CS228 Logic for Computer Science 2021

Lecture 3: Semantics and truth tables

Instructor: Ashutosh Gupta

IITB, India

Compile date: 2021-01-12

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 Topic 3.1

Semantics - meaning of the formulas

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Truth values

We denote the set of truth values as B , {0, 1}.

0 and 1 are only distinct objects without any intuitive meaning.

We may view 0 as false and 1 as true, but it is only our emotional response to the symbols.

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Model

Definition 3.1
A model is an element of Vars → B.

Example 3.1
{p1 7→ 1, p2 7→ 0, p3 7→ 0, . . . } is a model

Since Vars is countable, the set of models is non-empty and infinite.

A model m may or may not satisfy a formula F .

The satisfaction relation is usually denoted by m |= F in infix notation.

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Propositional Logic Semantics
Definition 3.2
The satisfaction relation |= between models and formulas is the smallest relation that satisfies
the following conditions.
I m |= >
I m |= p if m(p) = 1
I m |= ¬F if m 6|= F
I m |= F1 ∨ F2 if m |= F1 or m |= F2
I m |= F1 ∧ F2 if m |= F1 and m |= F2
I m |= F1 ⊕ F2 if m |= F1 or m |= F2 , but not both
I m |= F1 ⇒ F2 if if m |= F1 then m |= F2
I m |= F1 ⇔ F2 if m |= F1 iff m |= F2

Exercise 3.1
Why ⊥ is not explicitly mentioned in the above definition?
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Example: satisfaction relation

Example 3.2
Consider model m = {p1 7→ 1, p2 7→ 0, p3 7→ 0, . . . } and formula (p1 ⇒ (¬p2 ⇔ (p1 ∧ p3 )))

m 6|=(p1 ⇒ (¬p2 ⇔ (p1 ∧ p3 )))

m |= p1 m 6|= (¬p2 ⇔ (p1 ∧ p3 ))

m |=¬p2 m 6|=(p1 ∧ p3 )

m 6|= p2 m |= p1 m 6|= p3

Exercise 3.2
Formally, write the satisfiability checking procedure .

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Satisfiable, valid, unsatisfiable

We say
I m satisfies F if m |= F ,
I F is satisfiable if there is a model m such that m |= F ,
I F is valid (written |= F ) if for each model m m |= F , and
I F is unsatisfiable (written 6|= F ) if there is no model m such that m |= F .

Exercise 3.3
If F is sat then ¬F is .
If F is valid then ¬F is .
If F is unsat then ¬F is .

A valid formula is also called a tautology.

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Overloading |= : set of models
We extend the usage of |= in the following natural ways.

Definition 3.3
Let M be a (possibly infinite) set of models. M |= F if for each m ∈ M, m |= F .

Example 3.3
{{p → 1, q → 1}, {p → 1, q → 0}} |= p ∨ q

Exercise 3.4
Which of the following hold?
I {{p → 1, q → 1}, {p → 0, q → 0}} |= p
I {{p → 1, q → 1}} |= p ∧ q
I {{pi → (k = i)|i ∈ N}|k ∈ N} |= p1

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Overloading |= : set of formulas
Definition 3.4
Let Σ be a (possibly infinite) set of formulas.
Σ |= F if for each model m that satisfies each formula in Σ, m |= F .

I Σ |= F is read Σ implies F .
I If {G } |= F then we may write G |= F .

Example 3.4 Exercise 3.5

{p, q} |= p ∨ q Which of the following hold?
I {p, q} |= p ∧ q
I {p ⇒ q, q ⇒ p} |= p ⇔ q
I {p ⇒ q, q} |= p ⊕ q
I {p ⇒ q, ¬q, p} |= p ⊕ q
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Equivalent

Definition 3.5
Let F ≡ G if for each model m

m |= F iff m |= G .

Example 3.5
(p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r )

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 Equisatisfiable and Equivalid

Definition 3.6
Formulas F and G are equisatisfiable if

F is sat iff G is sat.

Definition 3.7
Formulas F and G are equivalid if
|= F iff |= G .

Commentary: The concept of equisatisfiable is used in formula transformations. We often say that after a transformation the formula remained equisatisfiable. Equivalid
is the dual concept, rarely used in practice.
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 Topic 3.2

Decidability of SAT

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Notation alert: decidable

A problem is decidable if there is an

algorithm to solve the problem.

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Propositional satisfiability problem
The following problem is called the satisfiability problem

For a given F ∈ P, is F satisfiable?

Theorem 3.1
The propositional satisfiability problem is decidable.

Proof.
Let n = |Vars(F )|.
We need to enumerate 2n elements of Vars(F ) → B.

If any of the models satisfy the formula, then F is sat. Otherwise, F is unsat.

Exercise 3.6
Give a procedure to decide the validity of a formula.
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Complexity of the decidability question?

I If we enumerate all models to check satisfiability, the cost is exponential

I We do not know if we can do better.

I However, there are several tricks that have made satisfiability checking practical for the
real-world formulas.

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 Topic 3.3

Truth tables

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Truth tables

Truth tables was the first method to decide propositional logic.

The method is usually presented in slightly different notation. We need to assign a truth value to
every formula.

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Truth function

A model m is in Vars → B.

We can extend m to P → B in the following way.

(
1 m |= F
m(F ) =
0 otherwise.

The extended m is called truth function.

Since truth functions are natural extensions of models, we did not introduce new symbols.

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Truth functions for logical connectives

Let F and G be logical formulas, and m be a model.

Due to the semantics of the propositional logic, the following holds for the truth functions.

m(F ) m(¬F )
0 1
1 0

m(F ) m(G ) m(F ∧ G ) m(F ∨ G ) m(F ⊕ G ) m(F ⇒ G ) m(F ⇔ G )

0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 1 1

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 Truth table
For a formula F , a truth table consists of 2|Vars(F )| rows. Each row considers one of the models
and computes the truth value of F for each of them.
Example 3.6
Consider (p1 ⇒ (¬p2 ⇔ (p1 ∧ p3 ))). We will not write m(.) in the top row for brevity.

p1 p2 p3 (p1 ⇒ ( ¬ p2 ⇔ ( p1 ∧ p3 )))
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
The column under the leading connective has 1s therefore the formula is sat. But, there are some
0s in the column CS228
cbna
therefore the formula is not valid. Instructor: Ashutosh Gupta
Logic for Computer Science 2021 IITB, India 20
 Example : DeMorgan law

Example 3.7
Let us show p ∨ q ≡ ¬(¬p ∧ ¬q).

p q (p ∨ q) ¬ (¬ p ∧ ¬ q)
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

Since the truth values of both the formulas are same in each row, the formulas are equivalent.

Exercise 3.7
Show p ∧ q ≡ ¬(¬p ∨ ¬q) using a truth table
Commentary: p ∧ q ≡ ¬(¬p ∨ ¬q) and p ∨ q ≡ ¬(¬p ∧ ¬q) are called DeMorgan law.
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Example : definition of ⇒

Example 3.8
Let us show p ⇒ q ≡ (¬p ∨ q).

p q (p ⇒ q) (¬ p ∨ q)
0 0 1 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 1 1

Since the truth values of both the formulas are same in each row, the formulas are equivalent.

It appears that ⇒ is a redundant symbol. We can write it in terms of the other symbols.

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Example : definition of ⇔

Example 3.9
Let us show p ⇔ q ≡ (p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ p).

p q (p ⇔ q) (p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ p)
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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Example: definition ⊕

Example 3.10
Let us show (p ⊕ q) ≡ (¬p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ ¬q) using truth table.

p q (p ⊕ q) (¬ p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ ¬ q)
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1

Exercise 3.8
Show (p ⊕ q) ≡ (¬p ∨ ¬q) ∧ (p ∨ q)

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Example: associativity

Example 3.11
Let us show (p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r )

p q r (p ∧ q) ∧ r p ∧ (q ∧ r)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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Exercise: associativity

Exercise 3.9
Prove/disprove using truth tables
I (p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r )
I (p ⊕ q) ⊕ r ≡ p ⊕ (q ⊕ r )
I (p ⇔ q) ⇔ r ≡ p ⇔ (q ⇔ r )
I (p ⇒ q) ⇒ r ≡ p ⇒ (q ⇒ r )

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Exercise: distributivity

Exercise 3.10
Prove/disprove using truth tables prove that ∧ distributes over ∨ and vice-versa.
I p ∨ (q ∧ r ) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r )
I p ∧ (q ∨ r ) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r )

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Tedious truth tables

I We need to write 2n rows even if a simple observation about the formula prove
(un)satisfiability.

For example,
I (a ∨ (c ∧ a)) is sat (why? - no negation)
I (a ∨ (c ∧ a)) ∧ ¬(a ∨ (c ∧ a)) is unsat (why?- contradiction at top level)

I We should be able to take such shortcuts?

We will see methods that will allow us to

take such shortcuts. But not now!

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 Topic 3.4

Expressive power of propositional logic

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Boolean functions

A finite boolean function is in B n → B.

A formula F with Vars(F ) = {p1 , . . . , pn } can be viewed as a Boolean function f that is defined
as follows.
for each model m, f (m(p1 ), . . . , m(pn )) = m(F )
We say F represents f .

Example 3.12
Formula p1 ∨ p2 represents the following function

f = {(0, 0) → 0, (0, 1) → 1, (1, 0) → 1, (1, 1) → 1}

A Boolean function is another way of writing truth table.

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Expressive power
Theorem 3.2
For each finite boolean function f , there is a formula F that represents f .

Proof.
Let f : B n → B. We construct a formula F to represent f .

Let pi0 , ¬pi and pi1 , pi .

(
n (p1b1 ∧ · · · ∧ pnbn ) if f (b1 , . . . , bn ) = 1
For (b1 , . . . , bn ) ∈ B , let F(b1 ,...,bn ) ,
⊥ otherwise.

F , F(0,...,0) ∨ · · · ∨ F(1,...,1)
| {z } We used only three logical
All Boolean combinations connectives to construct F
Exercise 3.11
Workout if F really represents f .
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 Insufficient expressive power

If we do not have sufficiently many logical connectives, we cannot represent all Boolean functions.

Example 3.13
∧ alone can not express all boolean functions.

To prove this we show that Boolean function f = {0 → 1, 1 → 1} can not be achieved by any
combination of ∧s.

We setup induction over the sizes of formulas consisting a variable p and ∧.

Commentary: We are assuming that only one variable occurs in the formula, since there is exactly one input to f . Our definition of “represents” requires the number of
variables must match the arity of the function.
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Insufficient expressive power II

base case:
Only choice is p.(why?) For p = 0, the function does not match.

induction step:
Let us assume that formulas F and G of size less than n − 1 do not represent f .
We can construct a longer formula in the following way.

(F ∧ G )

The formula does not represent f , because we can always pick(why?) a model when F or G
produces 0.

Therefore ∧ alone is not expressive enough.

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Minimal logical connectives
We used
I 2 0-ary,
I 1 unary, and
I 5 binary
connectives to describe the propositional logic.

However, it is not the minimal set needed for the maximum expressivity.
Example 3.14
¬ and ∨ can define the whole propositional logic.
I > ≡ p ∨ ¬p for some p ∈ Vars I (p ⊕ q) ≡ (p ∧ ¬q) ∨ (¬p ∧ q)
I ⊥ ≡ ¬> I (p ⇒ q) ≡ (¬p ∨ q)
I (p ∧ q) ≡ ¬(¬p ∨ ¬q) I (p ⇔ q) ≡ (p ⇒ q) ∧ (q ⇒ p)

Exercise 3.12
a. Show ¬ and ∧ can define all the other connectives b. Show ⊕ alone can not define ¬
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 Topic 3.5

Problems

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Semantics

Exercise 3.13
Show F (⊥/p) ∧ F (>/p) |= F |= F (⊥/p) ∨ F (>/p).

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Truth tables

Exercise 3.14
Prove/disprove validity of the following formulas using truth tables.
1. (p ⇒ (q ⇒ r )) ⇔ ((p ∧ q) ⇒ r ))
2. p ∧ (q ⊕ r ) ⇔ (p ∧ q) ⊕ (q ∧ r )
3. (p ∨ q) ∧ (¬q ∨ r ) ⇔ (p ∨ r )
4. ⊥ ⇒ F for any F

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Expressive power

Exercise 3.15
Show ¬ and ⊕ is not as expressive as propositional logic.

Exercise 3.16
Prove/disprove that the following subsets of connectives are fully expressive.
I ∨, ⊕
I ⊥, ⊕
I ⇒, ⊕
I ∨, ∧
I ⇒, ⊥

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Expressive power(2)

Exercise 3.17
Prove/disprove: if-then-else is fully expressive

Exercise 3.18
Show ⇒ alone can not express all the Boolean functions

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All minimal combinations*

Exercise 3.19
List all minimal subsets of the logical connectives that are fully expressive.

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Encode boolean functions***

Exercise 3.20
Find smallest formulas that encode the following functions over n inputs
I Encode parity function
I Encode majority function

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|= vs. ⇒

Exercise 3.21
Using truth table prove the following
I F |= G if and only if |= (F ⇒ G ).
I F ≡ G if and only if |= (F ⇔ G ).

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 Exercise: downward saturation
Exercise 3.22
Let us suppose we only have connectives ∧, ∨, or ¬ in our formulas. Consider a set Σ of
formulas such that
1. for each p ∈ Vars, p 6∈ Σ or ¬p 6∈ Σ
2. if ¬¬F ∈ Σ then F ∈ Σ
3. if (F ∧ G ) ∈ Σ then F ∈ Σ and G ∈ Σ
4. if ¬(F ∨ G ) ∈ Σ then ¬F ∈ Σ and ¬G ∈ Σ
5. if (F ∨ G ) ∈ Σ then F ∈ Σ or G ∈ Σ
6. if ¬(F ∧ G ) ∈ Σ then ¬F ∈ Σ or ¬G ∈ Σ
Show that Σ is satisfiable, i.e., there is a model that satisfies every formula in Σ.

Exercise 3.23
Given algorithm that extends a set Σ into a set of the formula that satisfy the above. Can we use
the algorithm as a satisfiability checker?
Commentary: Please note that the above does not hold if we drop any of the six conditions. You need to show that all six are needed.
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Exercise: counting models

Exercise 3.24
Let propositional variables p, q, are r be relevant to us. There are eight possible models to the
variables. Out of the eight, how many satisfy the following formulas?
1. p
2. p ∨ q
3. p ∨ q ∨ r
4. p ∨ ¬p ∨ r

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Exercise: universal connective

Let ∧ be a binary connective with the following truth table

m(F ) m(G ) m(F ∧G )

0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Exercise 3.25
a. Show ∧ can define all other connectives
b. Are there other universal connectives?

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 Topic 3.6

Extra slides: sizes of models

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Size of models

A model must assign value to all the variable, since it is a complete function.

However, we may not want to handle such an object.

In practice, we handle partial models. Often, without explicitly mentioning this.

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Partial models

Let m|Vars(F ) : Vars(F ) → B and for each p ∈ Vars(F ), m|Vars(F ) (p) = m(p)

Theorem 3.3
If m|Vars(F ) = m0 |Vars(F ) then m |= F iff m0 |= F

Proof sketch.
The procedure to check m |= F only looks at the Vars(F ) part of m. Therefore, any extension of
m|Vars(F ) will have same result either m |= F or m 6|= F .

Definition 3.8
We will call elements of Vars ,→ B as partial models.

Exercise 3.26
Write the above proof formally.

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 End of Lecture 3

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