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Basic of Flow Measurement Technique

Table of Contents

 Introduction to Flow Measurement

o Why Flow measurement is essential?
o Laminar and turbulent Flow
o Selection of Flow Measurement Devices
o Essential Quantities for Flow Measurement
o Units for Flow Measurement
 Classification of Flow measurement devices
 o Mechanical Type Flow Meters
o Differential Pressure Based Flow Meters
 Direct Volume Flow Rate Measurement
 Venturi Flow Meter
 Orifice Flow Meter
 Solenoid Valve Flow Meter
 Pitot Tubes
 Turbine Flow meter
 Vortex Flow Meter
 Variable Area Flowmeter or Rotameter
 Electromagnetic Flow Meter
 Ultrasonic Flow Meter
o Doppler Effect Ultrasonic Flowmeter
o Transit Time Difference Ultrasonic (TTDU) Flow meter
 Thermal Mass Flow Meter
 Coriolis Flow Meter
 Piezoelectric Ceramics Flow Meter
 Open Channel Flow Meter
o Triangular Wier ( V-Notch Flow Meter)
o Parshall Flume Flow Meter
 Summary
 References
 You Tube Video on Flow Meters

What are Flow Measurement Techniques

used in Industries?

Introduction to Flow Measurement

Why Flow measurement is essential?

 Flow meters are widely used to quantify the amount of fluid flowing through
pipe in combustion chamber, boiler, oil and gas, process and Chemical
industries, thermal power plant, milk and dairy. Flow measurement of water in
open canal and sewage flow is also essential for preservation and storage of
clean water. In every application, different type of flow meters are used.
 In Fluid mechanics, we learn basic fluid properties like density, conservation of
mass flow rate. How mass flow rate is determined that should be known to every
CFD engineer and process engineers in power or chemical industries. Mass
flow rate is an essential input for forced flow CFD Modeling. Incorrect flow rate
can lead to wrong results in both experiment well as CFD analysis.
 Flow Measurement is the experimental technique of measuring the amount
fluid flowing through duct or open channel
Laminar and turbulent Flow

 The performance of most of flow measurement devices is also affected by the

Reynolds Number. It is a dimensionless number for ratio of inertia to viscous
forces.
 For liquid flow, Reynolds number can defined as the ratio of the inertial forces
to its viscous drag forces.It is useful to determine whether a flow is laminar or
turbulent.
 Lamianr flow rate can be determined using velocity profile. But turbulent flow
rate can not determined easily. Turbulent flow is visualized with higher number
of vortices if dye or smoke is injected in fluid flow.
 For internal flow through duct, when the Reynolds number (ReD) is lower than
2300. Turbulent flow is noted when the Reynolds number is greater than 2300
for internal flow. The crictical Reynolds number for open channel is 5,00,000.
The critical Reynolds number depends on velocity of fluid (V), size of duct (L),
density (ρ) and viscosity (η) of fluid, roughness of wall, external material (dirt
particles) and practical conditions.
 A certain range around 2300 is considered the transition flow region between
laminar and turbulent flow.

Selection of Flow Measurement Devices

Flow measurement devices should be designed by following important factors

 Devices should consider Fluctuations in fluid flow

 Easy Integration with Piping System
 High Accuracy of device is recommended to reduce errors in measurements
 High Turn-Down Ratio of flow rate
 Low capital and maintenance cost
 Sensitivity to Dirt Particles should be minimum
 Minimum Pressure Loss due to fitting of flow measurement devices
 Low use of mechanical or moving Parts
 Devices must be resistant to corrosion and Erosion

Essential Quantities for Flow Measurement

 The volume flow rate (Q) is defined as the volume of fluid that flows past a
given cross sectional area per unit time

Q = Cross sectional area*Average Velocity = A*V (m3/hr)

 common volume units of volume flow rate: m3/s, m3/hr, Nm3/hr, Gallons Per
Minute (GPM), Standard Litre Per Minute (SLPM)
 Mass flow rate is defined as
 m = density * volume flow rate = ρ*Q =ρ*A*V (kg/hr)

 Some devices both pressure and temperature along with volume flow rate. Using
these measured values, we can find out the density of fluid using the property
table or ideal gas equation
 Coefficient of Discharge (Cd) is an important parameter for flow meter to
consider pressure loss. It is defined as the ratio of actual mass flow rate to ideal
(ρ*A*V ) mass flow rate. After measurement of actual mass flow rate, the
coefficient of discharge can be determined.

Units for Flow Measurement

 SI Unit for volume flow rate (volume/time) : Cubic meters per second (m3 /s)
 Other common units for volume flow rate
o Litre per minute LPM): 1L/s = 103 cm3 /s
o Cubic centimetre per minute: 103 cm3 /s = 10-3 m3 /s
o Gallons per minute (GPM): 1gal/s = 3.788 L/s
o Cubic feet per minute: 1 cf/min = 4.719×10-4 m3 /s
 Mass flow rate can be calculated by multiplying flow rate the density (ρ) of
measuring fluid

Classification of Flow measurement devices

The list of commonly used flow meters in industry are given below

Mechanical Type Flow Meters

1. Piston Meters
2. Variable Area Meter
3. Turbine Flow Meter
4. Single Jet Meter
5. Woltmann Meter
6. Paddle Wheel Meter
7. Current Meter
8. Nutating Disc Meter
9. Pelton Meter
10. Oval Gear Meter
 11. Inferential Meter
12. Thermal mass flow meter
13. Turbine Flow meter: turbine motion is used to calibrate flow rate
14. Electro-Magnetic: electro-magnetic field is related flow measurement
15. Coriolis flow meter
16. Positive Displacement
17. Vortex Flow meter
18. Ultrasonic Doppler Flow Tub
19. Reciprocating Piston
20. Rotary Vane Swirl
21. Target
22. Thermal Dispersion
23. Ultrasonic Transit Time

Differential Pressure Based Flow Meters

 Orifice flow meter

 Pitot Tube
 Venturi Tube
 Vortex Weir & Flume
 Differential Pressure Transmitters
 Correlation Method
 Elbow Tap – Elbow flow Meter
 Flow Nozzles
 Variable Area
 Flow measurement techniques are further classified based on closed duct
(pipe) and open channel flow
 Flow measurement can be carried out for volume flow rate (Q) and mass flow
rate (m). Majority of devices of mechanical and pressure differential techniques
measures volume flow flow rate after determination of the velocity of fluid flow.
 For determination of mass flow rate, the fluid to be isothermal or fluid density
needs to be known.
Direct Volume Flow Rate Measurement
 It needs a large device when the volume flow rate of fluid are high
 For a smaller device, the measured values may not be accurate
 During start or end of measurement, fluctuations in the measuring values are
observed because of the disturbances in opening or closing of valves
 The measurement the mass (volume) flow of the fluid and the time may not be
consistent.

Venturi Flow Meter

 The principle of Ventury effect is used to measure flow rate for ventury flow
meter
 A reduction in fluid pressure occurs when a fluid flows through a constricted
section of pipe. Pressure decreases as flow velocity increases across reduced
cross section
 The following formula derived from Bernoulli’s equation
 A1 and A2 are cross sectional area at inlet and throat of venturi. ρ is the mass
density of fluid.

 Actual flow rate measured by venturi meter

Where, H is the difference in static pressure head (P1– P2) measured across the
venturi meter, D1 is the diameter of upstream pipe and D2 is the diameter in the throat
section (lowest cross area),Cd is coefficient of discharge for the venturi device
Orifice Flow Meter
 The volume flow rate of liquid or gas is determined using the orifice flow meter
 This device creates a pressure drop across the orifice plate which varies with
the flow rate
 The formula for orifice meter is similar to that used for Venturi flow meter
Solenoid Valve Flow Meter
 The amount of flow of a fluid through the solenoid valve is generally calculated
with the flow coefficient (Kv)
 User has to note that for gases (like air, methane and oxygen etc.), the formula is
different with correction factor
  The Kv-value presents the volume flow rate of fluid in m3/hour in a valve with a
specified pressure drop at ambient temperature (1 bar and 20°C).
 If K-v volume flow rate is presented in m3/hour, then the kv-value can be
expressed in per unit time (l/min)
 The volume flow rate (Q) is calculated using the volume coefficient (K-v), the
density of the fluid (ρ), and pressure difference between inlet and outlet of pipe
(ΔP = P1 -P2 )

 The calculation of volume flow rate for liquid, gases, air and steam is given
below. In the following table, the variables are described as:

Q = volume flow rate of fluid (m3/h)

P1 = Inlet gauge pressure (bar)

P2 = Outlet gauge pressure (bar)

Qn = the normal flow rate (m3/h) for 20° temperature and 760 mmHg of pressure

t = Inlet fluid temperature (°C)

V1 = Inlet specific volume of fluid (m3/Kg )
V2 = Outlet specific volume of fluid (m3/Kg ) for outlet pressure (P2) and temperature
(t)

G = mass flow rate for steam (Kg/h)

Pitot Tubes
 The pitot tubes are widely used to measure air velocity in many applications like
air ventilation and airplanes
 The pitot tube is used to find the fluid flow velocity by converting the kinetic
energy (dynamic pressure) to the potential energy of the fluid
 The use of the pitot tube is limited to point measuring
 It can be an annular or multi-orifice type. The dynamic pressure (1/ρ*V^2) is
measured, and the annular is used to get the average velocity.
  The pitot tube is used to measure the air velocity around the aero plane. It is
mounted frontier of outer surface.

Turbine Flow meter

 The turbine flow meter is widely used for flow measurement in aerospace, pulp
and paper, water and wastewater treatment, power plant, food and processing
and chemical industries
 It has mainly mechanical (rotor) parts and electrical (frequency to voltage
converter) parts. There are many designs of turbine flow meters. But simple
design is shown below.
 The principle of the turbine flow meter is that as fluid moves through a pipe, the
rotor rotates. The rate of the rotor is measured to determine the volume flow
rate.
 In actual design, a digital display is placed above the rotor wheel to provide flow
rate directly instead of frequency.
 The following image is used only for demonstration of turbine flow meter

 The turndown ratios fur turbine flow meter can be more than 100:1
 For the turbine flow meter, the volumetric flow rate (Q) is proportional to the
output frequency (f) of the pickup coil. It is expressed as: Q = k*f
 Where Q is volume flow rate, f is the measured frequency and K is the specific
factor (pulses per unit volume) of turbine blade.

Vortex Flow Meter

 This flow meter created strong vortices in downstream of flow using an
obstruction. Every obstruction body has a vortex shedding frequency at a critical
fluid flow speed. Vortex shedding is the instance where alternating low-pressure
zones are generated downstream. Turbulent flow is created due to strong
vortices with vertex shedding frequency. Turbulent flow is unsteady and
possesses more rotating fluid masses (eddies) behind the body of the vertex
generator.
 Vortex shedding frequency (f) in fluid flow is directly proportional to the
velocity of fluid (V) in the pipe or volume flow rate of fluid (Q)
 The shedding frequency (f) is independent of fluid properties such as mass
density, viscosity and thermal conductivity. The volume flow rate is calculated
based on vortex shedding frequency

St = f (D/v)

Q = A*V = (A*f*D*B)/St,

Q = f*K

where St is the Strouhal Number, f is the Vortex Shedding Frequency, D is Width of the
Bluff Body, A is Cross Sectional Area of duct, V is the average Velocity, of fluid B is
Blockage Factor, K is the flow meter Coefficient
 A display is provided to get a direct reading of flow rate in Liter per minute
(LPM). The following image is used only for presentation only to show the parts
of vortex flow meter.
Variable Area Flowmeter or Rotameter
 The rotameter is a variable area flow meter. It comprises a vertically oriented
glass or transparent tapered tube.
 The smaller portion of the tapered tube is at kept the bottom and the larger
portion at the top. Water enters through the bottom and leaves from the top
section of the tube.
 A metering float is free to move up and down within the tapered tube as per the
net fluid force acting on it
 Fluid flow pushes the float to move up in the tapered tube as the upward
pressure difference and buoyancy force by overcoming the gravity force
  The float rises till the state of dynamic equilibrium of forces due to upward
differential pressure and buoyancy, and downward gravity
 The height of the float presents the flow rate. The scale (vertical movement) of
the float is calibrated in appropriate flow units (Litre/min).

Electromagnetic Flow Meter

 The working principle of magnetic fomenters is based on Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction (EMI). Magnetic flow meters is used to detect the
flow of conductive fluids only.
  The electromagnetic flowmeter has a coil housing, transmitter, and display unit
at the top. The inner surface has coating or Linear (PTPE)


o The electric field generated is a function of fluid velocity

E= B*D*C*V

where E is the Induced Voltage, B is the Magnetic Field Strength, D is the Inner
Diameter of Pipe, Vis the average velocity of fluid , C is the Constant of flow meter

Ultrasonic Flow Meter

  Ultrasonic wave is passed through across the fluid flow using the transmitter and
a receiver
 Ultrasonic waves are also called Elastic waves which propagate through man
substances of solid, liquid, and gases
 Based on properties of ultrasonic waves, clamp-on flow meters with the unique
feature of being can be used to measure the flow rate of fluid in the
 In general, there are two types of ultrasonic flow meters as per the following
working principles:

Doppler Effect Ultrasonic Flowmeter

 This Flow meter uses based on the Doppler effect. The reflected ultrasonic
sound is used to calibrate the fluid velocity.
 After measuring the frequency shift between the source of ultrasonic frequency
source and the receiver and the fluid carrier
 The resulting frequency shift is called the Doppler Frequency. It is proportional
to velocity
 The Instantaneous flow rate, Q (t/h) is calculated using the following formula:
Q = K*H^n
where K is the flow rate constant, H is height of liquid level and n is the power
value

Transit Time Difference Ultrasonic (TTDU) Flow meter

 The measurement principle of this flow meter is based on a time difference

method using the ultrasound wave
 A sensor fitted at one side of pipe emit the ultrasonic wave and it is propagated
in the flowing fluid. The speed of sound wave propagation will increase in the
downstream direction but will decrease in the backward direction
 During the same propagation distance, there will be differences in transmission
times.
 The fluid velocity is calculated based on the difference between the up and down
transmission time
 The average velocity is calculated considering the cross-sectional velocity
distribution of the velocity across the pipe
  Velocity is calculated based on the diameter of pipe and mass and the difference
between signal transmission time

In the above equation, D is the diameter of pipe diameter. θ represents the angle of
the ultrasonic signal with respect to the flow direction. ΔT is the difference between for
upstream (Tup) and downstream (Tdown) transducers signal transmission times.

 The disadvantage of this flow meter, the flow rate depends on a cross-sectional
velocity profile

Thermal Mass Flow Meter

 This flow meter is used to measure the mass flow rate of fluid through the pipe
 This flow meter is also called thermal dispersion or immersible mass flow
meters
  The heat generated by the coil is transferred to the fluid by convective mode.
The mass flow rate is a function of the volume flow rate

 The actual mass flow rate is shown below. The display shows the volume flow
rate in Normal Meter Cubed per Hour (N M3/hr)
 Thermal mass flow meters are widely used in sugar mills, paper mills, and
Furnace and Engine testing for the measurement of air, water, and gases.

Coriolis Flow Meter

 Coriolis mass flow meter is used when the measured mass flow rate is affected
due to changes in temperature, pressure, viscosity, and density of fluid. In
industries, this meter can measure mass flow rate of gases, liquids, and slurries
 The mass flow measurement is based on the Coriolis forces. When fluid passes
through the U-shaped vibrating tube that cause angular harmonic oscillation.
 The U-shaped tube is energized with a fixed level of vibration. As a fluid
medium (gas or liquid) passes through the Coriolis tube, the momentum of fluid
will change vibrations in a tube, the twists tube results in a phase shift. This
phase shift is measured as a linear output Which is proportional to the volume
flow rate of fluid

 The phenomenon of vibrating tube is presented below

 Coriolis meters are considered the one of the most accurate flow meters
compared to other flow meters. This meter has excellent accuracy over wide
conditions and minimum maintenance cost
Advantages Coriolis Flow Meter

 A wide range of applications from adhesive, liquid nitrogen, Newtonian or non-

Newtonian liquids, slurries and dense gases
 This flow meter can also be used to measure liquid density
 No restriction for Reynolds number
 Flow rate is not affected due to changes in inlet velocity profile.

Piezoelectric Ceramics Flow Meter

 Piezo cermaic platea are placed around the tube. As fluid passes through the
tube, the piezo electric properties change. These changed properties can be
related to flow rate
Open Channel Flow Meter
Open channel flow meters are widely used for sewage pipes near the manholes, water
canals or streams, and rivers. Flumes and weirs are common in many applications

 Rectangular Weirs
 V-Notch Weirs,
 Parshall flumes
 Palmer Bowles flumes

The size of the flume or weir is decided based on the size of the channel, flow rate, and
amount of solids content in the water flow.

Triangular Wier ( V-Notch Flow Meter)

 Triangular weirs consist of a V shaped opening (or notch). These notches are
fitted over an open canal to measure real time flow rate of seepage water
 Measurement is generally carried out manually by directly fixing the V-notch
plate or on a staff gauge fitted to the basin wall
 Notch is specified with height, width and angle of openings. Flow rate is a
function of geometric parameter of notches as shown in the following figures
  Weirs acts as a barrier plate which can be installed across the water streams or
open channel to measure volume flow rate of water.
 A weir plate constraint the flow in an open channel with a fixed-size opening.
Three shapes of weirs such as rectangular, trapezoidal and triangular are
commonly used
 Based on measurement of height and width of water flow, volume flow rate can
be calculated as follows.

Parshall Flume Flow Meter

 Normally in power plant, this type of arrangement is installed. River/reservoir

water coming to plant is measured.
  The amount of fluid flow through Parshall flume depends on geometric
parameters such as converging or diverging angle and dimensions of throat
section

Q = C*Hn

Where Q is flow rate, C is the free-flow coefficient and H is the head at throat section.
The constant, n depends on the flume size.

 Ultrasonic flow meter can used to measure flow rate of open canal flow
 Summary

 Flow meters are mainly tw0 types mechanical and differential pressure type.
Most of the flow meters measure volume flow rate.
 The ideal flow meter should have a high turndown ratio, minimum pressure loss,
low initial and maintenance cost, and high accuracy for a wide range
 Electromagnetic, Coriolis, and solenoid flow meters provide better accuracy

References

 Bela G. Liptak, Flow Measurement, 1st edition, CRC Press (1993)

 Paul J. LaNasa, E. Loy Upp, Fluid Flow Measurement: A Practical Guide to
Accurate Flow Measurement, 3rd edition, Butterworth-Heinemann (2014)
 David W. Spitzer, Industrial Flow Measurement, 3rd edition, Instrument
Society of America (2005)

You Tube Video on Flow Meters

 Basic of Flow Measurement and details of 12 most popular flow meters

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 Created on October 30, 2022 By Dr. Sharad Pachpute

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