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 Second Edition

GARDEN INSECTS
OF NORTH AMERICA
THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO BACKYARD BUGS
 Second Edition

GARDEN INSECTS
OF NORTH AMERICA
THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO BACKYARD BUGS

Whitney Cranshaw
and David Shetlar

PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS

PRINCETON AND OXFORD
 To entomology educators and the Cooperative Extension system
that so well foster the spirit of shared learning.

Copyright © 2018 by Princeton University Press

Published by Princeton University Press, 41 William Street, Princeton, New Jersey 08540

In the United Kingdom: Princeton University Press, 6 Oxford Street, Woodstock,

Oxfordshire OX20 1TR

nathist.princeton.edu

Photographs previous page: left ailanthus moth (Jim Kalisch, University of Nebraska);
above, center lizard beetle (Jim Kalisch, University of Nebraska); right bumble bee and
a solitary bee (Whitney Cranshaw); below, center “shell” of a cicada nymph discarded at
molting (David Shetlar).

All Rights Reserved

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Cranshaw, Whitney, author. | Shetlar, David J., author.

Title: Garden insects of North America : the ultimate guide to backyard bugs / Whitney
Cranshaw and David Shetlar.

Description: Second edition. | Princeton, New Jersey : Princeton University Press, 2017. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2017013286 | ISBN 9780691167442 (pbk. : alk. paper)

Subjects: LCSH: Garden pests—North America—Identification.

Classification: LCC SB605.N7 C73 2017 | DDC 635/.0496--dc23 LC record available at

https://lccn.loc.gov/2017013286

British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available

This book has been composed in Minion Pro (text) and Guess Sans (headings)

Printed on acid-free paper. ∞

Typeset and designed by D & N Publishing, Wiltshire, UK

Printed in China

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 CONTENTS
Preface 13
Acknowledgments 15

CHAPTER one Introduction to Garden Insects and Their Relatives 16

Arthropod Growth and Metamorphosis 18 Body Parts Useful in Diagnosing Garden

Insect Orders 20 Arthropods 30
Identification of Immature Stages of Common Types of Plant Injuries Caused
Arthropods 21 by Insects 31
Excreted and Secreted Products Useful in Plant Pathogens Transmitted by Insects
Diagnosing Garden Arthropods and Mites 39
and Slugs 28

CHAPTER Two Insects That Chew on Leaves and Needles 40

Grasshoppers 42 Giant Silkworms/Royal Moths 78

Field Crickets 46 Cecropia Moth 78
Other Crickets and Katydids 46 Other Giant Silkworms/Royal Moths 78
Common (Northern) Walkingstick 50 Slug Caterpillars/Flannel Moths and Other
Related Species 50 Stinging Caterpillars 84
European Earwig 52 Tussock Moths 86
Other Earwigs 52 Whitemarked Tussock Moth 86
Related and Similar Species 86
Cockroaches 54
Gypsy Moth 90
Imported Cabbageworm 56
Other Sulfur and White Butterflies 56 Woollybears 92
Swallowtails 58 Climbing Cutworms and Armyworms 94
Parsleyworm/Black Swallowtail 58 Variegated Cutworm 94
Other Swallowtails 60 Fall Armyworm 94
Beet Armyworm 96
Brushfooted Butterflies 62
Other Climbing Cutworms and Armyworms 96
Painted Lady/Thistle Caterpillar 62
Other Brushfooted Butterflies 62 Loopers 102
Cabbage Looper 102
Hornworms and Sphinx Moths 68
Other Common Garden Loopers 102
Tomato Hornworm and Tobacco
Hornworm 68 Cankerworms, Inchworms, and
Other Common Hornworms 70 Spanworms 104
Fall Cankerworm 104
Prominent Moths/Notodontids 74
Other Cankerworms, Inchworms, and
Walnut Caterpillar 74
Spanworms 106
Other Notodontids/Prominent Moths on
Shade Trees 74 Diamondback Moth 110
Skeletonizers 110
 CONTENTS

Bagworms and Casebearers 114 Tortoise Beetles 180

Bagworm 114 Golden Tortoise Beetle 180
Other Bagworms 116 Other Common Tortoise Beetles 181
Casebearers 118 Case-bearing Leaf Beetles 182
Caterpillars that Produce Cases of Leaf
Leaf Beetles that Skeletonize Leaves 184
Fragments 120
Leaf Beetles of Aquatic Plants 188
Caterpillars that Produce Small Silken
Flea Beetles 190
Shelters 122
Flea Beetles with Larvae that Develop on
Sod Webworms 122
“Garden Webworms” 126 Foliage 190
Crucifer Flea Beetle 192
Fruittree Leafroller 128
Other Flea Beetles with Larvae that Feed on
Other Leafrollers, Leaffolders, and Leaftiers 128
Roots 192
Skippers 138
Leaf-feeding Weevils 196
Caterpillars that Produce Large Silken
Japanese Beetle 202
Shelters and Tents 142
Other Leaf-feeding Scarabs 202
Mimosa Webworm 142
Mexican Bean Beetle 204
Other Webworms 142
Fall Webworm 146 Other Leaf-feeding Lady Beetles 204
Eastern Tent Caterpillar 148 Blister Beetles 206
Other Tent Caterpillars 148 Slugs and Snails 208
Other Tent-making Caterpillars 150 Gray Garden Slug 208
Webspinning Sawflies 152 Other Garden Slugs 208
Sawflies 154 Brown Garden Snail 212
European Pine Sawfly 154 Other Garden Snails 212
Other Conifer Sawflies 154 Leafminers and Needleminers 214
Imported Currantworm/Currant Sawfly 158 Vegetable Leafminer 214
Other Common Sawflies 158 Related Species 214
Other Sawflies that Chew on Leaves 164 Other Serpentine-type Leafmining Flies
Pearslug (Pear Sawfly, Cherry Slug) 166 and Caterpillars 216
Other Slug Sawflies 166 European Elm Flea Weevil 216
Texas Leafcutting Ant 168 Other Leafmining Weevils 218

Leafcutter Bees 168 Locust Leafminer 218

Other Blotch Leafmining Beetles 220
Leaf Beetles 170
Holly Leafminers 220
Colorado Potato Beetle 170
Asparagus Beetle 172 Spinach Leafminer 222
Related Species 172 Other Leafmining Flies 222
Striped Cucumber Beetle 174 Birch Leafminer 226
Related Species 174 Other Leafmining Sawflies 226
Other Leaf Beetle Defoliators 176 Lilac Leafminer 228
Other Lepidopteran Leafminers 228

6
 CONTENTS

Tentiform Leafminers 230 Other Gall-making Wasps that Develop on

Needleminers 232 Leaves 236
Gall Wasps that Develop on Leaves 234 Gall-making Flies that Develop on Leaves 236

CHAPTER Three Insects and Mites That Suck Fluids from Leaves
and Needles 240

Whiteflies 242 Miscellaneous Leafhoppers that Feed on

Greenhouse Whitefly 242 Phloem 288
Other Whiteflies 242 Leaffooted Bugs Associated with Foliage 292
Aphids 248 Squash Bug 292
Green Peach Aphid 250 Related Species 292
Cotton/Melon Aphid 254 Plant Bugs 294
Cabbage Aphid 254 Fourlined Plant Bug 294
“Woolly Aphids” 258 Garden Fleahopper 294
Mealybugs Associated Primarily with Other Leaf-feeding Plant Bugs 296
Foliage 260 Hairy Chinch Bug 298
Citrus Mealybug 260 Related and Similar Species 298
Longtailed Mealybug 260 Stink Bugs that Feed Primarily on Leaves 300
Other Mealybugs Observed on Foliage 262
Lace Bugs 302
Cochineal Scales 264
Thrips 304
Soft Scales Associated Primarily with Onion Thrips 304
Foliage 266 Other Thrips Associated with Foliage 304
Brown Soft Scale 266
Spider Mites 310
Other Soft Scales Observed on Foliage 266
Twospotted Spider Mite 310
Armored Scales Observed Primarily on Related Species 312
Foliage 270 European Red Mite 312
Pine Needle Scale 270 Spruce Spider Mite 312
Other Armored Scales Observed on Related Species 314
Foliage 270 Clover Mite 316
Psyllids 276 Related Species 316
Potato/Tomato Psyllid 276 Other Turfgrass Mites 316
Pear Psylla 278 Tarsonemid Mites 318
Other Psyllids 278 Cyclamen Mite 318
Leafhoppers 282 Related Species 318
Potato Leafhopper 282 False Spider Mites 318
Related Species 284
Rust Mites 320
Rose Leafhopper 284
Gall-making Aphids 322
Other Mesophyll-feeding Leafhoppers 286
Grape Phylloxera 324
Aster (or Sixspotted) Leafhopper 288

7
 CONTENTS

Other Phylloxeran Leaf Gall Producers 324 Other Psyllids that Distort or Produce Galls
Hackberry Nipplegall Maker 326 on Foliage 328
Other Gall-making Psyllids on Hackberry 326 Eriophyid Mites that Produce Leaf or Bud
Galls 328

CHAPTER Four Insects Associated with Stems, Twigs, Shoots,

and Canes 334

European Pine Shoot Moth 334 Woolly Apple Aphid 368

Other Moths that Develop in Shoots and Other Woolly Aphids on Twigs, Branches,
Terminal Growth of Conifers 334 and Trunks 368
White Pine Weevil 338 Adelgids that Develop on Twigs and
Other Beetles that Develop in Shoots and Terminals of Conifers 370
Terminal Growth of Conifers 338 Hemlock Woolly Adelgid 370
Flies that Develop in Shoots and Twigs of Other Adelgids Associated with Twigs and
Conifers 342 Terminals of Conifers 370
Moths that Develop in Shoots, Twigs, and Mealybugs Associated Primarily with
Canes of Deciduous Trees and Shrubs 342 Stems and Twigs 372
Rose Shoot Sawfly and Raspberry Horntail 346 Eriococcid Scales Commonly Observed on
Other Sawfly Shoot and Stem Borers 346 Twigs 374
European Elm Scale 374
Rednecked Cane Borer 348
Other Eriococcid Scales 376
Related Species 348
Soft Scales Observed Primarily on Twigs 378
Other Beetles Associated with Twigs and
European Fruit Lecanium 378
Small Branches 350
Other Lecanium-type Soft Scales 378
Flies that Develop in Shoots, Twigs, and
Striped Pine Scale 380
Canes of Deciduous Trees and Shrubs 356 Related and Similar Species 382
Squash Vine Borer 356 Cottony Maple Scale 382
European Corn Borer 358 Other Soft Scales Associated Primarily with
Other Stem-boring Moths of Herbaceous Twigs 384
Plants 358 Margarodid Scales Associated Primarily
Sawflies that Develop in Stems of with Twigs 386
Herbaceous Plants 360 Cottony Cushion Scale 386
Beetles that Develop in Stems of Other Margarodid Scales 386
Herbaceous Plants 362 Armored Scales that Develop Primarily on
Flies that Develop in Stems of Herbaceous Small Branches and Twigs 388
Plants 364 Oystershell Scale 388
Other Armored Scales Associated with
Pith-nesting Bees and Wasps 364
Twigs and Branches 390
Aphids that Develop on Stems, Twigs,
Kermes, Pit, and Falsepit Scales 394
Shoots, and Canes 366

8
 CONTENTS

Spittlebugs 396 Gall Wasps Associated with Twigs and

Planthoppers 400 Small Branches 410
Oak Rough Bulletgall Wasp 412
Treehoppers 402
Related Species 412
Buffalo Treehopper 402
Horned Oak Gall Wasp 414
Other Treehoppers 402
Related Species 414
Cicadas 406
Rose Gall Wasps 416
Periodical Cicadas 406 Other Gall Wasps 416
Other Cicadas 408
Flies and Caterpillars that Produce Galls in
Twig Wounding Produced by Egg Laying Stems and Twigs 418
and Oviposition Injuries 410
Cooley Spruce Gall Adelgid 422
Other Gall-making Adelgids 422

CHAPTER Five Insects Associated with Large Branches

and the Trunk of Trees and Shrubs 424

Clearwing Borers 424 Related Species 442

Ash/Lilac Borer 424 Other Longhorned Beetles Commonly
Other Clearwing Borers Associated with Found in Trees and Shrubs 444
Trunks and Branches 426 Poplar and Willow Borer 448
Carpenterworm 428 Other Trunk-boring Weevils 448
Other Carpenterworms 428 Horntails 450
Zimmerman Pine Moth 430 Pigeon Tremex 450
Other Pyralid Borers 430 Other Horntails 450
Metallic Wood Borers/Flatheaded Borers 432 Bark Beetles 452
Bronze Birch Borer 432 Shothole Borer 452
Emerald Ash Borer 434 Related Species 452
Related Species 436 Smaller European Elm Bark Beetle 454
Flatheaded Appletree Borer 438 Other Elm Bark Beetles 454
Related Species 438 Ash Bark Beetles 456
Longhorned Beetles/Roundheaded Borers 440 Southern Pine Beetle and Relatives 456
Locust Borer 440 Ips Beetles 458
Related Species 440 Ambrosia Beetles 460
Poplar Borer 442

CHAPTER Six Insects and Other Invertebrates Associated

with Roots, Tubers, Soil, and the Soil Surface 464

White Grubs 464 Other White Grubs Associated with Turfgrass 466
Northern Masked Chafer 464 White Grubs Associated Primarily with
Related Species 466 Garden Plants 470

9
 CONTENTS

Root Weevils 472 Carrot Rust Fly 504

Black Vine Weevil 472 European Crane Fly 504
Other Root-damaging Weevils 472 Other Flies Associated with the Root Area
Sweetpotato Weevil 476 of Turfgrass 506
Other Vegetable Weevils 476
Fungus Gnats 508
Bluegrass Billbug 478 Other Small Flies Associated with Indoor
Other Billbugs 478 Plant Production 508
Wireworms 480 Flies Associated with Decaying Organic
Western Corn Rootworm 482 Matter and Compost 510
Other Leaf Beetles that Develop on Roots Mole Crickets 512
and Tubers 482 Tawny Mole Cricket 512
Peachtree Borer 486 Other Crickets Associated with Soil 512
Iris Borer 488 Subterranean Termites 516
Other Crown-boring Caterpillars 488 Ants 518
Subterranean and Surface-feeding Cutworms 492 Red Imported Fire Ant 518
Black Cutworm 492 Other Ants Common in Yards and Gardens 520
Other Surface-feeding and Subterranean Root Aphids and Other Sucking Insects 526
Caterpillars 494 Sowbugs and Pillbugs 530
Roundheaded Borers that Feed on Roots 498 Other Land-adapted Crustaceans 530
Root Maggots and Bulb Flies 500 Millipedes 532
Cabbage Maggot 500
Springtails 534
Other Root Maggots 500
Symphylans 536
Narcissus Bulb Fly 502
Other Bulb Flies 502 Soil-dwelling Mites 536
Earthworms 538

CHAPTER Seven Insects and Mites Associated with Flowers,

Fruits, Nuts, and Seeds 542

Codling Moth 542 Other Fruit- and Seed-infesting Caterpillars 554

Related Species 542 Fruit-infesting Sawflies 558
Oriental Fruit Moth 544 Related Species 558
Related Species 544 Scarab Beetles Found at Fruit and Flowers 558
Tobacco Budworm 546 Sap Beetles and other Fruit-damaging
Related Species 546 Beetles 562
Corn Earworm/Tomato Fruitworm/ Dusky Sap Beetle 562
Bollworm 548 Other Sap Beetles 562
Other Fruit-infesting Cutworms 548 Other Fruit-damaging Beetles 564
Pickleworm 550 Pollen-feeding Beetles Common at Flowers 566
Related Species 550
10
 CONTENTS

Fruit, Flower, and Seed Weevils 568 Gall Wasps Affecting Nuts 588
Plum Curculio 568 Western Flower Thrips 590
Rose Curculio and Western Rose Curculio 570 Related Species 590
Other Seed-, Fruit-, and Flower-damaging
Tarnished Plant Bug 592
Weevils 570
Related Species 592
Fruit Flies 576
Brown Marmorated Stink Bug 594
Apple Maggot 576
Other Stink Bugs that Feed on Flowers,
Related Fruit-infesting Flies 576
Fruit, and Seeds 595
Spotted-wing Drosophila 580
Boxelder Bug 598
Other Vinegar Flies and Small Fruit Flies 582
Related and Similar Species 598
Rose Midge 582
Western Conifer-seed Bug 602
Other Gall Midges Damaging to Buds,
Related Species 602
Flowers and Fruit 584
Scales and Mealybugs Associated with
Yellowjackets and Hornets 586
Fruit Injuries 604
Western Yellowjacket 586
Eriophyid Mites that Damage Fruits and
Other Yellowjackets and Hornets 586
Flowers 606

CHAPTER Eight Natural Enemies of Insects and Pollinators:

The “Beneficial Bugs” 608

Predators of Insects and Mites 610 Assassin Bugs 630

Lady Beetles (Ladybugs, Ladybird Beetles) 610 Damsel Bugs 630
Ground Beetles 614 Predatory Plant Bugs 632
Rove Beetles 616 Big-eyed Bugs 632
Soldier Beetles 616 Minute Pirate Bugs 632
Blister Beetles 618 Mantids 634
Fireflies/Lightningbugs 618 Earwigs 636
Soft-winged Flower Beetles 618 Dragonflies and Damselflies 636
Clerid Beetles 620 Crab Spiders 636
Cybocephalid Beetles 620 Jumping Spiders 638
Green Lacewings 620 Wolf Spiders 638
Brown Lacewings 622 Nursery Web Spiders 638
Dustywings 622 Dysderid Spiders 640
Antlions 622 Orbweavers 640
Syrphid Flies (Flower Flies, Hover Flies) 624 Longjawed and Orchard Orbweavers 642
Predatory Midges 624 Cobweb Weaver Spiders 644
Longlegged and Dance Flies 626 Lynx Spiders 644
Robber Flies 626 Funnel Weavers 646
Bee Flies 628 Prowling Spiders 646
Predatory Thrips 628 Cellar Spiders 648
Predatory Stink Bugs 628 Brown or Recluse Spiders 648

11
 CONTENTS

Daddy Longlegs/Harvestmen 648 Pelecinid Wasps 660

Predatory Mites 650 Ichneumonid Wasps 662
Centipedes 652 Braconid Wasps 662
Predatory Snails 652 Chalcid Wasps 664
Hunting Wasps and Ants 654 Sarcophagid Flies 666
Predatory Ants 654 Tachinid Flies 666
Paper Wasps 654 Insect Pathogens 668
Hornets and Yellowjackets 656 Bees 672
Potter Wasps 656 Honey Bee 672
Hunting Wasps 658 Bumble Bees 674
Spider Wasps 660 Large Carpenter Bees 674
Insect Parasitoids 660 Cavity-nesting Bees 676
Tiphiid and Scoliid Wasps 660 Soil-nesting Bees 678

Glossary 682
Index 688

12
 PREFACE

Well over 100,000 species of insects and other arthropods are known to exist in North America, and the scope of
this book is necessarily limited. Emphasis herein is on those “garden bugs” that are most likely to be encountered
in a yard and garden, particularly those that injure plants. Selecting which insects, mites, and other “garden bugs”
to include—and perhaps more importantly which not to include—has involved many judgment calls. For example,
many insects restricted primarily to forests, grasslands, waters, or other natural areas overlap in their presence and
activity in yard and garden settings.
In this second edition of Garden Insects of North America a great many changes have been made. Perhaps most
obvious is the greatly increased number (and quality) of images, reflecting the enormous changes that have occurred
with photography of insects since 2004. But the number of species included in this edition has also greatly expanded.
This expansion has occurred throughout the book, but some sections are either completely new or have been given
greatly expanded treatment. This new treatment is particularly evident in chapter 8, which discusses natural
enemies of insects and mites along with important pollinator species of bees.
The expanded treatments in this second edition have been made possible by making this a coauthored publication,
involving the complementary experiences of both Whitney Cranshaw and David Shetlar.

ORGANIZATION
Garden Insects of North America is designed to provide a means to identify the types of insects one might find in a
yard and garden and to diagnose their presence based on associated symptoms they may produce on plants. To best
achieve this approach, we adopted an organization that is a hybrid of ways that other books on insect identification
are organized. In Garden Insects of North America the primary groupings involve the parts of plants where one
might most often notice insects. For examples, chapters 2 and 3 cover insects found on leaves and needles, chapter
4 the insects that occur on twigs, stems, and canes, and chapter 5, insects associated with larger branches and the
trunks of trees. Chapter 6 covers the broad subject area of insects, mites, and other arthropods one might see
feeding on roots, at the soil level, or developing within the soil. Chapter 7 deals with insects and mites found in or
on flowers, fruits, seeds, and nuts. Chapter 8 has a different focus, covering the natural enemies of insects and one
group of important flower-visiting pollinators, the bees.
Within these main chapters, the associated insects (and other garden “bugs”) are usually organized by taxa, to
the genus level whenever appropriate; however, we have made an effort to place insects together in the text that
have somewhat similar appearance or habit. For example, mealybugs are placed near related groups such as “woolly”
aphids and soft scales. Also, the caterpillars of many families of moths and skippers form protective shelters of silk,
frass, or leaf fragments, or combinations of these, and these are grouped. At the end of each section, classification
to the order and family level is noted. For example, following discussion of the peach tree borer there is the notation
“Lepidoptera: Sesiidae” to indicate that the peach tree borer is in the order Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) and
the family Sesiidae (clearwing borers).
The diversity of insect habits clearly defies easy grouping. For example, western corn rootworm develops as a
root-feeding larva on corn plants, then feeds on leaves and flowers of a wide variety of plants as an adult. Japanese
beetle is a first-class problem in turfgrass, where it develops underground as a white grub, but later as an adult that
13
 PREFACE

feeds on leaves and flowers of many garden plants. Such “crossover” species are treated primarily in one section
(western corn rootworm as an insect that develops on plant roots, Japanese beetle as an insect that chews on leaves),
but where such insects occur there are cross-references and treatments in other chapters.

COMMON NAMES
Throughout the book we often use common names, concurrently defined with a scientific name (genus, species).
When we decided to use a common name, we always gave precedence to names accepted by the Entomological
Society of America, which has a long-established procedure for formalizing common names of insects. For many
insects and their relatives, however, there are not yet any officially recognized common name. Where this occurs,
often one or more names have been proposed in other publications. Some of these are used in this book. Ultimately
all such common names should be formally proposed and, where acceptable, recognized by the Entomological
Society of America and Entomological Society of Canada.

14
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This second edition of Garden Insects of North America builds on the original 2004 edition. At that time we
acknowledged dozens of colleagues and resources who allowed this project to begin, and their contributions
continue to be carried forward in this edition.
A wide variety of individuals and organizations have also been involved in the changes reflected in this revision,
and some of them need special acknowledgment. In the past 13 years there have been wonderful improvements in
both quality and accessibility of fact sheets and research reports provided by state programs associated with
Cooperative Extension, state IPM programs, and the USDA Forest Service; these have been extensively reviewed in
the development of this project. In addition, a “new” resource that has been exceptionally useful is BugGuide.Net,
hosted at Iowa State University and currently maintained by John VanDyk. This website offers an enormous number
of arthropod images and is well curated through the contributions of entomology specialists throughout the
continent. Along with the multiple images it provided to illustrate features of almost every species included in this
book, the details on insect distribution and classification were particularly valuable.
Perhaps the most significant change in the second edition is the large increase in the number of images. Although
many of these were taken by the authors, the majority are contributions from more than 100 individuals and
organizations. Once again, BugWood.org, now known as the Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health,
based at the University of Georgia, has been a critical resource for identifying images and providing contact with
cooperators. These are acknowledged where the photographs are used throughout the book, but some contributors
who have been particularly helpful in the success of this project need special mention.
We relied heavily on images provided by Robin Rosetta, Lyle Buss, Tom Murray, James Solomon, Jerry A. Payne,
Herbert A. (“Joe”) Pase III, David Cappaert, Susan Ellis, Johnny N. Dell, David Leatherman, Frank Peairs, John
Capinera, Eric R. Day, Steven Katovich, Lorraine Grainey, and photographers, notably Jack Kelly Clark, associated
with the University of California Statewide IPM Program. We express particular appreciation to Jim Kalisch and
his colleagues at the University of Nebraska, who shared the UNL entomology images to help make this project a
success.
It has also been a pleasure to work with the professionals associated with Princeton University Press. Lucinda
Treadwell provided a copyedit that identified all the flaws of the “perfect” manuscript we submitted. David Price-
Goodfellow oversaw the magic that needed to be done to coherently transform the words and images (a lot in this
case!) we had provided to this project. And Mark Bellis, Stephanie Rojas, and Robert Kirk helped pull it all together.
Thank you.
Finally, but not least, we wish to thank Sue Ballou and Renée Shetlar for their support and understanding while
we had to divert a bit too much time from our families throughout the long process of developing this project.

15
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO GARDEN
INSECTS AND THEIR RELATIVES

With few exceptions, the animals covered in this book are all classified as members of the phylum
Arthropoda—the arthropods. As such, all share certain physical features, including:

— division of the body into segments;

— an external skeleton (exoskeleton) and growth that requires periodic shedding of the exoskeleton (molting);
— jointed appendages;
— internal structures that include a heart running along the upper (dorsal) part of the body and a nerve cord
running along the lower (ventral) part of the body; and
— symmetrical construction of both sides of the animal (bilateral symmetry).

In the manner in which all life forms are organized and classified, the primary subdivisions of a phylum, such as
Arthropoda, are known as classes. Although this book concerns itself primarily with the class Insecta, the insects,
representatives of six other arthropod classes may be found in yards and gardens: springtails, arachnids, millipedes,
centipedes, symphylans, and some land-adapted crustaceans (e.g., sowbugs, pillbugs).
There are a few additional groups of animals included in this book, notably the slugs and snails. These are mollusks,
phylum Mollusca, more closely related to clams and mussels than insects, but often perceived as being “garden bugs”
and may produce injuries similar to those of many insects. Two other phyla are given a bit of attention in chapter 6,
the segmented worms, phylum Annelida, which includes earthworms, and the flatworms, phylum Platyhelminthes.
The classification of the animals described in this book, to the order level, is summarized as follows:

Phylum ARTHOPODA Arthropods Class ARACHNIDA Arachnids

Class MALACOSTRACA Order Opiliones Daddy longlegs, Harvestmen
Order Isopoda Pillbugs and Sowbugs Order Araneae Spiders
Order Decapoda Crayfish, Shrimp Order Acari Mites and Ticks
Order Amphipoda Amphipods Class COLLEMBOLA Springtails
Class DIPLOPODA Millipedes Class INSECTA Insects
Order Julida
Order Spirobolida Phylum MOLLUSCA Mollusks
Order Polydesmida Flat-backed millipedes Class GASTROPODA Gastropods
Order Polyxenida Bristly millipedes Clade: Stylommatophora Slugs and Snails
Class CHILOPODA Centipedes
Order Lithobiomorpha Stone centipedes Phylum ANNELIDA Segmented Worms
Order Scolopendromorpha Bark centipedes Class CLITELLATA Leeches and Earthworms
Order Geophilomorpha Soil centipedes Subclass Oligochaeta Earthworms
Order Scutigeridae House centipedes
Class SYMPHYLA Symphylans Phylum PLATYHELMINTHES Flatworms,
Order Scutigerellidae Symphylans Flukes, Tapeworms
Class TERBELLARIA Free-living Flatworms
16
 B

A C

D E F
G Representatives of the seven classes of arthropods that
may be found in yard and garden:
(A) grasshoppers (Insecta); (B) springtails (Collembola);
(C) spiders (Arachnida); (D) garden symphylans
(Symphyla); (E) centipedes (Chilopoda); (F) isopods
(Malacostraca); (G) millipedes (Diplopoda).

Representatives of Nonarthropods found in yards and

gardens: (H) earthworms (phylum Annelida);
(I) slugs (phylum Mollusca); (J) land planarians
(phylum Platyhelminthes).
H I

J
 INTRoduCTIoN To GARdEN INSECTS ANd ThEIR REL ATIvES

ARTHROPOD GROWTH AND METAMORPHOSIS

Because arthropods possess an external skeleton, which confines their size, in order to grow they must periodically
shed the exoskeleton, building a new, larger one at the same time. This process is called molting and all arthropods
must molt repeatedly during their lifetime. As a result of this type of development, arthropod growth occurs in a
series of distinct stages, each punctuated by a molting event. The term instar is used to describe each of the stages
in a developing arthropod; insects typically pass through three to seven instars as they develop. The ultimate stage
is the sexually mature adult.

left: Cockroaches in stages of molting.

The individual on the right is in the process
of shedding the remnants of the previous
exoskeleton. The pale color of the cockroaches
to the left and right is the new exoskeleton, which
has not undergone the process of hardening and
darkening that makes up the final stage during
molting. WHITNEY CRANSHAW
below left: Life stages of a chinch bug, a type
of insect with simple metamorphosis. On the top
row is the egg, followed by three stages (instars)
of nymphs. On the bottom row are different
adult forms. JIM KALISCH, UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA
below: Adults (winged and wingless forms) and
nymphs of an aphid. WHITNEY CRANSHAW

During this growth process, arthropods will not only progressively increase in size but usually also undergo
some changes in form, a process known as metamorphosis. Sometimes these changes are minor, perhaps involving
small differences in body shape, coloration, or patterning. In others there can be dramatic differences in appearance
during different stages in their development.
Broadly speaking, among the insects, one of two general patterns of metamorphosis is followed: simple
metamorphosis or complete metamorphosis. Earwigs, grasshoppers, and aphids are examples of those that have
a simple type of metamorphosis. They have immature stages, known as nymphs, that generally resemble the adult
in overall appearance, feed in the same manner, and occur in the same environments. In addition to a change in
size, the nymphs may develop external features, such as wing pads, that become increasingly prominent in later
instars. Adult insects differ from nymphs by being sexually mature and, if they are winged, having functional wings.
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INTRoduCTIoN To GARdEN INSECTS ANd ThEIR REL ATIvES

ARThRoPod GRowTh ANd METAMoRPhoSIS

Much more specialization of function—and difference in form—occur among the insects that undergo complete
metamorphosis. The immature stages are collectively known as larvae, although larvae of many insects are so
recognizable that they may be referred to by a common name such as grub, caterpillar, or maggot. Immature forms
are often similar in appearance, progressively increasing in size with each instar. Following is transition to a unique
stage known as the pupa. Tremendous changes take place during the pupal stage as larval features disappear and
transition to features unique to the adult—the transformation of a caterpillar to a butterfly being one of the best
recognized examples. Among insects with complete metamorphosis, the appearance and habits of the adult may be
very different from those of larvae. The overwhelming number of insect species are those that undergo complete
metamorphosis and include beetles, moths and butterflies, flies, bees, ants, and wasps.

Life stages of a sod webworm, a type of

insect with complete metamorphosis.
Stages include (left–right) egg, six
stages (instars) of larvae, pupa,
adult. DAVID SHETLAR

A B C D

Life stages of a lady beetle: (A) eggs; (B) larva; (C) pupa; (D) adult. WHITNEY CRANSHAW

Regardless of the type of metamorphosis, further development of external structures ceases once insects molt to
their ultimate adult form. Therefore a little fly is not a “baby” big fly nor is a tiny ant a “baby” ant. They are merely
adults of a small species or individuals that were stressed through poor diet or some other factor that suppressed
development in their immature stages.
There are variations in this development pattern among some insects and the noninsect arthropods. Springtails and
insects that evolved before the development of wings, such as silverfish (order Thysanura), show little change in form
as they grow, but gradually increase in size and become sexually mature in the ultimate stages. Most arachnids (spiders,
mites, scorpions, and the like) have a development pattern similar to simple metamorphosis. However, among the
mites and ticks, the first-instar nymphs that emerge from eggs have only six legs, obtaining their full complement of
eight legs only after the next molt (second instar). Among all millipedes and many centipedes, additional leg-bearing
segments will be added during some molts, resulting in a type of growth known as anamorphic development.
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 INTRoduCTIoN To GARdEN INSECTS ANd ThEIR REL ATIvES

INSECT ORDERS
Several features separate insects from the other arthropod classes. These include:
figure 1. Body regions
— division of the body into three main regions (head, thorax, abdomen); of an adult insect.
figure 2. Body regions
— three pairs of legs, located on the thorax; and
of two insect larvae.
— one pair of antennae. FIGURES BY MATT LEATHERMAN

Thorax head
FIG.1 FIG. 2

head Abdomen

Thorax head Thorax Abdomen Abdomen

Many insects also develop wings in the adult stage and thus are the only winged arthropods.
Currently, about 30 orders of insects are recognized. Several are infrequently, if ever, encountered in North American
yards and gardens because of their small size, scarcity, or habits that restrict them to different environments. The
orders and types of metamorphosis of the insects most likely to be seen in yards and gardens include:

ORDER (COMMON NAME) TYPE OF METAMORPHOSIS

Coleoptera (beetles) Complete
Diptera (flies, gnats, mosquitoes, and relatives) Complete
Lepidoptera (butterflies, moths, skippers) Complete
Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps, sawflies, and
Complete
relatives)
Neuroptera (lacewings, antlions, and relatives) Complete
Variation on simple metamorphosis including nonfeeding stages
Thysanoptera (thrips)
prior to adult emergence
Simple, but immature form lives in water and has substantial
Odonata (damselflies and dragonflies)
physical differences from adult form
Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, katydids) Simple
Mantodea (mantids) Simple
Phasmatodea (walkingsticks) Simple
Simple. The social species (termites) produce different forms/
castes (reproductive females, reproductive males, soldiers,
Blattodea (cockroaches and termites)
workers). Termite workers may remain in immature form for life,
but can differentiate to specialized adult forms with colony needs.
Dermaptera (earwigs) Simple
Simple, but some species have nonfeeding stages that share
Hemiptera (true bugs, aphids, psyllids, whiteflies, etc.)
features intermediate with complete metamorphosis

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INTRoduCTIoN To GARdEN INSECTS ANd ThEIR REL ATIvES

IDENTIFICATION OF IMMATURE
STAGES OF ARTHROPODS
Because of the changes that occur during development, arthropods change in appearance at different life stages.
These changes are particularly dramatic in insects that undergo complete metamorphosis (e.g., beetles, moths and
butterflies, bees, ants, wasps, and flies). Often it is the immature stage (e.g., caterpillar, grub) that causes most plant
injury, as many larvae are specialized feeding machines. Adults may feed in a very different way and have very
different form and functions (e.g., reproduction, dispersal); thus, it can be particularly difficult when observing
insects that have complete metamorphosis to associate the adult and immature stages as being the same species.
The arthropod orders with immature stages most likely to be seen in yards and gardens are discussed below.

Coleoptera (Beetles)
Beetle larvae are often known as grubs. All possess strong jaws designed to chew, and the jaws may be quite
prominent in species that chew wood or capture prey. Three pairs of legs on the thorax are clearly present among
those species that actively move about aboveground or on the surface of plants (e.g., lady beetles, leaf beetles).
Grubs that develop belowground or within plants typically lose pigmentation
and are pale colored, usually creamy white. Among those that actively dig in
soil, such as the white grubs, the front legs are well developed and may be used
in digging. Many important groups of beetles develop within plants, however,
and their larvae have lost all legs in the course of evolution, leaving only the darkly
colored head capsule as a conspicuous feature. The larvae of bark beetles and
weevils somewhat resemble pieces of puffed rice with a dark head. Flatheaded
borers, the larvae of metallic wood borers, are quite elongated and have a broad
area on the first segment of the thorax. Roundheaded borers, larvae of longhorned
beetles, are also quite elongated, with the dark prominent jaws distinguishing
the head region.

top: Larva of a ground beetle (Coleoptera). top: Larva of a scarab beetle, known as a white grub
WHITNEY CRANSHAW (Coleoptera). JIM KALISCH, UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA
above: Larva of a metallic wood borer, known as above: Larva of a leaf beetle (Coleoptera)
a flatheaded borer (Coleoptera). WHITNEY CRANSHAW WHITNEY CRANSHAW

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 INTRoduCTIoN To GARdEN INSECTS ANd ThEIR REL ATIvES

IdENTIFICATIoN oF IMMATuRE STAGES oF ARThRoPodS

Lepidoptera (Butterflies, Moths, Skippers)

Immature stages of lepidopterans are known as caterpillars. They possess the normal three pairs of true legs on the
thorax but, unlike most immature insects, they also possess fleshy leglike extensions, known as prolegs, on several
segments of the abdomen. Each proleg is tipped with minute hooks, known as crochets, arranged in patterns
characteristic of each family. All lepidopteran caterpillars can be distinguished from other insect larvae by the
presence of two to five pairs of prolegs, each of which is tipped with crochets.
The legs and prolegs of caterpillars that bore into plants (e.g., clearwing borers) may be very reduced; however,
the presence of crochets always distinguishes them from other wood-boring larvae.

Larva of a sphinx moth (Lepidoptera). WHITNEY CRANSHAW Larva of a geometrid moth, known as a looper or
inchworm (Lepidoptera). JIM KALISCH, UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA

below: Illustration of the prolegs, tipped with hooks

(crochets) that are present on the abdomen of
Lepidoptera larvae. FIGURE BY MATT LEATHERMAN
head
capsule

Underside of a caterpillar of the Zimmerman pine moth,

showing the prolegs on the abdomen that are tipped with
prolegs Crochets
hooks (crochets). JIM KALISCH, UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA
thoracic legs

Neuroptera (Lacewings,
Antlions, and Relatives)
All neuropteran larvae are predators. Curved, lancelike
jaws project prominently from the head. Larvae possess
legs on the thorax but no prolegs on the abdomen.

Hymenoptera (Ants, Bees,

Larvae of a green lacewing (Neuroptera). WHITNEY CRANSHAW
Wasps, Sawflies, and Relatives)
Rarely do gardeners encounter the larval stages of most insects in the order Hymenoptera. This is because they
either occur within colonies (e.g., social wasps, honey bees, ants), develop in specialized nest cells (e.g., hunting
wasps, leafcutter bees), or are hidden within plants (e.g., gall wasps). These larvae are usually very pale-colored and
have little pigmentation except around the mouthparts. A distinct head region is present but can be difficult to
distinguish since there is little difference in color to distinguish it from the rest of the body.
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INTRoduCTIoN To GARdEN INSECTS ANd ThEIR REL ATIvES

IdENTIFICATIoN oF IMMATuRE STAGES oF ARThRoPodS

far left: Larvae of

sawflies (Hymenoptera).
GERALD J. LENHARD, LOUISIANA
STATE UNIVERSITY, BUGWOOD.
ORG

left: Adult ants tending

larvae (Hymenoptera).
DAVID SHETLAR

Larval features are very different among some of the active leaf-feeding larvae, notably the sawflies. Sawfly larvae
look quite similar to moth and butterfly larvae and similarly are often termed caterpillars. Like Lepidoptera larvae,
sawfly larvae have prolegs on the abdomen, but the number is significantly different. Sawflies possess six to eight
pairs of prolegs, and none have the hooklike crochets at the tip that characterize moth and butterfly larvae.

Diptera (Flies, Gnats, Mosquitoes, and Relatives)

Larvae of the “true flies” completely lack legs. Furthermore, many lack any distinct head area. Instead the head end
is often tapered to a point and surrounds a pair of tiny hooks that are normally retracted. A pair of eyelike spiracles
are commonly present on the hind end. This larval form is known as a maggot and is produced by flies in the
suborder Brachycera (e.g., root maggots, house flies, flower flies).
Larvae in the suborder Nematocera (e.g., gnats, midges, mosquitoes) also lack legs but have a distinctly visible
head capsule that is often darker than the rest of the body.

above: Larvae of fungus gnat (Diptera),

massed on lawn.
left: Larva of a syrphid fly (Diptera)
with colony of aphids (Hemiptera).
JIM KALISCH, UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA

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 INTRoduCTIoN To GARdEN INSECTS ANd ThEIR REL ATIvES

IdENTIFICATIoN oF IMMATuRE STAGES oF ARThRoPodS

Orthoptera (Grasshoppers, Crickets, Katydids)

Most features of immature and adult Orthoptera are similar. Only the adult has fully developed wings, however.
Coloration and patterning among nymphs also commonly change with age. Wing pads are present on immature
stages and become more prominent as maturity approaches.

above: Adult and nymph of a grasshopper (Orthoptera).

WHITNEY CRANSHAW

right: Katydid nymph (Orthoptera). JIM KALISCH, UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA

Dermaptera (Earwigs)
Most features of immature and adult earwigs are similar.
The forceps-like cerci on the tip of the abdomen and the
wing pads increase in size as the insects mature.

Mantodea (Mantids)
Mantids are recognized by their raptorial (grasping)
front legs. Most external features of immature and adult
mantids are similar except for the wings. As mantids
above: Adult earwig tending young (Dermaptera). develop, the wing pads become increasingly prominent,
KEN GRAY COLLECTIONS, OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY
with the wings becoming fully developed and functional
below: Nymph of a Carolina mantid (Mantodea).
DAVID SHETLAR only in the adult stage.

Blattodea (Cockroaches and

Termites)
Most external features of immature and adult cockroaches
are similar except for the wings. As cockroaches develop,
the wing pads become increasingly prominent, with the
wings becoming fully developed and functional only in
the adult stage.
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INTRoduCTIoN To GARdEN INSECTS ANd ThEIR REL ATIvES

IdENTIFICATIoN oF IMMATuRE STAGES oF ARThRoPodS

Features of almost all immature and adult termites

are similar, differing only in size. However, termites
are social species and metamorphosis patterns are more
flexible, allowing the production of various castes
(e.g., workers, soldiers, reproductives) as colony needs
determine. Reproductive forms possess large, functional
wings in the adult stage and distinct wing buds in the
early stages of development. Workers and soldiers
are blind and not or only lightly pigmented. Winged
reproductives have eyes and are often black or brown.

Thysanoptera (Thrips)
Most immature thrips roughly resemble adults in
general body form, and the first two nymphal instars
often are found together with the adults on plants.
However, immature thrips lack wings and often have
different coloration. Late stages (instars 3 and 4)
usually drop to the soil and undergo physical changes,
such as development of wing pads, which make them
progressively similar to the ultimate adult form. top: Life stages of an American cockroach (Blattodea).
JIM KALISCH, UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA

above: Nymphs of subterranean termite (Blattodea)

in different stages of development. DAVID SHETLAR
Hemiptera (True Bugs, Aphids,
Psyllids, Whiteflies, Scale Insects,
Cicadas, Leafhoppers, and relatives)
The order Hemiptera contains a large number of insects
that all possess “piercing-sucking” mouthparts of
similar design that allow them to pierce tissues (usually
plant tissues) and suck fluids. All have a simple type of
metamorphosis, and thus immature stages (nymphs)
feed in a manner similar to the adults and share many
other habits with them. Body form is generally similar,
above: Nymphs
but nymphs lack the fully developed wings of the of an onion thrips
adults and are not sexually mature. Wing pads become (Thysanoptera).
WHITNEY CRANSHAW
increasingly prominent as the nymphs approach
left: Adult and nymph
maturity. of a potato leafhopper
In some families, however, there can be unusual (Hemiptera).
TED RADCLIFFE, UNIVERSITY
forms. In whiteflies and psyllids, nymphs are quite OF MINNESOTA

flattened and look very different from the winged

adults. This is particularly true in whiteflies where there
is a special nonfeeding transition stage (sometimes
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 INTRoduCTIoN To GARdEN INSECTS ANd ThEIR REL ATIvES

IdENTIFICATIoN oF IMMATuRE STAGES oF ARThRoPodS

left: Nymphs of a milkweed

bug (Hemiptera).
DAVID SHETLAR

below left: Damselfly

nymph (Odonata).
TOM MURRAY

below: Dragonfly nymph

(Odonata). TOM MURRAY
right: Adult and immature
springtail. DAVID SHETLAR
below right: Larva and
adult of a European red mite.
DAVID SHETLAR

referred to as a pupa) immediately preceding the adult. The first stage following egg hatch among scale insects,
known as the crawler, is highly mobile and little resembles the more sedentary later stages that produce a waxy cover.
Similarly, the nymphs of cicadas are specialized for life belowground, whereas adults are winged and look
substantially different.

Odonata (Damselflies and Dragonflies)

Immature stages of dragonflies and damselflies develop in water and will not be encountered in a yard/garden
setting, except sites with permanent water features. Their appearance is much different from their ultimate adult
form, being wingless, often much more squat in body form, and possessing a unique modification of the mouthparts:
an extensible “lower jaw” (labium) that is used to help capture insects and other prey. When full grown, the nymphs
migrate to the edges of ponds or onto emergent vegetation, rocks, or other surfaces then molt to the adult stage.

Collembola (Springtails)
All stages of springtails have similar external features and differ only in size. Unlike insects, springtails will continue
to molt after they have reached the adult stage.

Acari (Mites and Ticks)

Following egg hatch, all mites (except eriophyid mites) and ticks are minute and six-legged, a stage known as a
larva. After the first molt they transform into eight-legged immature stages (nymphs) and possess the general body
form of the adult for the remainder of their development. Among spider mites there are two additional molts as
26
INTRoduCTIoN To GARdEN INSECTS ANd ThEIR REL ATIvES

IdENTIFICATIoN oF IMMATuRE STAGES oF ARThRoPodS

they transform through the protonymph and deutonymph, ultimately reaching the adult form. Other mites may have
an additional nymphal stage (tritonymph). Special inactive “resting stages” may occur with these groups of mites.
An unusual mite family is the eriophyid mites. These are minute, with an elongate, carrot-shaped form, and they
possess only two pairs of forward-facing legs in all life stages.

Diplopoda (Millipedes)
After egg hatch, the first instar of a millipede usually remains
where the eggs were laid, and many have only three pairs of
legs at this time. Subsequently, as they develop, millipedes go
through many molting episodes, and during the early instars,
they will add segments (with pairs of legs) following a molt.
above: Immature julid millipede. WHITNEY CRANSHAW In addition to having more body segments and legs, older
below: Immature stone centipede. TOM MURRAY millipedes tend to darken in color.

Chilopoda (Centipedes)
Stone centipedes (order Lithobiomorpha) and house centipedes
(order Scutigeromorpha) emerging from eggs (first instar)
possess as few as 14 legs but add pairs in the next instars until
they possess their full complement of 30 legs (15 pairs). Soil
centipedes (order Geophilomorpha) and bark centipedes (order Scolopendromorpha) have their full complement
of legs and segments at birth.

Terrestrial Isopods (Pillbugs and Sowbugs)

Adult pillbugs and sowbugs retain their eggs in a body pouch (marsupium). After the eggs hatch the immature
forms disperse and within the first day they molt, at which time they gain an additional segment in the thoracic
area. A couple of weeks later a second molt occurs and the seventh pair of legs develop. After this point they will
periodically molt to larger sizes but have the same body form. Unlike other arthropods found in yards and gardens,
pillbugs and sowbugs molt in two events each time, first shedding the exoskeleton of the back half, followed by that
of the front.

far left: Adult and

immature pillbugs.
WHITNEY CRANSHAW

left: Sowbug in
process of molting.
TOM MURRAY

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 INTRoduCTIoN To GARdEN INSECTS ANd ThEIR REL ATIvES

EXCRETED AND SECRETED PRODUCTS USEFUL IN

DIAGNOSING GARDEN ARTHROPODS AND SLUGS
HONEYDEW This is a sticky, largely sugary liquid excreted by certain insects that feed on the phloem of plants.
It is produced by certain insects in the order Hemiptera, notably aphids, soft scales, whiteflies, mealybugs, and
some leafhoppers. Because of its high sugar content, honeydew is highly attractive to ants, wasps, bees, flies, and
other insects. On surfaces where honeydew persists for long periods, it supports the growth of sooty molds, dark-
colored fungi that may be seen on leaves, branches, and soil surfaces under plants that are supporting high
populations of a honeydew-producing insect.

far left: Honeydew being

excreted by soft scales.
WHITNEY CRANSHAW

left: Droplets of honeydew

on a leaf. DAVID SHETLAR
below left: Sooty mold
growing on a leaf surface
that was covered with
honeydew. DAVID SHETLAR

below: Tar spot excrement

produced by lace bugs.
WHITNEY CRANSHAW

TAR SPOTS Dark fecal spots on foliage are associated

with many plant-feeding insects that suck sap from the
mesophyll (leaf tissues) of plants. These include thrips,
lace bugs, some leafhoppers, plant bugs, and spider
mites. Because of the nature of the feeding, there is
usually associated leaf spotting (white, yellow, or brown
spots). The size of the tar spots is related to the size of
the insects.
Spotting is also produced by most moths shortly
after they emerge from the pupal stage. It is usually pale
brown or reddish brown and is known as meconium.
Syrphid flies, a common family of aphid predators,
also leave dark smears of excrement on plants.
above: Excrement (frass)
produced by a grasshopper.
FRASS The solid excrement produced by insects that WHITNEY CRANSHAW
feed on solid foods is known as frass. Texture and right: Excrement (frass)
consistency depend largely on diet; insects feeding on produced by cabbageworms.
WHITNEY CRANSHAW
high-moisture foods produce soft and watery frass,
whereas those feeding on dried wood or grain produce granular frass. In some species the frass may have a highly
characteristic pattern or texture and can be a useful identification aid.
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INTRoduCTIoN To GARdEN INSECTS ANd ThEIR REL ATIvES

EXCRETEd ANd SECRETEd PRoduCTS

SILK The silk found around plants is most characteristic of caterpillars such as leafrollers, tent caterpillars, and
webworms that use silk to create shelters and tie foliage together. The webspinning sawflies also construct shelters
of silk. Silk, formed into a cocoon, also surrounds the pupal stage of many moth larvae, sawflies, lacewings, and
other insects.
Most spider mites produce visible silk, particularly when their populations are high. Spiders use silk for many
purposes. Most obvious are the webs some species use to snare prey. Other spiders use silk to form a “retreat” in
which they hide when not foraging for prey. Also, almost all spiders use silk to cover egg masses.

above left: Silk producing a cocoon that covers the pupae of a

parasitoid wasp. WHITNEY CRANSHAW
above: Silk being used by spider to bind prey. WHITNEY CRANSHAW
top right: Silk used as a shelter for a leaf-feeding caterpillar.
JIM KALISCH, UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA

bottom right: Silk used to cover spider egg mass. The top cover of
silk has been peeled away in this image. WHITNEY CRANSHAW

WAX Many bees secrete wax from specialized glands to line or form
cells used to rear young and store fluids. On plants, waxy material
above left: Wax covering bodies of may be present as excreted products of some sap-feeding insects,
planthoppers. DAVID SHETLAR particularly psyllids. This excreta may take the form of small pellets
above right: Wax pellets excreted by
or waxy threads.
potato/tomato psyllid. WHITNEY CRANSHAW
below: Mucous “slime trails” produced Wax may be secreted to cover the body of the “woolly” aphids,
by a slug. DAVID SHETLAR mealybugs, planthoppers, some scale insects, and psyllids. It can
often be quite conspicuous when produced as egg sacs by mealybugs
and soft scales.

MUCOUS TRAILS Slugs and snails produce a mucous covering

that appears as a “slime trail” on surfaces they contact. It disappears
rapidly with drying and is best observed early in the morning or in
humid sites.
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BODY PARTS USEFUL IN DIAGNOSING

GARDEN ARTHROPODS
EXUVIAE (CAST SKINS) All arthropods shed
their exoskeleton several times in the process of
developing. Insects with chewing mouthparts
usually consume the remnants of the cast-off
exoskeleton (exuviae), shortly after molting.
Insects with sucking mouthparts, such as aphids,
leafhoppers or plant bugs, and spider mites, cannot
consume the old cast skin, which may subsequently
persist and be useful as a diagnostic sign.
above: Spider mites and discarded
SCALE COVER The waxy cover of a scale insect exuviae. WHITNEY CRANSHAW
is a shield that incorporates first- and second- right: Grasshopper in the process
of molting, leaving behind
instar exuviae; it is usually distinctive enough remnants of the old exoskeleton
in shape and coloration to distinguish species. (exuviae). WHITNEY CRANSHAW

far left: Covers of

an oystershell scale
insect. DAVID SHETLAR
left: Covers
of San Jose scales
on apple fruit.
KEN GRAY COLLECTION,
OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY

Furthermore, a scale covering may persist on a

plant for a long time after the insect underneath
has died, ultimately weathering and flaking off.
The scale cover can also identify the stage of the
insect, as the covering often appears as a series of
rings, each produced following a molt.

EGGSHELLS Following egg hatch, many insects

with chewing mouthparts consume the discarded
eggshells. However, spider mites and insects with
mouthparts designed to suck fluids leave the old
eggshells intact. These may persist on foliage for
a considerable period. Even when the insects or
spider mites are no longer present, the old eggshells Spider mites and eggs. After egg hatch the eggshells remain
can be useful for diagnosis. intact. KEN GRAY COLLECTION, OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY

30
Exploring the Variety of Random
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raggie= rough, shaggy; cogn. with Sw. ra9g = rough-fiair; raggig =
shaggy ; raggi = having rough-hair, slovenly; Dnn. dial. ragg=rough,
uneven iiair; raggad = shaggy ; Icel. r/5gj/=shagginoss; raggadhr^
shaggy ; Gael. rag=a rag.] 1. A piece of cloth torn from the rest ; a
piece of cloth torn or worn till its texture is destroyed ; a tatter, a
ehred ; a fragment of cloth or dress. "The dog and ray market U
hard by." — llowetl: Letters, bk. i., g i., let. 7. 2. (PI.): Tattered, torn,
or worn out garments; mean or poor dress. "Hir ragges thei anone
drawe." — Qtncer: C. A., i. 3. A jagged or sharp flaw or fragment
projecting from a surface or edge; as, a rag on a metal plate. 4. A
ragged follow ; a ragamuffin, a tatterdemalion. " Thancks to the
gods, I urn not of the raggs Or f agg end of the people." Timon, a.
Play, p. 10. 5. A provincial term for any rock deposit consisting of
Bud, irregular masses, as Kentish-rag, Ac. ; specif, ragstone (q. v.).
"A clump of sweet chestnuts . . . would have preferred more depth
of soil and better rags." — Gardeners' ChronMe, No. 407, p. 491
(1881). 6. A slang term for a common or low newspaper. 7. Tho
curtain. (Theat. slang.) "Poor Miss A was left for quite a minute ere
the rn'j could be unhitched and made to shut out the tragic
situation." — Referee, June 20, 1886, p. 2. rag-bolt, .-•. A bolt
having barbs or jags on the shank, pointing backward, to prevent it
from being easily withdrawn after having been driven. Also called a
Barb-bolt, Barbed-bolt, or Spring-bolt. rag-bushes, rag-trees, ». pi.
Anthrop. : Bushes or trees usually, but not invariably, situated near
holy-wells, on which pilgrims and passers-by hang rags in the hope
of freeing themselves from some evil, physical or moral. It is 3343 a
relic of Tree-worship (q. v.). Tylor (Prim. Cult. (ed. 1873), ii.
150,223) gives examples of tho practice, with a copious bibliography.
"The origin and development of all these observances seem
traceable to the rag-hushes and rag-trees, common now, and in all
recorded ages, in every quarter of the Old and New Worlds."—
Journ. Anthrop. Inst., U. 104. rag-carpet, ». A carpet with a cotton
or hempen chain and a filling or weft of strips of rags or cloth,
sowed together end on end. rag-dust, t. The refuse of woolen or
worsted rags pulverized and dyed various colors to form the flock
used by paper-stainers for their flock papers. rag-engine, ». A
machine in which rags are partially comminuted in paper
manufacture. rag-fair, «. A fair or place where old clothes or cast off
garments are Bold. •rag-mannered, a. Rude, vulgar. rag-moss
leather, «. /•'"'. ; A popular namo for the fuugaceous genus
Autonuaria (q. v.), or Racodium. rag-picker, «. One who collects rags,
bones, and other waste articles from tho streets, ash-pits, dung-hills
Ac. rag-Shop, *. A shop where rags, waste, grease, scrap metal, and
such refuse articles are purchased in small quantities. "The lowest
rag-shops and pot-houses of Rutcliffe Highway."— Macaulay: Hist.
Eng., ch. ill. rag-tag, ». The lowest ordor of the population ; the
residuum or scum of tho people ; tag-rag. rag-trees, .<. /./. [RAO-
BUSHES.] rag-turnsole, x. Linon impregnated with the blue dyo
obtained from tho juice of Crozojthora tinctoria, tho dyo being
soaked out when to be used. rag-wheel, «. A wheel with a notched
or serrated margin ; a sprocket-wheel. Rag-wheet and chain: A
contrivance consisting of a wheel the periphery of which has pins or
projecting portions, which are caught by the links of tho chain. It is
used instead of a band or belt, when great resistance is to bo
overcome. •rig (!),«. t. [RAO, mibst.] To fray ; to become ragged.
"Leather . . . will quickly fleet and rag out." — fuller: Worthies, 11.
86. rag (2), v. t. [Icol. ragna = to imprecate, tocursi-, to swear; O.
Icel. r(za/a=to accuse; A. S. wrfnan; Goth, vrdhjan; O. H. Ger.
ruogrn; Uer. rugen.\ 1. To scold or rail at; to torment, to banter.
(Prov. Eng.) 'i To break into irregular lumps, as ore for sorting. •rag a
bash, *rag -a brash, ». [First element Eng. rag, etymology of second
element doubtful.] A raxamufliu. "The most unalphabetical
ragabrashes that ever lived." — Juntus: .S't'n Stigmatized. rig-a-mftf-
fln, 'rag-a. muf-fl-an, ». A a. [Etym. doubtful. Ragamofln was tho
name of a demon in some of tho old mystery-plays.] A. Antubst. : A
moan, paltry fellow. " Be not afraid, lady, to speak to these rude
ragamuffins. There's nothing shall offend you."— Orydett: Don
Sebastian, iv. 2. B. .tit adj. : Ragged, vulgar. "Mr. Aldworth . . .
turned over the rest of this ragamuffin assembly to the care of his
butler." — Graces.. Spiritual Quixote, bk. via., ch. xxiii. rage, .1. [Fr.,
from Lat. rabiem, accus. of rabiet = madness, rage, from
ra6to,ra6o=to rage, to rave ; cogn. with Sansc. rabh= to desire
vehemently, to act inconsiderately; Sp. rabia; I till, ruhhitt; Cf.
Mahratta rao=anger.] [RABIES.] 1. Violent anger or passion,
accompanied with furious words, gestures, or agitation ; fury. "Anger
. . . when it prompts to threats and actions eztravag.nt and
atrocious, is termed rage." — Cogan: On the Passions, ch. 11., 5 3.
2. Extreme violence ; wild impetuosity ; furiousness. (In this sense
sometimes used in the plural.) "One for all, or all for one we gage;
As life for honor in fell battle's rage." Shakesp.: Kapeof Lucrece, 145.
3. Vehemence or exacerbation of any thing painful ; as, the rage of
hunger, the rage of a fever. 4. Enthusiasm, rapture. 5. Extreme
desire, eagerness, or passion directed toward some object. "You
purchase pain with all that joy can give. And die of nothing but a
ragf to live." 1-oite: Moral Kssays, ii. 100. ^l The rage, all the rage :
Something eagerly sought or run after by a number of people; an
object of general and eager desire or seeking; fashion, vogue.
(Colloq.) "Criterion was all the rage." — London Dally Chronicle.
ragging rage, f. ». A f. [Old French ro»er; Sp. rufciar.] [RAOE, «.] A.
Int rantit ive : 1. To be in a rage; to be furious with auger; to be
exasperated to fury ; to storm. "Then fume we and rage and set up
the bristeU."— Tyndale: Works, p. 120. 2. To act violently or
tumultuously. (Psalm ii. 1.) 3. To bo violently driven or agitated. "
The winter storms of raging seas." Surrey: Virgil's jEneld, H. 4. To
rave. " Doth he still ragtl "— Shaltesp., King John, v. 7. 5. To ravage;
to prevail without restraint or with fatal effect. " The fire continued
to rage with great fury." — London Dally Telegraph. 6. To bo
violently or strongly excited. "Those raging appetites."— Shakesp.:
Othello, 1.1. *7. To toy, to play, to dally ; to sport wantonly. "She
bygan to plaie and rage." — (Tower: C. A., 1. *B. Trim*.: To enrage,
to chnfe; to throw into a rage or fury ; to excite. " Yonng hot colu,
being raged, do rage the more." Shakesp.: Klchard II., U. 1. rag eg,
rag gee. ». [Mahratta.] [ELETOINE.) •rage -f ul, adj. [Eng. rage, s. ;
-ful(I).'] Full of rage ; furious, violent. "The monarch meets him with
a rageful frown." Mlfkle: Lusiatl. rill. •ragery, 'ragerie, «. [Eng. rage;
-ry.] 1. Wantonness. " I was young and ful of ragerle." Chaucer. C. T.,
«,087. 2. Rage, fury. "Plucked off in a ragery." Hrowne: Shepheanfs
Pipe, Eel. 1. rag -ged, *rag gede, a. [Eng. rag; •«(. ] I. Ordinary
Language: 1. Shaggy, rough. "A ragged colt." — King Alisaunder,
684. 2. Worn or torn into rags or tatters ; tattered. " With over-
weather'
The text on this page is estimated to be only 21.93%
accurate

ragging-hammer ragging-hammer, t. : A steel-headed

hammer, weighing from nix tu right pound*. It i- u MM I in rough-
dressing rig -gle, f. r. [Eng. /•"./, B. ; frequent, suff. -/• .] To notch or
groove irregularly. rig -gf, 'rig -gle, a. [Eng. rag, s. ; -».] Ragged,
rough, rugged. uncM'n. " Haggle, rugged rymes." Itrant: Horace; Bp.
to Augustus. Ra ghu-vin -sa, «. [Sans<-. | Hindu Literature : A poem
by Kalidasa, to celebrate the family of Raghu, in which the deity
Hama is said to Lave been born. rig Ing, pr. par. or a. [RACE, f.] rig -
Ing If , « a stone found in the Inferior Oolite at Leckhampton Hill,
near Chi'ltenliam, England. Associated with it are the Trieonia and
Gryphtea bods. (Quar. Jtiurn. Qeol. Soc., zii. 298.) ra-gnl -f. ra gnled
, rig U lit-8d, a. [RAG,*.] !!• r.: Terms applied to a n y charge or
ordinary that is j.-ikwd or notched in an irregular manner. rig we*d,
>. [Eng. rag. s., and weed.} Botany : 1. The herb ragwort. " \Vi' yoa.
on ragweed nags They skim the uiuirn an' dllxy oragH. llurnl: Addrttt
to the Dell. 2. Anilirotin triflda, an American plant. rag -wool, i. [Eng.
rag, s., and wool.] The in feriorsort of wool obtained by tearing up
woole rags in a tearing-machine ; shoddy. Cross Raguly. 3344 rig
w8rk, «. [Eng. rag, s., and imrk.] Mourn.: Wall laid with undressed
flat stones of about the thickuessof a brick, and leaving a rough
exterior, whence the name is di-rivi-d. trig -w8rm, «. [Eng. rag, f.,
and worm.] Zool. : The Mud worm (q. v.). rig -wort, 'rag wrote, «.
[English rug, t., and tror<.J Hot.: Seiii'do jnci>li i:. ! rail (It.'rayle (1),
«. [O. Fr. ratle (Fr. roJe)=a rattling in the throat, a rail, from roller
(Fr. raler) = to rattle in the throat ; Germanraf/e=arail; Sw. ru//o=to
chatter: ratlfagel—& land-rail.] Ornith. : A name popularly applied to
any bird of the family Rallidm, but more particularly to the Land-rail
or Corncrake (q. v.) and Water-rail (q. v.). •rill (2), «raile (l),*rayle
(2), *reghel, ». PA. 8. hra-gl, Areo/ = swaddling clothes; cogn. with
Old Fris. hreil,reil=a garment; O. H. Ger. hregil.] A garment of fine
linen formerly worn by women round the neck. [NioHT-HAIL.J "This
downe about my necke was erste a ratle." Ant and Nightingale. rill
(3). «raile (2), 'rayle (3), t. [Low Ger. regt I =a rail ; Sw. rtgel=&
bolt, a bar; O. Dutch rickel, rijchel=& bar; Ger. rieael; O. H. Ger. rigil.
For the disappearance of the g between two vowels, compare Imil.
nail, Ac. | I. Ordinary Language : 1. A bar of wood or metal
cxtending^from one upright post to another, as in fences. " Kztend a
rail of elm, securely arni'd With speculated paling." .«.!.<. ,ii. English
Garden, il. 2. A series of posts or balusters connected by cross-
beams, bars, or rods, for inclosure, Ac. ; a railing. 3. A railway or
railroad ; as, to travel by rail. II. Technically: 1. Joinery : (1) One of
the pieced connecting the posts of a bedstead. Known as head-rail,
Ac., according to position. (2) A horizontal piece in a frame, as of a
door, sash, or other paneled work. (3) The same as HANDRAIL (1).
2. ffautii'il: (1) The top of the bulwarks proper. (2) A cnrvi'd timber
extending from the bow of a ship to - u ppt >i t the knee of the
bead. 3. Railways, etc. : One of the iron or steel bars laid parallel on
a railway, and forming a smooth track for the wheels of locomotives
and cars. The first rails wcro of timber, which material was soon
railingly u] eroded by iron. Tbe first fctool rail was made in Ki7. The
rails are laid continuously, and are supported on chairs, resting on
and fixed to transverse or longitudinal sleepers, made of wood.
Numerous forme of rails have been used atdifferent ti mi's, but those
most commonly in use arc the don bio-headed rail and the flange
rail, the latter of which requires no chairs, but is attached directly to
the sleepers, as all tracks or raiU are in Uio United States. U (1)
Forrcattle-rail : The rail extended on stanchions across the after part
of the forecastle deck. (2) Poop-rail: A rail across the fore part of the
poop or quarter deck. (3) Top-rail: A rail extended on stanchions
across the after part of each of the tops. rail-bender,*. The same as
JIMCBOW (q. v.). rail-car, «. A railway carriage. ( U. S.) rail-Clamp, ».
A railway-chair (q. v.). rall-couplir.g, -•. Railway : 1 . A bar which ties
the two Hues of rails together, to prevent spreading. 2. A fastening
plate for the abutting ends of two rails in a track. rail-fagot, ».
[FAGOT, «., II. 2.] rail-fence, «. A fence composed of wooden rails.
rail-guard, «. throwing aside obstrucRailway Engineering : 1. Any
contrivance for tions on the line. 2. A cow-catcher (q. v.). 3. A guard-
rail (q. v.). rail-Jack, «. /.'•;. £»«.: An apparatus for lifting railway
rails to ballast beneath the ties and level the track. rail-joint, s. The
fish-joint (q. v.). rail-post, railing-post, eubtt. The same as NEWEL,
2. rill (l), Tayle (l), r. t. [RAIL (3), ».] 1. To inclose or fence in with
rails. " It Ought to be fenced in and railed." — Ayliffr: rurrrgon. •2.
To draw up or range in a line. " They were brought to London n\l
raileil in rop«e, like a team of horses in a cart."— Baton. rail (2),
'ralle (1), »rayle (2), v. i. & r. [French rattier— to jest, to deride, to
mock, from a Low Lat. 'roditto, a dimin. from Lai . rado—to scrape :
cf. S].. rallar=\a grate, to scrape, to molest, to vex; Port. ralar= to
scrape, from Lar. ruH«»i-an instrument for scraping earth from a
plow.] A. Intrant.: To use insolent and reproachful language; to scoff,
to scold; to utter reproaches; to reproach or censure in opprobrious
terms. (Followed by at, formerly also by on.) "Others at that doctrine
mil." Covper: Love of the World Reproved. •B. Tram. : To bring or
drive into some state by railing or scolding ; to effect by raillery. 1 ' I
shall sooner mil thee into wit." Sltalcetp. : Trollut and Crettldtl, II. 1.
•rail (3), «raile (2).*rayle (3). v. i, [Etymology doubtful; cf. Fr.
rouler=to roll.] To run, to gusli, to flow. " The purple drops downe
railed bloudy red." Falrefax Tatio, Hi. 90. trail -«r (!),». [Eng. rail (1),
v. ;-«-.] One who makes or furnishes with rails. rail'-Sr (2),f. [Eng.
rail (2). v.;-«r.l One who rails, scoffs, or reproaches with opprobrious
language ; a scoffer. "Take that, thon likeness of this ralltr here."
Khutesp.: Henry r/.. PI. III., v. 6. rail -Ing, «. [Eng. rail (3), s. ;
•ing.'] 1. A fence of wood or iron, consisting of posts and rails. 2.
Material for rails ; rails generally. rail -Ing, a. & «. [Eng. rail (2), v. ; -
ing.} A. As adject.: Insulting, reproaching, scoffing. (2 Peter U. 11.)
B. AstuM.: Insolent and reproachful language ; raillery. " Opinion
varying o'er his hidden lot. In praise or ratling ne'er his name
forgot." Myron : Lara, i. 17. rall-Ing-ly", *rayl-lng-ly, adr. [Kng.
railing, a. ; -ly.\ In a railing manner; with railing or raillery. " Was
afrayed openly to speak rdylirtyly to the deullL" — (Mull. Juile. fate,
fat, fare, amidst, whit, fill, father; we, wet, here, camel, her, th«re;
pine, pit, sire, sir, marine; go. p5t. or. wore, wolf, work, wh6, s6n;
mute, cfib, cUre. unite, cQr, rule, full; try Syrian, te, oe = «; ey = i.
qu = Jtw.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 23.59%
accurate

railipotent •rail Ip -6-tent, a. [Eng.raiJ (2). v.; i connect.,

and potent (q. v.).J Powerful in raillery or abuse ; abusive. "Have
ihown themselves .... valiantly rallipolent."—ntudtearneeof railway
construction about kept pace with that of Groat Britain until 1850: at
the beginning of 1885 it amounted to 125,379 miles. The mileage
completed amounted to 40 miles at the end of 1S30, to 3,361 miles
in 1841, and to 5,206 miles in 1847, of which 1,350 miles had been
opened within six years. Then there was a sudden andgreat
increase, tho yearly additions for seven years being 1,056 miles in
1848, 1,048 in 1849, 1,261 in 1850, 1,274 in 1851, 2,288 in 1852.
2,170 in 1853, 3,442 miles in 1854. The civil war checked railway
construction, only 3,257 miles being opened during the five years
ending with 1865, when the aggregate amounted to 32,996 miles.
Between 1865 ana 1K73, the mileage increased more than 100 per
cent, including one road in operation aud a second line in progress
of construction to the Pacific coast. Tho greatest increase of this
period was in the western and southwestern States, in which fully
25,000 miles of trackage were made ready for traffic. At the close of
1873 the total capital invested in railroads of the United States
aggregated $3,784,543,(H4 of which $1,836.904,450 represented
the bonded indebtedness. The depression which followed the panic
of that year continued until 1879. In the latter year the construction
again increased 1(10 per cent., and between 1874 and 1888, there
were built 85,814 miles of new railroad. Since the revival of railroad
construction i» 1879 3340 there have been completed sufficient
miles of road to give a total length of 221,629 miles. This does not
include the elevated steam and electric railroads in the various large
cities or the country. A railway, as a general rule, is carried in as
straight a lino from point to point as the nature of the country and
the necessities of local and intermediate traffic will allow. It is carried
over valleys by embankments or viaducts, over rivers and roads by
bridges, and through bills or elevated ground by deep trenches,
technically called cuttings, or by tunnels. When the material
excavated is insufficient for the embankments, recourse is had to
side cuttings, that is, to widening the cuttings, so as to obtain extra
material to supply the deficiency. A perfect railway would be one laid
on a level line, but as this is not always possible owing to tho
inequalities in the country traversed, or the difforenceof levels of the
places to bo connected, the line follows the lovol of the country
traversed, rising and falling according to circumstances. These
slopes or inclines of the lino are called its gradients, and the whole
arrangement of inclines in called the grading of the line. The way or
track of the railway is laid with clean gravel or broken stones, called
ballast, and in this the sleei>ers are laid transversely. [SLEEPER.]
Tho railson English railways are, In most instances, supported at
snort intervale by cast-iron frames, called chairs, which are fasare, in
most instances, supported at snort intervals by cast-iron frames,
called chairs, which are fastened firmly by spikes to the sleepers,
and in which tonod nrmly by spikes to the sleepers, and in which the
rails are firmly secured by wooden blocks, called keys. [CHAIR, »., A.
II. 4 ; KEY (3), «., II. 6.] Where flaiiKo-rails aro used there are no
chairs, the rails being at t ached direct to the sleepers. Transverse
sleepers are laid at a distance of from two feet six inches to three
feet from center to center. The rails are joined at their extremities
generally by fish-joints (q. v.). In order to allow trains to pass each
other, or to pass from one line to another, sidings aud junctions are
constructed. Sidings are generally used for freight cars or trains to
remain in temporarily while being loaded or unloaded, or while
another train is allowed to pass on the line of rails on which tho first
train is proceeding. The change from one lino of rails to another at a
junction is effected by means of points or switches (o,. v.), and tho
process of turning a train into a siding or from one lino to another is
termed shunting (q. v.), or switching. When a railway is thus
completed, the work is called the permanent way (q. v.). The
extremities of a railway aro called its termini [TERMINTJH], and tho
various places, provided with offices, Ac. .along tho lino where trains
stop for passengers or freight aro termed stations or depot s. The
motive power usually employed on railways in drawing tho trains is
steam. [MOTIVE.] Attempts have also been made, but not very
successfully, to utilize atmospheric pressure as a motive power. k
\TMO8PHERIC-RAILWAY.) In a few other cases a xed engine is
employed to draw the carriages, Ac., along by means of an endless
rope running over pullies, or of one which winds and unwinds on a
cylinder. Such engines are known as stationary engines, and the
system, which is in very successful operation, is known as tho "cable
system. Electricity is also employed as a motive power on many
short lines. [ELECTRIC-RAILWAY.] 2. More widely all the laud, works,
buildings and machinery required for the support and use of the
road or way, with its rails. railway-brake, «. [BRAKE (1), »., A. II. 4.]
railway-car, «. A vehicle for conveying passengers or freight on
railways. railway-conductor, .-. A conductor of a railway train.
railway-crossing, sulait. A place where a road crosses a railway on a
level ; a level crossing. railway-frog, ». [Fnoo (3), *.] railway-gauge,
«. 1. [GAUGE,*., II. 7.] 2. A bar with shoulders, indicating the
distance between the rails, and by which they are laid. railway-
guard, ». The guard or conductor of a train. (Eng.) railway -Jack, «.
A lifting device for pulling up rails, raising cars, and other like
purposes. railway printing-machine, s. Print. : A printing-machine in
which the bed is carried by a truck upon a railway, being usually
driven by a crank motion. railway-saw, s. A sawing-machino in which
the saw-mandrel is mounted on a carriage which slides on ways.
railway-signal, s. [SIGNAL, ».] railway-slide, ». A turn-table (q. v.).
railway-train, >. A connected line of cars on a railway. railway-
whistle, ». A whistle, connected with a locomotive, and made to
sound by steam, so as to give warning of the approach of a train,
Ac. rain -chamber ral ment, 'ray ment, «. [An abbreviation of Mid.
Eng. urraimenf or ura»m«n/,' cf. O. Kr. arrttm«n/=good array, order,
equipage. (Oofyrutv.)] I \KK.MMKNT. | Dress or clothing in general
jgnrments, vestments, vesture, clothes. (Matt. vi. 25.) rai m6nd He,
subst. [After Dr. Raimoudi, 3, 8SO3+7HO. Occurs in scales on
cassiterito at tho tin mines of Ehreufriedcrsdorf, Saxony. rain, *ralne,
*rayne, *reine, *reyne (pa. tense rained, *ra i nde,
treinede,*rinde,*roon, *ron),v.l. A t. [A. 8. hregnian, regnian, from
rtgn, rtn=rain (q.v.); Dot. retjenen; Dan. regne ; 8w. reona ; flcr.
regnen; O. Icel. regna , rigna ; Goth. riotyan.J A. /nfrarurifiir : I. Lit.
: To fall in drops from the clouds, as water. (Generally U8ed w'"' " •"
a nominative; as, it rains, it will rain, Ac.) "For after all the best thing
one can do Wheii it in raining, in to let It r«i»." LunaftlloK: The Pot ft
Tale. II. Figuratively: 1. To fall or drop like rain. "The teans which
long have mi*.. J " Shakes}).: Vtnut and Adonit, H3. •2. To weep, to
shed tears. 3. To be snowered thickly; to fall thickly like rain. (Pope:
Homer's Iliad, xii. 312.) B. Trans.: To pour or shower down like rain
from tho clouds; to pour down in abundance. (Exodus ivi. 4.) rain,
*ralne (i), *rayne (l), 'reghn, *reln. •relne, *ren, *rene, 'reyne, «. I
A. 8. regn, r(n; cogn. with 0ut. regen: Ital., Dan. A Sw, regn: Ger.
regent Goth. rign. For tho loss of g cf. rail (3), s.m h clouds, or tho
drops which fall. A cloud consists of aqueous vapor, tho individual
vesicles of which are very small. When by tho constant condensation
of fresh aqueous vapor these vesicles becomelargo aud heavy, and
several of them unite, they are unable to resist the action of gravity
and fall as rain. 2. Geology: The direct action of rain, as
distinguished from its indirect one in creating streams, rivers, &<•.,
is a potent aqueous cause. In many places, however, its effect is
much diminished by the protective influence over the soil exerted by
the> vegetation (Lyell: Princ., ch. xlv.) Penetrating; into crevices of
rocks, it is frozen and splits them. [ICE.] Moreover, in passing
through tho atmosphere, it absorbs a considerable amount of carbon
dioxide, which enables it to transform the carbonate of lime in
limestone rocks into the soluble* bicarbonate, aud ultimately waste
them away ; it acts also on felspar, Ac. rain-band, «. Physics: A
darkening of the solar spectrum. in the neighborhood of tho i> I
sodium i line, caused by the presence of watery vapor in the
atmosphere. rain-beat, adj. Beaten by the rain ; weatherbeaten. (lifi.
Hull: Satires, iv. 3.) rain-bird, t. (h-nith.: A name given somewhat
indiscriminately to two cuckoos in Jamaica : (1) Baurothera
(Cuculus. Linn.) vetula, a large handsome bird, soft brown-gray on
the back, dullish yellow on t he under surface, and rusty-red on tho
wings, with the long* tail showily barred with black ana white. It
feeds on animal substances. Gosse says (Birds «/ Jamaica, p. 275),
** I have found in various individuals, locusts, Phasmata, spiders,
Pbryni, a wholemouse, caterpillars, Ac." It is sometimes also called
Tom Fool, from its silly habit of gratifying its uriosity instead of
securing its safety. (2) C lui plurialis ; head dark grav, merging on
the neck into dark grayish-green, the hue of the back, rump. and
wings, with metallic gloss. Tail feathers black, barred with white;
throat and breast white; remaining under parts deep red-brow*.
rain-bow, s. [RAINBOW.] rain-chamber, .-. Mftall. : In tho extraction
of copper, a compartment into which spray is injected, and through
which the smoke is compelled to pass, to remove* poisonous
vapors. It was proposed by Sir Humphry Davy. boll, bdy; pfiut, jowl;
cat, 5011, chorus, chin, bench; go, gem; thin, this; sin, a;; expect,
Xenophon, exist, ph = f. -clan, -tian = sh»n. -tion, -sion - shun; -
(ion, -sion = zhun. -tious, -clous, -sious -- shus. -ble, -die, Ac. = bel,
del. 210
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rain-channel rain-channel, *. A rhannnl produced by rain.

I'nif. Sceley U'lioves that valleys of denudation >hns produced.
(I'hillips: Oeot.,i. 147.) rain-cloud, «. A nimbus (q.. v.). rain-crow, -.
Ornith.: Suurothera refu/a. •• He la Indeed known la some Mctions u
the ruin. cr«tf."~fturrougH»: Prpacton, p. 116. rain-drop, >. A drop
of rain. rain-gauge, *. An instrument or contrivance 3346 rainbow-
chalcedony, >. raise Min.: A very finely-fibrous variety of
concentrically-bunded chalcedony, which, when in thin section and
held toward the light, shows an iridescent play of color. rainbow-
chase, *. The pursuit of a visionary object ; a wild-goose chase. "A
fact which had led Mr. Rylands off a rainb "'«*"» °< "M°< " Raise my
thoughts, too humble and too vile." Spenser: F. Q., I. (Introd.) 3. To
cause to rise up or assume an erect position or posture; to lift from
a horizontal or other i>o-ition to a vertical ; to set upright ; as, to
raise a pole or mast. Hence, specifically : (1) To cause to rise or
stand up from a horizontal to ormg back from the dead. (1 Cur. xv.
17.) (5) To increase the strength, power, energy, vig or force of ; to
intensify, to heighten, to invigora as, to raise the spirits, toraise the
temperature o K'ivCue simple form consists of a copper funnel five to
rainbow-quartz, «. seven inches in diameter, inserted in the nock of
a Min.: Quartz (q. v.) which exhibits an internal bottle placed on a
stand and protected from the iridescence having the colors of the
rainbow, due to nun's rays, to prevent evaporation. The rain col- the
reflection of light from the surfaces of oxceedI'-i-t'-'l in the bottle is
measured in a glass jar hav- iugly fine fissures, ing on. '.tenth thn
area of the funnel, and graduated rainbow-worm t so that a rainfall
of one-tenth of an inch collected by the funnel is measured by one
inch on the side ,"a"f>'v c dl?ease- Hespes iris, consisting of vesiOf
the vemol. The stand should be placed at a suf- cles which break out
on the back of the hand, Ac. °J recumbent position ; to rouse up, as
from a state ncimit distance from any buildings, Ac., to prevent their
affecting the amount falling into the funnel. rain-giver, «. ''om/>ar.
Keligions: A divinity who causes rain. rainbow-wrasse, *. Ichthy.:
Coris julis. the best known species (C. giofredi being probably the
female). It has a black spot over the origin of the pectoral, a blue
spot on of sleep, quiet, or the like. To rain-god, rain-goddess, *.
Compar. Religions: In systems of polytheistic Nature-worship the god
or goddess who causes rain. This may be (l) a special divinity, or (2)
the Heaven-god exercising a special function, as, Jupi " ' ""• °' """* '
*° region. (Spenser: F. Q.. 111. iv. 49.) 4. To cause to arise"! gVow
up, or come into being ; rain -fall, «. [Eng. rain (1), s., and fall.] A to
give rise or origin to; to produce, to create, to fall or shower of rain ;
tho amount of rain which originate, falls in a particular district. .(1)
To form or produce by the accumulation and "The course, owing to
the recent rainfalls was in ™PJ*Jt">H °f materials or constituent
parts; to splendid condition."— London Daily Chronicle erect, to
construct. ..ToTm^she^^^ "S^r^ai. the deck fair bc"lg 1° " 1"*WT
scale in tho former. It is greater (2) To cause to grow ; to cause to
be produced, near the ocean than in inland deserts. The fell-
propagated, or bred ; to grow, to rear, ing of forests diminishes the
rainfall in particu- "To raise the most valuable, which are generallv
too the most expensive crops."— Smith- Wealth of Xatlons rain -I
nSss, *. [Eng. rainy; -ness.] The quality bk' r" ch' "• or state of being
rainy or showery. '.'">'.: Indentations produce) To cause to appear ;
to call up; to give cause rain -mak 8r, s. [Eng. rain (1), s., and
maker.] "',',„ i. it. .~ .A [Horace would raise a blush, where secret
vice he :l/-.?'l:LA_P J^°n_wh".i>rofrases *" ll To obtaln or got
together by an effort. " He raised money on his pony and cart." —
London rain bSw, «rayne bowe, «reyn bouwe, «. A a. [A. 8. rtnboga;
(lor. regenbogen.] 1. Meteor. : A luminous bow or arch appearing in
the clouds «p(K.site to the sun when they are roBolvnd into rain.
Theoretically several bows may co-exist; generally, however, there is
but one. Somi'tiinoH there are two, very rarely throe or even rai four
the largest number authentically on record, lengtn." (.ScofrA.) Kvory
nunlmw exhibits tho prismatic colors. When raia s TRRia 1 • ben- are
two Ix.ws, the lower, or primary, is very iwhl, and has the red
highest; the outer, or sec- ra*9 -a-Dle, a. [Eng. rais(e); -able.] That
may idary, is more faint, and has tho violet the highest or can D0
raised ; capable of being raised, or. They are produced chiefly by the
refraction ralije, *relse v t |Icel rain-?, «raln le, •reyn-le, adj. ,.„. „.
,«,,„„, Uer.nlgnerisch.] Abounding in rain; wot, showery, moist.
(Hackluyt: Voi/ayes, i. 281.) U A rainy day: Evil or less fortunate
times; a day or tune of misfortune or of less prosperity. "They must
in prosperous timea, put by something for • rainy day."— London
Evening Standard. A rope ; a rood, or six ells in and dispersion of
raindrops, partly =to raise; cans. visible when the lun is 54- above
the horizon. "f *• Language: acclamations were raised." — Xacattlay-
Hist Eng., oh. viii. (11) To bring forward or suggest, as for
discussion: as, to ntixr a question or point. 5. To heighten or elevate
in pitch: as, A sharp raises a note half a tone. 6. To increase the
loudness of ; to make louder ; as, to raise one's voice. 7. To excite,
to irritate, to influence, to madden. (Scotch.) II. Technically: I. Lain:
To create, to originate, to constitute; as, to raise a use. gradual
approach toward an object; as, to raise the land. IT (1) To raise
ablockade (or siege) : To relinquish " Tar/ing IU rainbow hoea."
HTardtvorlh. fxcurttoi,, L rainbow-agate, «. (U.S. Colloa.) (5) To rawe
a check, note, tic.: To fraudulently MM f&ta. at. fare, amidst, whit,
or, wore, wolf, wBrk, wh8, sin; "Satan exalted sat, by merit raised
Milton: P. ^ „. „. (6) To faite p «"' ^^^^^jSS^SSffi^ ^?f
^roT^'To^uce steam w«, wit. hifre, camel, h«r, th«re; pine, pit,
mate, cab, cure, unite, cur, rule, full; try, Syrian. sire, sir, = 4;
marine; ey = t. 8-6. pit. qn - kw.
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raise 3347 rakebell *{8) To raise the market on one: To

charge one more than the current or market price. (9) To raise the
wind: To obtain ready money by some shift or contrivance, as by
pawning? or gulling property, by accommodation bills or the like.
(10) To make a raise : To secure financial aid. Talge, ». [RAISE, v.] 1.
Rise, rising. "The fall of kingdom)), and raise of the papacy." — Rtile:
EtKjliHh Votaries, pt. i. 2. A raised mound or eminence ; a cairn of
stones. " Considerable remains of stones, which still go by the name
of mitts." — llutdiinmin. Hist. Cumberland. raided, pa. par. or a.
[RAISE, v.] raised sea beach, a. i ,•':!.: A sea beach which has been
upheaved so as now to bo at a greater or loss elevation above high-
water mark. They exist along the Devonshire and Cornwall coasts, in
Ireland, Scotland, »''*'. [RAJAH.] Rule, dominion. (East Indian.) ra Ja
(l),ra -la (J, lasy),«. fLat.raia=a flatfish, a skate.] 1. Ichthy.:Ka\\ the
typical genus of the family Rajidte (q. v.i. Two dorsal fins on tho tail
without spine ; caudal tin absent or rudimentary ; veutrals divided
by a deep notch ; pectorals not extending to extremity of snout.
Nasal valves separated in tho middle; tooth small, obtuse, orpointed.
Chiefly from temperate seas, more numerous in the northern than in
the southern hemisphere. All are eatable, and tho majority are sent
to market. 2. Palasont. : Dermal spines of Raja antiqua, allied to K.
clavata, are abundant in the Crag deposits of Norfolk and Suffolk.
Etheridge puts the species at three. ra jab, raja (2), subst. [Sansc.
rerities or spines ; tail with a longitudinal fold on each side. Pectorals
usually extending to tho snout. Genera: Raja. Psammobatis,
Symptorygia, and Platyrhina. 2. Palceont.: Although, probably, this
family was well represented in Cretacoous and Tertiary formations,
tho remains found hitherto are comparatively few. Arthropterus,
from the Lias, seems to have boon a true Ray. ((/anther.)
[HTLIOBATI8, PLEURACANTHUS.J Raj ma Hal , «. [Sansc., &c.=tho
palace, mansion, or district of tho king.] '/•<>/.; A town and
adjacent mountain range on tho west bank of tho Ganges in lower
Bengal. Rajmabal-flber, .--. [JETTEE.] Raj poot, Raj ptlt, «. [Sansc.
=the son of a king or of kings.] Antlir
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rakehelly •rake -hel If , a. [Eng. rakehell; •».] Dissolute,

rnkehell. • I scorne and spew out the rakelirlly rout of oar ragged
rymera,"— Jt *..• Kptstle to Xaliter Itarrei/. Tak el, rac kle, *rak le,
»rak yl, «rak ele. •rak 11. inlj. |Sw. dial. rakkel=o. vagabond,
conn«ct«iiwith rakkla= to wander, to rove, frequent. of raka= to run
hastily; O. 8w. rocfca = to run about.] [RAKE (3), v.} Rash, hasty. "
He that Is to rakel to renden his clothes." Jt. Eng. Allit. Poem*, ill.
626. •rak el-ness, «. [Eng. rakel; •net*.'} Hastiness, rashness. •rak
ente, s. [A. S. racente; Iccl. rekendi; O. II. tier, rahchinza.] A chain.
•rak en tele, *. [A. S. racenteag.] A chain. rake 5ff, «. [Eng. rofce,
and -off.] The bank's IHTciMitago at a gambling game. (Slang.) rak
8r, 'rak-ere, «. [Eng. rak(e), (I), v. ; -«r.] I. Ord. Lang.: One who or
that which rakes; specif.: 1. One who uses a rake. "A rybiboor and a
ratoner, a raA-^r and has knave." Piers Plourman, p. 106. •2. One
who raked and removed lllth from the streets ; a scavenger. :!. A
machine for raking hay, straw, Ac., by horse or other power. 4. A gun
so placed as to rake an enemy s vessel. II. Technically: \,
Bricklaying: Apiecoof iron having two points bent at right angles,
used for picking out decayed mortar from the joints of old walls
preparatory to pointing or replacing it by new mortar. 2. ftteam-eng.
: A self-acting contrivance for cleaning tho grato of a locomotive. f3.
Ichthy.: A rake-like organ, aa tho pharyngeal bones of some fishes.
rak'-Sr-y1, «. [Eng. rate (2) ; -ry.} Dissipation. "All the rakrry and
intrigues of the town."— North: Life nfLord Oullford, ii, 800. •rake
Shame, «. [Eng. rafce (2), and shame ; cf. rakehell.} A dissolute
fellow ; a rake. "It hud been good to haue apprehended the
rakeghanif." Brttme: Merry Beggars, iii. rake stale, rake stele, «.
[Bug. rake (1), s., and sin!,- :\ handle. 1 Tho handle of a rako. " Bat
that tale Is not worth a rake*tele." Chaucer: C. T., 6,681. rak-
Ing(l),a.&«. [RAKE (1), v.] A. As adj.: Enfilading; sweeping with shot
or shell in the direction of the length. "And raking chase-guns
through our sterns they send." l>ry,lrn: Annua Mirautlif, luzli. B. As
substantive: 1. The act of using a rake. 2. Tho space of ground
raked at once; tho quantity of hay, straw, &c., raked together at one
time. trak -Ing (2), a. [RAKE (2), «.] Rakish, dissolute. " I do with all
my heart renounce your raking suppers." —Ellt. Carters: Letters, ill.
813. (1809.) rik'-Ing, pr.par. ora. [RAKE (4),*.] raklng-pleces, s. pi.
Pieces laid upon sills supported by the footings or impost of a pier.
rak Ish(l),a. [Eng.rafc(«), (2) s.; -ish.] Loose, wild, dissolute,
dissipated. "His appearance is saucy, rnkinh, and severe."— Century
Magazine, Aug., 1882, p. 602. rak -iBh (2), a. [Eng. rofc(«), (3) s. ; -
i«fc.] Naut.: Having a rako or inclination of the masts aft or forward,
instead of being upright. rik -ISh-lf , adv. [Eng. rakish (I) ; -!».] In a
rakish, wild, or dissolute manner; like a rake. rak -Ish-nSss, «. [Eng.
rakish (1); -nets.] The quality or state of being rakish; dissipation,
debauchory. rale,*. [Fr.=a rattle ; O.Fr. ro»/e.] RATTLE,*.] ral IBn-
tan -do, adv. [Ital.] Uusic: A direction that the time of tho passage
over which it is written is to be gradually decreased. •ril II an^e, ».
(Eng. rally; -ance.} The act of rallying. ral 11 da, «. pi. [Lat. rnll(us);
tern. pi. adj. BUff. -utii .] 1. Ornith. : Rails ; a family of Grail*-, with
very wido distribution. Bill long, curved at tip, sides compressed,
nostrils in membranous grooves ; wings moderate, tail rounded ;
tarsi and toes long and -I'-inliT. Thn classical ion in in an unsettled
state; but the family may bo divided into five sections or sub-
families: Parrin«>, Rallinee, Gallinulinw, Fulicinn?, and Heliornithine.
Tho last is sometimes made a family. 3348 2. Palceont.: Remains of
some species have been found in tho Mascareuo Islands, and
historical evidence shows that they have been extinct for little more
than a century- They belong to r'ulica and to two extinct genera,
Aphanauteryx ami Erythromachus. Aphanapteryx was a large bird of
a reddi-n color, with loose plumage, perhaps allied to Ocydromux.
Erythromachus was much smaller, of gray and white color, and is
said to have lived chiefly on the eggs of the land-tortoises.
(H'allace.) ril -lied, pa. par. or a. [RALLY (1), r.] ril II §r (l),«. [Eng.
rally (1), v.;-«r.] One who rallies or reunites persons thrown into
disorder. r&r-ll-ir (2), .. [Eng. rally (2), v. ; -*r.] One who rallies
another; a oauterer. ral II na.K. ;if. [Mod. Lat. rall(iu) ; Lat. fern.
I>1. adj. suff. -inflE.] Ornithology : True Rails ; a sub-family of Rail
idn> (q. v.). No frontal shield; bill long and slender, keel bold, sides
compressed ; toes free at base. Chief genera : Rallus, Porzana,
Ortygometra, Ocydromns, and Aramidcs. ral line, a. [RALLUS. J Of or
pertaining to the Rails or Kalliihr. ral-liis, «. [Mod. Lat.] [RAIL (!),«.]
Ornith. : The typical genus of the sub-family Rallinee (o. v.). Bill
curved from nostrils to tip, which is slightly scooped : nostrils in
groove, extending two-thirds the length of the bill; opening narrow ;
hind toe .short and slender. Eighteen species, with world-wide
distribution. Rallus aquaticus is the Water-rail (q. v.). ral 1? (1), *ral-
lle, r. t. & i. [Fr. rallier, from Lat. rc-=again, back; od-=to, and
ligo=to bind.] A. Transitive: 1. To reunite; to bring together and
reduce to order, as troops that have been thrown into disorder or
dispersed. " The Gascons rally'd soon the fight renew.' Hoole: Tasfo,
bk. xx. 2. To collect for a fresh effort ; to unite. " To rally all their
sophistry to fortify them with fallacy."— Decay of Piety. B.
Intransitive: 1. To reunite; to come back to order; to reform into an
orderly or organized body. " Since rnlluht'j from our wall we forc'd
the foe, Still aimed at Hector hare I bent my bow." Pope: Homer' t
Iliad, viii. 369. 2. To collect together; to unite, to assemble. " Oar
Pachas rallied round the state." Byron: llrlde of Aoydot, ii. 14. 3. To
recover strength or vigor ; to gain strength ; to improve in health or
strength ; as. The patient rallied. 4. To improve in value or price; to
recover from a fall; as, Prices rally. ril -IJf (2), v. t. & i. [The same
word as roii (2),v.J A. Trans. : To attack with raillery or banter; to
use good-humored pleasantry or satire toward or on ; to banter, to
joke, to chaff. "Not urged by malice against the person he nillif*." —
Taller, No. 59. *B. Intrant.; To use raillery or banter; to joke, ral -!?
(!),«. [RALLY (!>,«.] 1. Tho act of rallying or reforming into an
orderly or organized body ; the act of collecting and reducing to
order. " With their subtle roily* they began In small divisions hidden
strength to try." iHrenant: Oondibert, i. 6. 2. The act or state of
recovering strength. 3. A set-to, as in boxing, racket.*, Ac. "The
r*i//i>« in the next two hands of each side being well-contested."-
Fi>M, April 4, 1888. 4. The rough and tumble gambols indulged in
by tho pantomirnists at the end of the transformation scene (q. T.),
and before the business of the pantomime proper. "Let the Liberal
ionists provide comic actors, pantomime rallies and breakdowns." —
London Daily Telegraph. 5. A public political meeting. ( U. 8. Colloq.)
ral-ly1 (2),«. [RALLY (2). u.l The act of rallylog ; the use of good-
tempered pleasantry or banter ; banter. ral st&n He, «. [After the
Rev. J. 6. Ralston ; gnff.-itelifin.).] Min. : A pseudo-isometric mineral,
analogous to garnet in optical characters, being bi-axial, with an
angle of 90'. Habit, octahedral. Composition: A bydrated fluoride of
aluminium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium, tho constituent
formula given I ..-in Ram. ramadan ie 3(Na2MgOa)F;rf-
8[Al2]F6+«H2O. Occurs in 11 crystals, associated with crystallized
cryolite and thomsenolito (q. v.), at Arksut Fiord, West Greenland.
ram, *ramme, ». A a. [A. S. ram, rom; cogn. with Dut. ram ; O. H.
Qer. ram ; Ger. ramm.J A. As substantive : I. Ord. Lang.: The male of
tho sheep or ovine genus. In some parts also called a Tup. "There
waa a ram, that men might see, That had a fleece of gold that
nhone so bright." C'Aauwr. Legend of llipslpkllt. II. Technically: 1.
Machinery: (1) The game as MONKEY, «.. II. 2. (2) [HVDRACLIC-
HAM.J (3) [MONKEY, *., II. 3.J 2. Nautical: (1) A beak of iron or steel
at the bow of a warvessel, designed to crush in the sides of an
adversary by running against her 14 end on." The ram can be
detached from the vessel. (2) A steam ironclad, armed at the bow
bolow the water-line with such a beak. " To show how possible is the
sinking of an armored ship struck by a ram moving at a high
velocity." — Hrltlnh Quarterly Keviev, Ivii. 120. (1873.) •3. Old
Warfare: [BATTERING-RAM. 1 4. Shipbuild. : A spar, hooped at the
end, and used for moving timbers on end by a jolting blow. B. As
adjective: [Icel. ramr=stroug]: Rammish, strong-scented, stinking.
being forced in." — Saturday Rtrlrtr, Jan. 12. 1884, p. 66. "ram-cat,
». A tom-cat. " Ram-cats on moonlight tiles." London Morning
Herald. ram-goat. «. Dot. : Fagara microphylla. ram- head,*. •1.
Naut. : A halyard-block (q. v.). 2. An iron lever for raising up great
stones. ram-line, ». Naut.: A line used in striking a straight middle
line on a spar, being secured at one end and hauled taut at tho
other. ram's head, >. Hot. : A popular name for Cypripedium
arietinum. and for tho seeds of Cicer arietinum, the ram's head chick
pea. ram's horn,*. 1. Fort.: A semicircular work in the ditch of n
fortified place, and sweeping the ditch, being itself commanded by
the main work. 2. Palceont.: A popular name for Ammonites. 3. Hot.
(pi.): Orchis maiculn. ram, v. t . & i. [RAM, -«. ] [Ger. ramrnen ; Dan.
ram Jer= to ram, to drive; romme=to strike, to hit.] A. Transitive : 1.
To strike with a ram ; to drive a ram against ; to batter. "The
'Minotaur* accidentally rammed her consort." — Brit. Quarterly
Bevlnc, Ivii. 12. (1878.) 2. To force in ; to drive together or down ;
as, to ram down a cartridge into a gun. 3. To till compactly by
driving and pounding. 4. To stuff, to cram. "Sam thou thy fruitful
tidings In mine ears." Shakesp.: Antony and Cleopatra, ii. 6. B.
Intrans. : To use a battering-ram or similar device. "To tarn their
ships and ram at a certain aignal."— Saturday lirrirv, Jan. 12, 1884,
p. 56. ra ma dan, ra ma dhan, rna ma Ian, ... [Arab. ramodan=the
hot month, from ramida, ruintza=to be hot.] 1. The ninth month of
the Mohammedan year. Tho Mohammedan months being reckoned
by lunar time, each month begins in each successive >eur eleven
days earlier than in the preceding, so that in thirty-three years it
occur* successively in all tho seasons. 2. Tho groat annual
Mohammedan fast, kept ii|> throughout the entire month from
sunrise to sunset. Ale, At, (are, amidst, what, fall, father; we, wet,
here, camel, hir, there; pine, pit, sire, sir, marine; go, pot. or. wore,
wolf, w8rk. wh&. son; mute, cub, cure, unite, cur, rule, full; try.
Syrian. », « = «; ey -- a. qu = kw.
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ramage Tim age (age as 14), ». & a. [Fr.. from Low I.,at.
Vamaficum, from Lat. ramus— a bough.] A* A* substantive : 1.
Branches of trees. 'I. The warbling of birds among the branches of
trees. "Bird* their ramage did on thee bestow." />rumimmd, pt. ii.,
son. 10. 3. A branch of a pedigree ; line, lineage, kindred.
(Cotgrave.) B. A» adjective: 1. Having left the nest, and began to sit
on the branches. 2. Wild, shy, untamed. (Generally applied to an
untrained hawk.) "The distinctions of eyees and ramage hawks."—
Brovne: Miscellany Tract v. •ra. ma &lous, adj. [English ramage, s.; -
out.] }l«>longing to the branches; flying among the branches;
hence, wild, not tamed or trained. " As soone as she hath knit him
that knot, Mow is he tame that was so ramaglous." Chaucer: The
Remedy of Lout. ram 9. kin, «. [RAMEKIN.] ri -mal, a. [Lat. ramu*=a
branch or bough.] Sot.: The same as RAMKOUS (q. v.). ram a Ii na.
«. [Lat. ramalia= twigs.] Botany: A genus of Usnete. Ramalina
fraxinea, R. fastigiata, and R.farinacea are common on the bark of
trees. R. nolymorpha and R. tcopulorum are good dyeing lichens. *ra
mass , v. t. [French ramaater.] To collect together. " When they hare
ramast many of several kindes and tastes."— Comical mtt. of World
In the Moon. Ra may -an », «. [Sansc.J Hindu Literature : One of the
two great Indian ••in.- poems. Its author was Valmiki, of the
aboriginal tribe of Kolis on the Bombay coast. It celebrates tho
exploits of Rama, king of Oudc, who, •aided by the Monkey-god
Hunooman (q. T.), conquered Ceylon, and brought back his queen,
Sita, whom Rawnna, tho giant and tyrant of that island, li.nl carried
away. rim -bade, «. [Fr.] Nautical: The elevated platform built across
the prow of a galley for boarding. ram bell, «. [Malay.] Botany : The
fruit of Picrardia tativa or dulcit , which grows in the peninsula of
Malacca. •rim -bSrge, «. [Fr. rome=an oar, and barge.] A long
narrow kind of warship, swift and easily managed. ram ble, Tam-
mle. v. i. [A frequentative from roam (Prov. rame).] 1. To rove; to
wander about; to walk, ride, or sail from place to place without any
definite object in view; to stroll about; to wander carelessly or
indefinitely. "The English officers rambled into the town."—
Jfacraulay: Hint. Eng., oh. xvii. 2. To move, grow, or extend without
any certain direction. "O'er his ample sides the rambling sprays
Luxuriant shot." Thomson: Spring. 3. To speak or think in an
incoherent manner; to wander in speech or thought. ram -ble, «.
[RAMBLE,*.] A roving; a wandering about without any definite object
; a strolling or roaming about. 41 To enjoy a ramble on the banks of
Thames." Cowper: Task, i. 115. •ramble-headed, a. Unsteady, giddy.
"We ramble-headed creatures." — Richardson: Sir C. Grandison, ri.
34. rim -blSr, «. [Eng. rambl(e), v. ; -«r.] One who rambles about ; a
stroller, a rover, a wanderer. " I love such holy ramblers." Scott:
Marmion, i. 26. rim -bllng, pr. par. or a. [RAMBLE, «.] 1. Wandering,
roving, or roaming about carelessly or irregularly. 2. Straggling,
irregular, without method, wandering ; as, a rumbling story. ram -
bllftg 1$, adv. [Eng. rambling; -ly.] In a rambling manner. ram boo
tan, ram bu tan, s. [Malay rambut = lmir, from the soft spines
covering tho fruit.] But. : tfephelium lappaceum, found in the
Malayan archipelago. Its bean, a red edible fruit, is about the size of
a pigeon's egg. Tim -bodze, Tim -bflge, ». [Etym. doubtful ; of.
booze.] A drink made of wine, ale, eggs, and -iiK'ir, in the winter
time; or of wine, milk, sugar, and rosewater in tho summer time.
(Bailey.) 3349 rim bftnc tlons, adj. [Etym. fanciful.] Quarrelsome.
Tim bus tlotts (1 as V). o. [Prob. a corrupt, from bouterout (q. v.).J
Boisterous, noisy, violent ; careless of the comfort of others. ra me
al, adj. [Latin rameut, from ramtu=a branch.] The same as
RAMEOUS (q. T.). tBa-m« -an, a. & .. [RAWS*.] The same as
RAMIST (q. T.). rimed, a. [ Eng. ram ; -ed. ] Skipbuild.: Said of a
ship on the stocks when the frames, stem, and stern-post are up
and adjusted. ra mee , ra ml* , ». [Malay.] Bot. : BOkmeria nivea.
[8BA88CLOTH-PLAHT.] ram « kin, ram a kin, Tim -m8 kin, Tim'i
quluiqua»k),«. [Fr. rumeiiuin. from O. Out. rammeken= toasted
bread.] Cook.: A small sliceof bread covered with a mixture of
choose and eggs. ram el, rim -mel, Tim -mell, Tarn al, tubtt. [Lat.
r«»m(c = n withered, dead, or useless branch ; ramtu=a branch ;
French ramt«et=small sticks or twigs.] 1. Brushwood, dead wood, or
branches. "To write of scroggea, brome, hadder, or rammell." O.
Douglas: .r.nri,l ix., Prol. 44. 2. Rubbish, such as bricklayers' rubbish,
or stony fragments; rubble. "The river Tiberis, which in time past
waa full of rammell and theruiosof houses."—/'. Holland: Suetonius,
p. 51. ramel-wood, rammell-wood, «. Copse wood, brushwood. Tim -
el, Tim -mel, v. i. [RAMEL, tubtt.] To molder to pieces ; to turn to
rubbish. rim'-8nt, *. [Lat. ramenrum=a chip, a shaving, from
rttdo=to scrape.] 1. lint. Lang. : A scraping, a shaving. 2. Bot. (pi.) :
[RAMENTA.) ra-m8n'-ta, «. pi. [Lat.] [RAMENT.] Bot.: Thin, brown,
foliaceous scales, appearing sometimes in great numbers on young
shoots, and on the stems of many ferns, ram en ta ceous (ce as sh),
adj. [Latin rament(a) : Eng. adj. sun. -aceout.] Bot.: Covered with
ramenta. ra -me ous, adj. [Lat. rameut, from ramu»=a branch, a
bough.] I int.: Of or belonging to the branches. (Lindley.) rim-fee1 -
zled (leas el), a. [FE£Z£, «.] Fatigued, exhausted. (Scotch.) ri -ml, >.
pi. [ RAMUS.] rim-I f I-ci -tlon, «. [French, from ramir!«r=to ramify
(q. v.).] I. Ordinary Language: 1. Literally: (1) The act of ramifying;
the process of branching or shooting out branches from a stem. (2)
The production of figures resembl ing branches. 2. Figuratively: (1)
A small branch or offshoot from a main stock or channel. "The
pulmonary artery and vein pass along the snrfaces of these air
bladders in an infinite number of ramh; cf. Dan. ram=strong-
scented, rank ; Icel. ramr=strong.] Ram-like, strong-scented, rank,
fetid, lascivious. (Cnoucer: C. T., 16,409.) bo'il. boy; poiit, jowl; cat,
cell, chorus, chin, bench; go, gem; thin, this; sin, as; expect,
Xenophon, exist, ph t -clan, -tian = shan. -tion, -sion = shun; -tlon, -
s.lon = zh&n. -tious, -cious, -sious -- shus. -ble, -die, Ac. = bel, del.
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