Byzantine Empire
by Mark Cartwright
published on 19 September 2018
The Byzantine Empire existed
from 330 to 1453. It is often
called the Eastern Roman
Empire or simply Byzantium.
The Byzantine capital was
founded at Constantinople by
Constantine I (r. 306-337). The
Byzantine Empire varied in size
over the centuries, at one time or
another, possessing territories
located in Italy, Greece, the
Balkans, Levant, Asia Minor, and
North Africa.
The Virgin and Child Mosaic, Hagia
Byzantium was a Christian state
with Greek as the official Sophia
language. The Byzantines Hagia Sophia Research Team (CC BY-NC-SA)
developed their own political
systems, religious practices, art, and architecture. These were all
significantly influenced by the Greco-Roman cultural tradition but
were also distinct and not merely a continuation of ancient Rome.
The Byzantine Empire was the longest-lasting medieval power, and
its influence continues today, especially in the religion, art,
architecture, and laws of many Western states, Eastern and Central
Europe, and Russia.
The Name 'Byzantine' & Dates
The name 'Byzantine' was coined by 16th-century historians based
on the fact that the capital city's first name was Byzantium before it
changed to Constantinople (modern Istanbul). It was and continues
to be a less-than-perfect but convenient label which differentiates
the Eastern Roman Empire from the Western Roman Empire,
especially important after the fall of the latter in the 5th century.
Indeed, for this reason, there is no universal agreement amongst
historians as to what period of time the term 'Byzantine Empire'
actually refers to. Some scholars select 330 and the foundation of
Constantinople, others the Fall of the Western Roman Empire in
476, still others prefer the failure of Justinian I (r. 527-565) to unify
the two empires in 565, and some even plum for c. 650 and the Arab
conquest of Byzantium's eastern provinces. Most historians do agree
that the Byzantine Empire terminated on Tuesday 29 May 1453,
when the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II (r.1444-6 & 1451-81) conquered
Constantinople.
The discussion of dates also
highlights the differences in
the ethnic and cultural mix CONSTANTINOPLE BECAME
between the two halves of the
Roman world and the THE RICHEST, MOST LAVISH
distinctness of the medieval & MOST IMPORTANT
state from its earlier Roman CHRISTIAN CITY IN THE
heritage. The Byzantines
called themselves 'Romans', WORLD.
their emperor was basileon ton
Rhomaion or 'Emperor of the
Romans' and their capital was 'New Rome'. However, the most
common language was Greek, and it is fair to say that for the vast
majority of its history, the Byzantine Empire was much more Greek
than Roman in cultural terms.
Constantinople
The beginnings of the Byzantine Empire lie in the decision of
Roman emperor Constantine I to relocate the capital of the Roman
Empire from Rome to Byzantium on 11 May 330. The popular name
Constantinople or 'City of Constantine' soon replaced the emperor's
own official choice of 'New Rome'. The new capital had an excellent
natural harbour on the Golden Horn inlet and, straddled on the
border between Europe and Asia, could control the passage of ships
through the Bosphorus from the Aegean to the Black Sea, linking
lucrative trade between west and east. A great chain stretched across
the Golden Horn's entrance, and the construction of the massive
Theodosian Walls between 410 and 413 meant that the city was able
to withstand time and again concerted attacks from both sea and
land. Over the centuries, as more spectacular buildings were added,
the cosmopolitan city became one of the finest of any epoch and
certainly the richest, most lavish and most important Christian city
in the world.
Map of Byzantine Constantinople
Cplakidas (CC BY-SA)
Byzantine Emperors
The Byzantine emperor or basileus (or more rarely basilissa for
empress) resided in the magnificent Great Palace of Constantinople
and ruled as an absolute monarch over a vast empire. As such, the
basileus needed the assistance of an expert government and a
widespread and efficient bureaucracy. Although an absolute ruler, an
emperor was expected - by his government, people and the Church
- to rule wisely and justly. Even more importantly, an emperor had
to have military success as the army remained the most powerful
institution in Byzantium in real terms. The generals in
Constantinople and the provinces could - and did - remove an
emperor who failed to defend the empire's borders or who brought
economic catastrophe. Still, in the normal run of events, the
emperor was commander-in-chief of the army, head of the Church
and government, he controlled the state finances and appointed or
dismissed nobles at will; few rulers before or since have ever wielded
such power.
The emperor's image
appeared on Byzantine coins,
which were also used to show THROUGH A CAREFULLY
a chosen successor, often the
eldest son, but not always as ORCHESTRATED CONTINUITY
there were no set rules for OF DYNASTIES, RITUAL,
succession. Emperors were COSTUME & NAMES, THE
thought to have been chosen
by God to govern, but a INSTITUTION OF THE
magnificent crown and robes BYZANTINE EMPEROR WAS
of Tyrian purple helped ABLE TO LAST FOR 12
further bolster the right to
rule. Another marketing
CENTURIES.
strategy was to copy the reign
names of illustrious
predecessors, Constantine being a particular favourite. Even
usurpers, typically military men of power and success, very often
sought to legitimise their position by marrying a member of their
predecessors family. Thus, through a carefully orchestrated
continuity of dynasties, ritual, costume, and names, the institution
of the emperor was able to last for 12 centuries.
Byzantine Government
The Byzantine government followed the patterns established in
imperial Rome. The emperor was all-powerful but was still expected
to consult such important bodies as the Senate. The Senate in
Constantinople, unlike in Rome, was composed of men who had
risen through the ranks of the military service, and so there was no
senatorial class as such. Without elections, Byzantine senators,
ministers, and local councillors largely acquired their position
through imperial patronage or because of their status as large
landowners.
Justinian I
Sponsored by a Greek banker, Julius Argentarius (CC BY-NC-SA)
The elite senators made up the small sacrum consistorium which the
emperor was, in theory, supposed to consult on matters of state
importance. In addition, the emperor might consult members of his
personal entourage at court. Also at court were the eunuch
chamberlains (cubicularii) who served the emperor in various
personal duties but who could also control access to him. Eunuchs
held positions of responsibility themselves, chief amongst these
being the holder of the emperor's purse, the sakellarios, whose
powers would increase significantly from the 7th century. Other
important government officials included the quaestor or chief legal
officer; the comes sacrarum largitionum who controlled the state mint;
the magister officiorum who looked after the general administration of
the palace, the army and its supplies, as well as foreign affairs; and a
team of imperial inspectors who kept an eye on affairs in local
councils across the empire.
The top official in Byzantium, though, was the Praetorian Prefect of
the East to whom all regional governors of the empire were
accountable. The regional governors supervised the individual city
councils or curae. Local councillors were responsible for all public
services and the collection of taxes in their town and its surrounding
lands. These councils were organised geographically into 100 or so
provinces which were themselves arranged into 12 dioceses, three in
each of the empire's four prefectures. From the 7th century the
regional governors of the dioceses, or themes as they became known
after a restructuring, in effect, became provincial military
commanders (strategoi) who were directly responsible to the
emperor himself, and the Praetorian Prefect was abolished. After the
8th century the administration of the empire, due to the increased
military threat from neighbours and internal civil wars, became
much more simplified than previously.
Corpus Juris Civilis
Byzantine government was greatly assisted by the creation of the
Justinian Code or Corpus Juris Civilis (Corpus of Civil Law) by
Justinian I. The corpus, drawn up by a panel of legal experts,
collected, edited, and revised the huge body of Roman laws which
had been accumulated over the centuries - a massive number of
imperial edicts, legal opinions, and lists of crimes and punishments.
The code, composed of over a million words, would last for 900
years, make the laws clearer for all, reduce the number of cases
unnecessarily brought before the courts, speed up the judicial
process and influence most legal systems in western democracies
thereafter.
Byzantine Society
The Byzantines gave great importance to the family name, inherited
wealth, and the respectable birth of an individual. The individuals in
the higher levels of society possessed these three things. Wealth
came from land ownership or the administration of land under an
individual administrator's jurisdiction. However, there was no
aristocracy of blood as such in Byzantine society, and both
patronage and education were a means to climb the social ladder. In
addition, the dispensing of favours, lands, and titles by emperors, as
well as indiscriminate demotions and the hazards of foreign
invasions and wars, all meant that the individual components of the
nobility were not static and families rose and fell over the centuries.
Rank was visible to all members of society through the use of titles,
seals, insignia, particular clothing, and personal jewellery.
Byzantine Ivory Diptych Panel
Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright)
Most in the lower classes would have followed the profession of their
parents, but inheritance, the accumulation of wealth, and a lack of
any formal prohibition for one class to move to another did at least
offer a small possibility for a person to better their social position.
There were workers with better jobs such as those who worked in
legal affairs, administration, and commerce (not a very esteemed
way to make a living for the Byzantines). On the next rung down
were artisans, then farmers who owned their own small parcels of
land, then the largest group - those who worked the land of others,
and finally, slaves who were typically prisoners of war but nowhere
near as numerous as free labourers.
The role of Byzantine women, as with the men, depended on their
social rank. Aristocratic women were expected to manage the home
and care for the children. Although able to own property, they could
not hold public office and spent their free time weaving, shopping,
going to church or reading (although they had no formal education).
Widows became the guardian of their children and could inherit
equally with their brothers. Many women worked, as men, in
agriculture and various manufacturing industries and food services.
Women could own their own land and businesses, and some would
have improved their social position through marriage. The least
respected professions were, as elsewhere, prostitutes and actresses.
Territories of the Byzantine Empire
The geographical extent of the Byzantine Empire changed over the
centuries as the military successes and failures of individual
emperors fluctuated. Territories which were held in the earlier part
of the empire's history included Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, and
Palestine. Greece was less important in practical terms than it was as
a symbol of the Byzantine's view of themselves as the true heirs of
the Greco-Roman culture. Italy and Sicily had to be defended,
ultimately unsuccessfully, against the ambitions of the Popes and the
Normans. The Balkans up to the Danube River were important
throughout, and Asia Minor up to the Black Sea coast in the north
and Armenia in the east was a major source of wealth, but both these
regions would require regular and vigorous defence against various
perennial enemies.
As the political map was constantly redrawn with the rise and fall of
neighbouring empires, notable events included Anastasios I (491-518)
successfully defending the empire against both the Persians and
Bulgars. Justinian I, aided by his gifted general Belisarius (c. 500-
565), won back territories in North Africa, Spain, and Italy which had
been lost by the western emperors. The Lombards in Italy and the
Slavs in the Balkans made inroads into the Empire during the
second half of the 6th century, a situation eventually reversed by
Heraclius (r. 610-641), effectively bringing the Persian Sasanian
Empire to an end with his victory at Nineveh in 627.
Map of the Byzantine Empire, c.520 - 1204
Simeon Netchev (CC BY-NC-ND)
The Islamic conquests of the 7th and 8th century robbed the Empire
of its territories in the Levant (including Jerusalem in 637), North
Africa and eastern Asia Minor. At least, though, the Empire stood
firm as a bulwark against the Arab expansion into Europe, with
Constantinople twice withstanding determined Arab sieges (674-8
and 717-18). The Byzantine Empire was shaken to its foundations,
though. Then in the 9th century, the Bulgars made significant
incursions into the northern areas of the Empire. A resurgence in
Byzantine fortunes came with the (inappropriately named)
Macedonian dynasty (867-1057). The founder of the dynasty, Basil I
(r. 867-886), reconquered southern Italy, dealt with the troublesome
Cretan pirates, and gained victories against the Arabs on Cyprus,
mainland Greece and in Dalmatia. The very next emperor, Leo VI (r.
886-912) lost most of the gains, but the mid-10th century saw
victories in Muslim-controlled Mesopotamia.
Basil II (r. 976-1025), known as the 'Bulgar-Slayer' for his victories in
the Balkans, oversaw another startling upturn in Byzantine fortunes.
Basil, helped by an army of fierce warriors of Viking descent from
Kiev, also won victories in Greece, Armenia, Georgia, and Syria,
doubling the size of the Empire. It was though, the last great hurrah
as a gradual decline set in. After the shocking defeat to the Seljuks at
the Battle of Manzikert in Armenia in 1071, a brief revival occurred
under Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081-1118) with victories against the
Normans in Dalmatia, the Pechenegs in Thrace, and the Seljuks in
Palestine and Syria (with the help of the First Crusaders), but there
seemed to be too many enemies in too many regions for the
Byzantines to prosper indefinitely.
In the 12th and 13th century the Sultanate of Rum took half of Asia
Minor, and then disaster struck when the armies of the Fourth
Crusade sacked Constantinople in 1204. Carved up between Venice
and its allies, the Empire existed only in exile before a restoration in
1261. By the 14th century the Empire consisted of a small area in the
tip of southern Greece and a chunk of territory around the capital.
The final blow came, as already mentioned, with the Ottoman sack
of Constantinople in 1453.
The Byzantine Church
Paganism continued to be practised for centuries after the
foundation of Byzantium, but it was Christianity which became the
defining feature of Byzantine culture, profoundly affecting its
politics, foreign relations, and art and architecture. The Church was
headed by the Patriarch or bishop of Constantinople, who was
appointed or removed by the emperor. Local bishops, who presided
over larger towns and their surrounding territories and who
represented both the church and emperor, had considerable wealth
and powers in their local communities. Christianity, then, became
an important common denominator which helped bind together
diverse cultures into a single empire which included Christian
Greeks, Armenians, Slavs, Georgians, and many other minorities,
and those of other faiths such as Jews and Muslims who were
permitted to freely practise their religion.
Icon of Saint Basil
Unknown Artist (Public Domain)
The differences in the eastern and western church was one of the
reasons that the Byzantine Empire received such a poor
representation in western medieval histories. Frequently Byzantines
were portrayed as decadent and shifty, their culture stagnant, and
their religion a dangerous heresy. The churches of the east and west
disagreed on who should have priority, the Pope or the Patriarch of
Constantinople. Matters of doctrine were also contested, such as did
Jesus Christ have one human and one divine nature combined or
just a divine nature. Clerical celibacy, the use of leavened or
unleavened bread, the language of service, and the use of imagery
were all points of differences, which, with the fuel of political and
territorial ambitions added into the volatile mix of emotions, led to
the Church Schism of 1054.
The Byzantine church also had its own internal disputes, most
infamously the iconoclasm or 'destruction of images' of 726-787 and
814-843. The Popes and many Byzantines supported the use of icons
- representations of holy figures but especially Jesus Christ. Those
against icons believed they had become idols and it was
blasphemous to think that God could be represented in art. The
issue also reignited the debate over whether Christ had two natures
or one and whether an icon, therefore, only represented the human.
Defenders of icons said that they were merely an artist's impression
and helped the illiterate better understand the divine. During the
wave of iconoclasm, many precious artworks were destroyed,
especially during the reigns of Leo III (r. 717-741) and his successor
Constantine V (r. 741-775) when even people who venerated icons
(iconophiles) were persecuted. The issue was resolved in favour of
icons in 843, an event known as the “Triumph of Orthodoxy".
Monasticism was a particular feature of Byzantine religious life. Men
and women retired to monasteries where they devoted their lives to
Christ and helping the poor and sick. There they lived a simple life
according to rules laid out by such important church figures as Basil
the Great (c. 330 - c. 379). Many monks were also scholars, most
famously Saint Cyril (d. 867) who invented the Glagolitic alphabet. A
notable woman who used her time of retreat well was Anna
Komnene (1083-1153), who wrote her Alexiad on the life and reign of
her father Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081-1118). Monasteries thus
became invaluable repositories of texts and knowledge while their
wine-production and icon workshops were greatly appreciated, too.
One of the most celebrated monastic sites is Mount Athos near
Thessalonica, where monks established themselves from the 9th
century, eventually building 46 monasteries there, many of which
survive today.
Byzantine Book Cover with Icon
The Metropolitan Museum of Art (Copyright)
Byzantine Art
Byzantine artists moved away from the naturalism of the Classical
tradition towards the more abstract and universal, displaying a
definite preference for two-dimensional representations. The rarity
of signatures on works of art produced before the 13th century
suggests that artists did not enjoy a high social status. Artworks
which promoted a religious message - principally the need for
salvation and a reinforcement of faith - were produced in huge
numbers and chief amongst these were wall mosaics, wall paintings,
and icons. Although icons could take almost any form of material,
the most popular were small painted wooden panels. Designed to be
carried or hung on walls, they were made using the encaustic
technique where coloured pigments were mixed with wax and
burned into the wood as an inlay. With the purpose of facilitating
communication between the onlooker and the divine, the single
figures are typically full frontal with a nimbus or halo around them
to emphasise their holiness.
Byzantine mosaics, best seen today in the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul
or the church of San Vitale in Ravenna, represented holy figures,
emperors and empresses, church officials, and scenes of daily life,
especially in agriculture. Large-scale sculpture seems to have been
less popular than in earlier antiquity, but sculpted marble
sarcophagi were produced in great numbers. Finally, metalwork,
especially incorporating enamel-work and cabochon semi-precious
stones, was a Byzantine speciality, and artisans produced many high-
quality and intricately designed plates, cups, jewellery of all kinds,
book covers (especially for Bibles), and reliquaries (boxes for keeping
holy relics).
Byzantine Architecture
Byzantine architects continued to employ the Classical orders in
their buildings and took ideas from the Near East, amongst other
places. Designs became more eclectic than in antiquity, especially
given the common habit of reusing the materials from older
buildings for new structures. There was, too, a definite emphasis on
function over form and a greater concern with the interiors rather
than exteriors of buildings. Continuing to build such
quintessentially Roman structures as arched aqueducts,
amphitheatres, hippodromes, baths and villas, the Byzantines would
add to the repertoire with their domed churches, walled
monasteries, and more sophisticated fortification walls.
Hagia Sophia Interior
Mark Cartwright (CC BY-NC-SA)
Favoured building materials were large bricks with mortar and
concrete for the hidden core of walls. Ashlar stone blocks were used
in more prestigious public buildings while marble, used more
sparingly than in earlier Roman times, was generally reserved for
columns, door and window frames, and other decorative elements.
Roofs were of timber while interior walls were frequently covered in
plaster, stucco, thin marble plaques, paintings, and mosaics.
The largest, most important and still most famous Byzantine
building is the Hagia Sophia of Constantinople, dedicated to the
holy wisdom (hagia sophia) of God. Built anew in 532-537, its basic
rectangular shape measures 74.6 x 69.7 metres (245 x 229 ft) and its
huge domed ceiling is 55 metres above the floor, spanning 31.8
metres in diameter. Resting on four massive arches with four
supporting pendentives, the dome was a spectacular architectural
achievement for the period. The Hagia Sophia remained the biggest
church in the world until the 16th century and was one of the most
decorated with superb glittering mosaics and wall paintings.
Christian churches, in general, were one of the Byzantine's greatest
contributions to architecture, especially the use of the dome. The
cross-in-square plan became the most common with the dome built
over four supporting arches. The square base of the building then
branched into bays which might themselves have a half or full dome
ceiling. Another common feature is a central apse with two side-
apses at the eastern end of the church. Over time, the central dome
was raised ever higher on a polygonal drum, which in some
churches is so high it has the appearance of a tower. Many churches,
especially basilicas, had alongside them a baptistry (usually
octagonal), and sometimes a mausoleum for the founder of the
church and their descendants. Such Byzantine design features would
go on to influence Orthodox Christian architecture and so are still
seen today in churches worldwide.
Bibliography
Bagnall, R. The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
Brownworth, L. Lost to the West. Broadway Books, 2010.
Gregory, T.E. A History of Byzantium. Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
Herrin, J. Byzantium. Princeton University Press, 2009.
Mango, C. The Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford University Press, 2002.
Norwich, J.J. A Short History of Byzantium by John Julius Norwich. Knopf, 2018.
Shepherd, J. The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire c.500-1492. Cambridge University
Press, 2009.
About the Author
Mark Cartwright
Mark is a full-time writer, researcher, historian, and editor. Special interests include art,
architecture, and discovering the ideas that all civilizations share. He holds an MA in
Political Philosophy and is the WHE Publishing Director.
Cite This Work
APA Style
Cartwright, M. (2018, September 19). Byzantine Empire. World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved
from https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/
Chicago Style
Cartwright, Mark. "Byzantine Empire." World History Encyclopedia. Last modified September 19,
2018. https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/.
MLA Style
Cartwright, Mark. "Byzantine Empire." World History Encyclopedia. World History Encyclopedia,
19 Sep 2018, https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/. Web. 15 Jul 2025.
Submitted by Mark Cartwright, published on 19 September 2018. The copyright holder has
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