de
outros vultos importantes da Republica. Do general Roca ha outro
busto, sobre niveo pedestal, com lettras douradas.
Nos outros pavimentos estão os escriptorios de serviço dos
ministerios e um terraço com habitações de empregados e varias
officinas.
D’ahi gosa-se vistas parciaes da cidade e o panorama geral do
porto. Este palacio mede 125 metros de frente por 81 de fundo.
Das pequenas bibliothecas e dos archivos dos varios ministerios,
avultam os do Ministerio das Relações Exteriores, pela quantidade e
importancia. Em arcas de ferro, estão guardados os tratados
celebrados com as nações estrangeiras, desde 1811, sendo alguns
d’elles verdadeiras obras de arte.
Cemiterio de la Recoleta—Occupa, ao fundo do passeio de egual
nome, uma superficie de 50:000 metros quadrados e abriga já
250:000 cadaveres, havendo apenas espaço para 300:000
sepulturas e tendo sido inaugurado em 1822.
Outr’ora situado longe da cidade está hoje rodeado de populosos
bairros, animados de intensa vida, a contrastar com a suprema
quietude tumular d’aquella immensa necropole.
Como que para honrar a magestade da morte, o engenho humano
sublima-se alli á apotheose da arte em muitos e preciosissimos
monumentos, inspirados na piedade christã e nos mysterios divinos.
O Christo, de Monteverde, em marmore branco, que se vê na
capella das encommendações é, talvez, a mais extraordinaria
manifestação artistica que este cemiterio encerra. Os adoradores do
bello-artistico deliciar-se-hão perante a Dolorosa, de Tantardini, que
decora o sepulchro de Facundo Quiroga.
Realça o monumental e bello jazigo do dr. Francisco J. Muñiz, a
estatua da Sciencia, magnifico bronze de esplendidas roupagens,
sem assignatura do auctor.
É tambem notavel o Genio, em bronze, do tumulo de Fernando
Villanueva, assim como a estatua symbolica do esculptor Falguiéres,
que decora o monumento funebre de Lucio Lopez.
A citar ainda, como eminentemente artisticos, os sarcophagos e
jazigos de Domingos Sarmiento, do dr. Carril; do juiz Thedin; de
Dorrago-Ortiz-Basnaldo; da familia de Angel Estrada; de Samuel
Hale; de Elias Romero; de Vélez Sarsfield e das victimas da
revolução de 1890. Repoisam alli os despojos mortuarios de outras
famosas personalidades da Republica, como Rodriguez Peña, Marco
Avellaneda, Mitre, Juan Varella, Diego de Alvear, Rawson, Navarro
Viola, Brandzen, Mayer, Lugones, e outros.
Pavilhão Argentino—Este elegantissimo edificio de ferro, vidro e
pedra, construido para exposições permanentes e periodicas, está
situado na praça de San Martin, e pertence ao Estado. No 1.º
pavimento visita-se um museu mineral, nacional e estrangeiro,
interessante pelos exemplares expostos, porém um tanto
desorganisado na installação e entretenimento. No andar superior
funcciona, provisoriamente, um collegio particular de meninos. A
parte central da frontaria d’este pavilhão é uma obra de arte.
Sobre a porta principal está um grupo allegorico de bronze.
Jockey Club—Na rua Florida, entre as ruas Lavalle e Tucuman,
ostenta-se um dos mais grandiosos palacios de Buenos-Aires. A
frontaria é vistosa e artistica, em granito escuro, com uma varanda
sustentada por columnata e guarnecida por tres grupos allegoricos,
dois em nichos de pedra e o maior e o mais bello a rematar a
cimalha. O vestibulo é decorado a estatuas em nichos de marmore.
A escadaria é formosa, dupla, monumental e de preciosa pedraria.
No primeiro lanço admira-se a celebre estatua—Diana—do esculptor
Falguiéres. O ambito da escadaria é circumdado por 12 columnas de
ordem corinthia e de marmore côr de rosa. Os corrimões são de
onyx de S. Luiz. No primeiro pavimento, á entrada, estão tres salões
—o de leitura, o de conversação e o de recepção. Do lado opposto
visita-se a bibliotheca. Todo o mobiliario é luxuoso. No salão de
conversação admira-se uma bella estatua feminina, sentada, de
marmore branco. O salão de leitura é decorado a quadros. Na sala
de admissão de socios ha um quadro de Roybet, e na secretaria
estão quadros de Perrault, Roybet e Zem. O salão de jogos é
illuminado por 7 lustres a 8 luzes e por 10 serpentinas a tres
lampadas electricas. Magnifico salão de bilhares.
No 2.º pavimento visita-se o salão-restaurante, com serviço
permanente e orchestra. Ha ainda outro, privativo da direcção, e
mais dois exteriores, em varandas, para o verão. De terraço-
restaurante do 3.º andar, gosa-se lindissima vista parcial da cidade e
especialmente do porto.
No 1.º pavimento ha uma sala privativa de jogos illegaes. O
estabelecimento hydrotherapico está installado no rez-do-chão,
assim como a typographia especial do Club, e um salão de esgrima,
ricamente guarnecido a preciosas panoplias.
Em todos os pavimentos ha dormitorios e banheiras para socios
residentes fóra da capital e também para os socios porteños que
desejem utilisar-se d’elles. Todos os quartos, além de magnifica
mobilia, teem fogão, telephone e profusa illuminação.
Cada socio provinciano não poderá pernoitar no edificio mais de
tres noites seguidas, nem mais de seis noites em cada mez.
Para os socios da capital o praso é de 2 noites seguidas e de 4
mensaes.
Frigorificos—Nas proximidades do Mercado Central de Fructos, de
que trataremos no capitulo—Alimentação Publica—e nas margens do
pequeno rio Riachuelo, estão installados varios frigorificos, dos
quaes os mais importantes são o La Blanca e o La Negra. Este foi
fundado em 1883, por M. Sansisena. N’elle trabalham cêrca de 700
individuos, que matam para o consumo e exportação, diariamente, a
média de tres mil animaes. O capital é de tres milhões de pesos,
ouro, tendo a empresa distribuído dividendos de 50%.
Já em 1903 este estabelecimento exportou, congelados,
3:500:000 carneiros, e 900:000 quartos de novilhos.
O frigorifico La Blanca, foi inaugurado em Setembro de 1903. É
um grande edificio, todo branco, de imponente aspecto. As suas
dependencias occupam enorme area. Encerra um immenso
banheiro, para a lavagem dos animaes, antes de abatidos. De todos
os compartimentos, o mais notavel e interessante é o das machinas,
que abriga tres grandes frigorificos, da força de 200 cavallos,
installações impulsoras da energia electrica e bombas de incendio.
Segue-se o pavilhão das caldeiras com tres da força de 200
cavallos. Depois é o deposito de amoniaco, conduzido aos quatro
pavimentos do edificio por um cano que, desdobrado, daria o
comprimento de 96 kilometros.
N’esses quatro andares estão as camaras de congelação, que
podem preparar, ao mesmo tempo, 7:000 novilhos e 70:000 capões.
Vehiculos automaticos conduzem os animaes sacrificados ás camaras
de arejamento.
Alimentação Publica
Matadouro de Liniers—No extremo-oeste do municipio de Buenos-
Aires, nos terrenos conhecidos por Nova Chicago, está situado este
novo e colossal matadouro, concluido em 1900. As suas installações
são vastas e numerosas, occupando uma area total de 319:773
metros quadrados.
Comprehende 44 armazens de mercado de compra, venda e peso
de gado e 96 matadouros com espaço para trinta mil animaes.
Todos os pavimentos são de asphalto e os tectos de telha. Ha
tambem uma grande casa de machinas e de bombas; o edificio de
residencia e trabalho dos veterenarios, um pavilhão com forno
crematorio para os animaes condemnados e o grande edificio da
Administração.
Desde 1900 a 1907, a media annual para o consumo de Buenos-
Aires, é de 382:000 bois e vaccas abatidas, 108:000 vitellos,
585:000 carneiros e 55:000 porcos.
Em 1906 os frigorificos forneceram 17 milhões de kilos de carne
congelada, para a alimentação da cidade, que tambem consumiu no
mesmo periodo:
— 1:351:100 kilos de peixe fresco.
— 4:279:800 » » » salgado.
— 22:500 » » especiaria de mar.
— 6:481:050 duzias de ovos.
— 3:600:000 kilos de aves diversas.
— 27:000 » » caça rasteira.
— 335:797 litros de leite introduzidos na capital, só pelas
companhias de caminhos de ferro.
Mercado Central de Fructos—É um gigantesco edificio de tijolo e
ferro, situado na margem direita do rio Riachuelo. Este curso d’agua,
que tem de 25 a 30 metros de largura está, até á ponte de ferro
levadiça, inaugurada em 1892, pejado de embarcações de grande e
pequeno calado. Este Mercado passa por ser, em dimensões, o maior
de todo o mundo.
É, ao mesmo tempo que deposito de productos do paiz, divididos
por galpões numerados, uma especie de bolsa de commercio, onde
diariamente effectuam-se importantissimas transacções,
especialmente de lãs, couros e cereaes.
Occupa a superficie total de 152:000 metros quadrados, e tem
quatro pavimentos, todos de ferro. No interior funccionam 72
guindastes e ascensores e grande numero de motores a vapor, além
de 44 perfuradores hydraulicos. O maior deposito, ordinariamente, é
de lãs, que varia entre 100 e 140 milhões de kilos, durante o anno,
podendo abrigar, ao mesmo tempo, 26 milhões de kilos.
Diversas linhas ferreas, de bitola estreita, communicam as
diversas secções d’este gigantesco mercado, que custou 4:155:000
pesos em ouro, a uma sociedade anonyma por acções.
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