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 WORLD
EDUCATION
ENCYCLOPEDIA
a survey of educational systems worldwide
SECOND EDITION

VOLUME 2
I–R
 WORLD
EDUCATION
ENCYCLOPEDIA
a survey of educational systems worldwide
SECOND EDITION

VOLUME 2
I–R

REBECCA MARLOW-FERGUSON, EDITOR

WORLD EDUCATION
ENCYCLOPEDIA
A SURVEY OF EDUCATIONAL
SYSTEMS WORLDWIDE
2ND EDITION

GALE GROUP STAFF All rights to this publication will be vigorously defended.
Editor: Rebecca Marlow-Ferguson
Copyright (c) 2002 by
Associate Editor: Chris Lopez Gale Group
27500 Drake Rd.
Contributing Editors: Jason B. Baldwin, Caryn E. Klebba, Farmington Hills, MI 48331
Claire Campana, Dawn Conzett DesJardins, Eric Hoss, Kathleen E.
Maki-Potts, Jane A. Malonis, Christine Maurer, Amanda C. Quick Gale Group and Design is a trademark used herein under license.

Managing Editor: Erin E. Braun All rights reserved including the right of reproduction in whole or
in part in any form.
Electronic and Prepress Composition Manager: Mary Beth
Trimper No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without per-
mission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who
Assistant Manager, Composition Purchasing and Electronic wishes to quote brief passages or entries in connection with a
Prepress: Evi Seoud review written for inclusion in a magazine or newspaper.

Buyer: NeKita McKee Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Production Design Manager: Kenn Zorn World education encyclopedia: a survey of educational systems
worldwide / Rebecca Marlow-Ferguson, editor and project coordi-
Art Director: Jennifer Wahi nator; Chris Lopez, associate editor.—2nd ed.
Permissions Specialist: Margaret A. Chamberlain p. cm.
Permissions Manager: Maria Franklin Includes bibliographical references and index.
Technical Support Services: Wayne D. Fong Contents: v.1 Afghanistan-Hungary — v.2 Iceland-Rwanda —
v.3 Saint Helena- Zimbabwe.
COPYRIGHT NOTICE ISBN 0-7876-5577-5 (set: hardcover: alk. paper) — ISBN 0-
7876-5578-3 (v.1) —
While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the
ISBN 0-7876-5579-1 (v.2) — ISBN 0-7876-5580-5 (v.3)
information presented in this publication, Gale Group does not
guarantee the accuracy of the data contained herein. Gale accepts 1. Education—Encyclopedias. I. Marlow-Ferguson, Rebecca. II.
no payment for listing; and inclusion in the publication of any Lopez, Chris, 1967-
organization, agency, institution, publication, service, or individual
does not imply endorsement of the editors or publisher. Errors LB15.W87 2001
brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satis- 370’.3-dc21
faction of the publisher will be corrected in future editions. 2001033159
This publication is a creative work fully protected by all applicable ISBN 0-7876-5577-5 (Set)
copyright laws, as well as by misappropriation, trade secret, unfair ISBN 0-7876-5578-3 (Volume One)
competition, and other applicable laws. The authors of this work have ISBN 0-7876-5579-1 (Volume Two)
added value to the underlying factual material herein through one or ISBN 0-7876-5580-5 (Volume Three)
more of the following: unique and original selection, coordination,
expression, arrangement, and classification of the information. Printed in the United States of America
 the west (180 miles), followed by Scotland to the south
ICELAND east (495 miles), and Norway to the east (590 miles). Ice-
land is largely a classless society composed of the des-
cendents of farmers and warriors who fled the tyranny of
Scandinavia many centuries ago. The strength of the peo-
BASIC DATA
ple, mirrored by the powerful landscape, is evident in the
Official Country Name: Republic of Iceland thriving independent culture. Visitors to Iceland typically
find the people to be courteous and friendly, are surprised
Region: Europe by the cold yet temperate climate (mild winters and cool
Population: 276,365 summers), and are struck by the breathtaking natural
Language(s): Icelandic beauty of the country. Despite physical isolation, Iceland
has maintained its place in European civilization.
Literacy Rate: 99.9%
Academic Year: September-May Iceland has a rich literary tradition and unusually
high standards of education, with 15 percent of the na-
Number of Primary tional budget devoted to education. Illiteracy is unknown
Schools: 193 in the small island country. Icelanders are generally very
Foreign Students in open to new ideas and trends, and they have rapidly de-
National Universities: 185 veloped, implemented, and embraced new technology
Libraries: 194 throughout their society. Approximately 82 percent of
Icelanders between the ages of 17 and 75 have access to
Educational Enrollment: Primary: 29,342 the Internet at home, school, or work. With artists fre-
Secondary: 30,463 quently deriving inspiration from the extraordinary ter-
Higher: 7,908 rain and the ancestral culture, the arts are flourishing in
Educational Enrollment Iceland. Painting in particular has thrived since the end
Rate: Primary: 98% of the nineteenth century. Nearly every district has its
Secondary: 104% own museum reflecting the local cultural history, while
Higher: 38% magnificent galleries and museums grace the capitol. Lit-
Female Enrollment Rate: Primary: 98% erature has always played a prominent role in Icelandic
Secondary: 102% culture. Manuscript illumination, woodcarving, and folk
Higher: 45% music have been associated with periods of heightened
interest. There are numerous theater companies in Ice-
land, and Reykjavik is home to a symphony orchestra, an
opera house, and a ballet company. The National Theater
of Iceland celebrated its fiftieth anniversary in the year
HISTORY & BACKGROUND 2000. Icelandic nightlife is famous for its vibrancy, with
night clubs, cafes, and cinemas in all major towns.
Iceland, one of the world’s first independent, demo-
cratic nations, is the second largest island in Europe The Evangelical Lutheran Church is the official state
(39,769 square miles). Located 180 miles south of the church, but freedom of religion exists for all other con-
Arctic Circle, Iceland’s nearest neighbor is Greenland to gregations. Although the state provides financial support

WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA 583

ICELAND

to the church, it extends considerable freedom. The bish- lenging desk work, farming, or fishing, for the Icelander
op is elected by pastors and members of the theological there seems to be an intrinsic association between one’s
faculty at the University of Iceland; and the one diocese work life and both one’s personal contentment and the
is divided into districts, which are further subdivided into meaning ultimately attached to one’s life. A common be-
parishes. An elected church congress serves as an adviso- lief in Icelandic society is that an individual who is not
ry board to the church. Roughly 90-94 percent of Iceland- very busy and actively involved in his or her work is not
ers are Protestants (73 percent Evangelical Lutheran) and living life fully. Casual conversations over a meal fre-
1 percent are Catholic. quently involve discussions about work. All Icelandic
youth are expected to work as soon as possible, particu-
With an excellent health care system available to all larly during the summer months when school is out of
citizens at no cost, the life expectancy in Iceland is session.
among the highest in the world (76.5 years for males and
81.5 years for females) and infant mortality is among the Although Irish monks were the first people to inhabit
lowest in the world (5.5 per 1,000 live births). The health- Iceland in the eighth century, it was not until the period
care system receives 40.5 percent of the national budget extending from 870 to 930 A.D. that Iceland was system-
and the nation operates one of the most expensive health- atically settled by both Norsemen from Scandanavia and
care systems in the world. Welfare services include un- Celts from the British Isles. The monks are believed to
employment insurance, old age and disability pensions, have left shortly after the arrival of the pagan Norsemen.
family and childbearing allowances, and sickness bene- Because the ruling class was Nordic, both the language
fits. The medical and welfare systems are jointly financed and the culture have been predominantly Scandinavian
through taxation by the national and local government. from the beginning. There are, however, traces of Celtic
influence in the literature and in the names of people and
Geologically, Iceland is a very young country and places. Immigration from other parts of the world has
the process of its formation is still in progress. Iceland’s been minimal since the time of the first settlement.
interior consists mostly of uninhabited mountains and
high plateaus. Much of the uninhabited regions, encom- Iceland’s present day parliament, Althing, is the old-
passing more than 80 percent of the island, are covered est existing national assembly in the world. When estab-
with permanent snow and ice (glaciers) or volcanic sur- lished in 930 A.D., the power of the Althing was
face, preventing many agricultural activities. The settle- distributed among four local courts and a supreme court.
ments are limited to a narrow coastal belt, valleys, and In 1000 A.D., Christianity was peacefully adopted at the
lowland plains in the south and southwest. With a popula- Althing, which met for two weeks each summer and at-
tion of approximately 272,000 people, Iceland is one of tracted a significant portion of the population. The first
the smaller nations in the world, yet it is the least densely bishopric, or center for learning, was established at Skal-
populated of all European nations. More than 60 percent holt in south Iceland in 1056, and a second was devel-
of the country’s population resides in or near the capital oped at Holar in the north in 1106. These first schools
city of Reykjavik (‘‘Bay of Smokes’’ named for the geo- were devoted primarily to educating men for the priest-
thermal stream), situated in the southwestern region of hood, but many others who were prominent in secular af-
the island. Since WWII Iceland has maintained a high fairs were taught as well.
standard of living that is comparable to other Nordic
countries. The strong Icelandic economy is based on the During the late twelfth and the early thirteenth centu-
use of renewable natural resources and a highly educated ry, dramatic Icelandic tales of early settlement, the colo-
and skilled labor force. Unemployment is nearly non- nization of Greenland, romance, disputes, and the
existent in contemporary Iceland. Over the course of the development of Iceland were translated into a rich liter-
twentieth century, Iceland, which is situated on major ary tradition dominated by Sagas. These fact-based
shipping and air lanes of the North Atlantic Ocean, has works, which provided the early settlers with a source of
effectively transformed itself from a subsistence econo- entertainment as well as cultural heritage, represent some
my to an exchange economy. The cost of living is very of the classics of world medieval literature and continue
high because so many purchases from cars to paper are to be widely read and treasured by Icelanders. A common
imported. Households require two or more incomes, with custom on farms was for families to sit with handiwork
most women working outside the home and many men (weaving, tool making, carving, spinning, or knitting)
holding two jobs. while participating in shared reading, storytelling, and
verse making. A study by Weingand conducted in 1989
The principal employers are fishing, industry, agri- revealed that 86 percent of well-educated Icelanders, 71
culture, and health services. Icelanders as a group are percent of the general population, and 53 percent of stu-
very committed to their work regardless of the specific dents reported recalling oral reading of sagas and folk-
form. Whether employment involves intellectually chal- tales in the home during childhood.

584 WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA

 ICELAND

The enlightened period of peace, or the ‘‘Golden vote. The president functions as head of state but remains
Age,’’ lasted 200 years until internal feuds resulting in apolitical except when the two political parties fail to
civil war led to submission to the king of Norway and a solve governmental crises. The Althing is a legislative
new monarchical code in 1271. The infamous Sturlung body of 63 members elected by popular vote for a term
Age, which followed the era of peace, was marked by po- of four years. With authority over finances, the Althing
litical treachery and violence. During this time, the erup- exercises considerable power over the executive branch
tion of Mt. Hekla brought physical destruction, of the government. The Althing also elects members of
widespread epidemics, and death. At the end of the four- key committees and councils within state institutions.
teenth century, Iceland was brought under Danish rule Local government is exercised by 162 separate munici-
and conflicts between church and state culminated in the palities.
Reformation of 1550 with Lutheranism declared the
country’s official religion. The next three centuries were Education in Iceland has historically been public
troubled by Danish profiteering, international pirates, a with very few private institutions. Iceland’s modern
series of natural disasters, and famines. school system dates back to the late nineteenth century
and the early twentieth century. In 1880, an education act
Denmark’s hold on Iceland was significantly re- required that all children be taught reading, writing, arith-
duced in 1874 when a constitution was drafted granting metic, and Christianity according to the Lutheran confes-
Iceland permission to handle domestic affairs. In 1918 sion. The act stipulated that parents were responsible for
Iceland became an independent state under the Danish teaching their children with supervision provided by the
king. After the occupation of Denmark and Iceland’s dec- pastors of the Lutheran Church.
laration of sovereignty, the island’s vulnerability was re-
sponded to by British and U.S. troops. On June 17, 1944, The first major education act, a bill establishing the
the Republic of Iceland was formally declared at Thing- basic objectives and policies to serve as the foundation
vellir. of educational practices, was passed by the Althing in
Iceland joined the United Nations in 1946 and it is 1907. With the act, education became compulsory and
a charter member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organiza- free of charge for all children between the ages of 10 and
tion (NATO). In the post WWII era, Iceland has based 14. In addition, a regional and administrative structure
its foreign policy on peaceful international cooperation was introduced whereby rural areas, towns, and villages
and has participated in Western defense efforts. Iceland were subdivided into educational districts. Each district
does not maintain armed forces. However, the United was to have a primary school paid for and run by the local
States, which has assumed responsibility for Iceland’s authorities with supplementary government funds avail-
defense, maintains a naval air station at the Keflavik In- able based on need. The central Education Office was ul-
ternational Airport. timately responsible for supervising all types of public
education, the provision of textbooks and equipment, ap-
Icelandic, the national language, has changed very pointing inspectors, and the administration of final
little from the original tongue of the Norse settlers. A exams. A commissioner of Education was assigned the
strong movement for linguistic purism gained strength in role of directing and supervising public education for the
the nineteenth century and has persisted unabated. En- whole country.
glish, Danish, and German are also widely spoken and
understood. A governmental agency, the Icelandic Lan- The 1946 education acts divided the school system
guage Committee, was established in 1965 and officiates into four levels (primary, lower-secondary, upper-
over all language issues. New Icelandic terms are intro- secondary, and higher), established an entrance exam for
duced in each discipline and foreign influence on the vo- upper-secondary education, and introduced a double-
cabulary is actively resisted. track vocational and academic system designed to divert
Literacy has been universal in Iceland since the end a large number of students into the vocational fields. In
of the eighteenth century. In 1700, less than half of the 1955, the State assumed full responsibility for the indus-
population of Iceland could read. However, literacy was trial-vocational schools in order to secure the future of
accomplished in the eighteenth century as children were this form of education.
taught to read by their families or clergy in their homes. In the late 1960s controversy surrounding education-
This practice of family members frequently teaching chil- al reform became heated and led to the Education Act of
dren to read continues in present day Iceland. 1973, the Primary School Act and the School Systems
Act both of 1974, and other reforms during the 1970s.
CONSTITUTIONAL & LEGAL This legislation formed the basis of the contemporary ed-
FOUNDATIONS ucational system. In addition to providing all citizens the
Iceland is a republic with a parliamentary democracy right to free compulsory (primary and lower-secondary),
and a president elected for a four-year term by popular upper-secondary, and higher education, the various laws

WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA 585

ICELAND

extended the compulsory education to grade 9, provided irrespective of sex, economic status, area of residence, re-
for municipalities to develop preschool classes for 5- to ligion, physical handicap, cultural or social background.
6-year-olds, and enabled the establishment of an experi- In recent years, carefully considered and articulated gen-
mental comprehensive high school designed to balance eral aims of the education system in Iceland have been
the status of the two tracks (general academic and voca- to encourage and preserve Icelandic culture, history, and
tional) within one school. language and to ensure that the Icelandic education com-
pares favorably to the education provided by the leading
Legislation adopted in 1995 and 1996 requires all nations in the world. Clear objectives have been specified
compulsory and upper-secondary schools adopt methods to focus programs toward achieving these broad goals
for systematically evaluating the following components with the Ministry receiving widespread political and pop-
of educational practice: instruction and administrative ular support for their efforts.
practices, internal communication, and external relations.
These methods of self-evaluation are examined by the School attendance is obligatory for all children be-
Ministry in five-year cycles. Further, new legislation con- tween the ages of 6 and 16 in Iceland. Those desiring to
cerning compulsory schools placed the responsibility of continue their education beyond the compulsory period
operation with the local municipalities. attend various specialized schools or upper-secondary
schools. Students can enroll in four-year secondary
Educational discourse in the context of reform schools at age 16, with graduation entitling the student
movements throughout the past few decades has revolved to admission to a university. There are also a number of
around topics such as active learning, mixed-ability technical, vocational, and specialized schools. Approxi-
grouping, hands-on math and science, thematic studies, mately 74 percent of the Icelanders under the age of 29
projects and topic work, group work, peer tutoring, moral participate in Iceland’s formal education system. This in-
and social education programs, the whole language ap- cludes more than 42,000 young people of compulsory ed-
proach, and team teaching. Reform discussions have ucation age (6-16).
focused on school-based curriculum development, con-
structivist teaching and learning, performance-based as- The language of instruction is Icelandic, and all edu-
sessment, teaching for multiple intelligences, learning cational institutions are publicly funded. Although the
styles, problem-based learning, life skills programs, in- majority of schools are fully supported by the State, 6
clusion, quality control and school self-evaluation, and percent are private grant-aided institutions (operated by
information technology. nongovernment agencies but receiving a portion of their
finance through the public sector). Students with special
In 1996 the Ministry published a policy document re-
education needs are most typically integrated into the
garding the role of information technology in education.
main stream classrooms, with only .3 percent of the spe-
Among the plans outlined was an extensive integration
cial needs students educated in separate schools.
of information technology into instruction at all educa-
tional levels. All students are to have access to computers Preprimary education in Iceland is available on a fee
and high quality software. basis and focuses on the developmental and educational
needs of children between the ages of 1 and 5. More than
Further, in 1998 the Ministry announced an ambi-
80 percent of children between the ages of 3 and 5 are
tious education initiative with new school policy for com-
enrolled in pre-compulsory education.
pulsory and upper-secondary schools designed to provide
Icelandic students with an education that is comparable Children are admitted to compulsory education at
to the best systems worldwide. The policy represents a age 6, with students usually attending their local school.
concerted effort to create an efficient and flexible system Parents are permitted to transport their children to a more
that enables focused attention directed toward meeting distant district. In the rural areas, children frequently at-
the needs of individual students, and increased choices tend boarding schools. Tuition and textbooks are free of
for students, while fostering academic discipline, good charge at the compulsory level. Students in compulsory
working skills, healthy competition, and enhanced stu- education are not grouped according to ability and no for-
dent initiative and responsibility. mal division is made between primary and lower-
secondary education. However, students at the primary
EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM—OVERVIEW level have one teacher; whereas, lower-secondary school
students have different teachers for each subject area.
Consistent with an overall philosophy of education
based on tolerance, Christian values, and democratic- The Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture
cooperation, perhaps the most fundamental principle em- oversees the curriculum and publishes a National Curric-
bedded in the history of the Icelandic education system ulum Guide. Core subjects include Icelandic (grammar
is that equal access to education should be granted to all and literature), mathematics, foreign languages, natural

586 WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA

 ICELAND

science, social science, religious study, arts and crafts, cialized training in areas such as the arts, agriculture,
and physical education, with compulsory swimming technology, preschool education, and physical education.
practice. The curriculum guide also contains recommen- Admission is dependent upon a matriculation certificate
dations pertaining to assessment, progression, and exami- from an Icelandic upper-secondary school or an equiva-
nations. Teachers select their own methods of classroom lent from an abroad institution. Instruction at most uni-
assessment and may adopt preferred instructional meth- versities and colleges is conducted in Icelandic with
ods. The National Centre for Educational Materials pub- many textbooks frequently written in foreign languages.
lishes and distributes teaching and learning materials to Because the majority of the schools are financed by the
assist compulsory education teachers. The school year state, tuition is free and students rarely have to pay fees.
runs for 170 days from early September through the end
of May, with schools open 5 days per week. PREPRIMARY & PRIMARY EDUCATION
Students who complete compulsory schooling have Preschools are housed in buildings that are physical-
access to upper-secondary education, regardless of their ly well-suited for their activities and are always situated
achievement. Students pay an enrollment fee and may in a location that allows for ample outdoor play space
have to purchase books; however, there is no charge for (30-40 square meters per child). Indoors, the law requires
tuition. The most prominent forerunner of the Icelandic 7 square meters of space per child. With only one excep-
upper-secondary schools is the Latin school devoted ini- tion, preschool education is co-educational throughout
tially to training boys for the ministry. These schools Iceland. Very few preschools will accept children under
eventually became more general as young people were the age of one, with most children not enrolling until age
trained for university education and civil service. Schools two. Children attend preschools for 4 to 9 hours daily. In
with a strong vocational mission and a classical academic municipalities where there are an insufficient number of
curriculum were transformed into general education in- spaces available to accommodate the need, preference is
stitutions. Upper-secondary education is of two forms in given to children of single parents and students. Children
Iceland: general academic and vocational or specialized. are typically divided into separate groups based on age;
The length of training varies from 6 months to 4 years de- yet in the smaller communities children of various ages
pending on the course of study. are kept together in a single group.
Icelandic law concerning the conduct of preschool
The upper-secondary school curriculum is set forth
education emphasizes several aims. These aims are pro-
by the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture in the
vided in abbreviated form below:
National Curriculum Guide. All courses leading to ma-
triculation include Icelandic, foreign languages, social 1) To provide children with a safe and healthy environ-
studies, mathematics, computer science, and physical ed- ment in which to play and grow.
ucation. Academic education further includes compulso- 2) To give children the opportunity to participate in and
ry specialist subjects and student electives. Vocational enjoy group games and activities under the direction
courses of study consist of the general core in addition of a preschool teacher.
to vocational theory and practice classes. Most of the
upper-secondary schools award unit credits for individual 3) To encourage the optimal development of each child
courses and are flexible in terms of the amount of time through cooperation with parents and sensitivity to
students spend on given courses. Upper-secondary gener- each child’s unique nature, with special emphasis on
al and vocational assessment is based on two yearly ex- providing the emotional and physical support chil-
aminations and, frequently, coursework. Students who dren need to enjoy childhood.
fail to pass an examination are given three opportunities 4) To encourage tolerance and open-mindedness while
to try again. providing equal developmental and educational op-
portunities to all children.
Upper-secondary educational assessment had been
the domain of the local school; however, national exami- 5) To support Christian ethical development and pro-
nations in the general academic track were instituted. vide the necessary foundation for children to become
General academic training culminates in a General Cer- independent, conscious, active, and responsible citi-
tificate, which is a prerequisite to entering the higher edu- zens of an ever-changing democratic society.
cation system in Iceland. Students completing vocational 6) To foster the children’s creative and expressive abili-
training are awarded a Journeyman’s Certificate. Many ties in ways that fortify their self-image, sense of se-
schools offer both general academic and vocational train- curity, and ability to solve problems in a non-
ing. aggressive manner.
Higher education is offered at three universities in The Ministry issues a preschool program defining
Iceland and 11 non-university institutions offering spe- the educational and pedagogic role of preschools with

WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA 587

ICELAND

policy pertaining to how it should be implemented. The schools with grades one though seven, and others with
contemporary program is based on a child-centered phi- grades eight through ten. The total number of Icelandic
losophy emphasizing individuality and childhood as compulsory schools is slightly more than 200, and the
being a distinct stage of life with special qualities. A size of schools varies from from 700 to 800 pupils in the
strong emphasis is placed on play, as it is believed to pro- largest schools located in and around the capital city to
vide the best medium for fostering learning and socio- fewer than 10 students in some remote rural districts.
emotional development in preschoolers. Several specific Nearly 50 percent of all compulsory schools in Iceland
educational areas are addressed in the preschool educa- have fewer than 100 pupils. All compulsory schools en-
tion program: caring and daily routine, play and playing roll both boys and girls. Home-room or advisory teachers
conditions, speech and speech stimulation, visual creativ- offer pupils advice on their studies, with special school
ity and expression, music, sound, and movement, nature, counselors employed mainly at the larger schools.
and society. Individual schools make decisions regarding
National Curriculum Guidelines developed by the
the relative emphasis placed on each of these areas and
Ministry set parameters with respect to the organization,
decide how and when to integrate the different education-
execution, and evaluation of education within the com-
al components. Preschool age children with special needs
pulsory schools. The staff at each school must write a
are accommodated with needed assistance and/or special-
school working guide or administrative plan based on the
ized training that is monitored regularly for results.
Guidelines with sensitivity to the unique features and cir-
Preschools are not required by law to formally assess cumstances of the institution. The plan, which includes
the progress of the individual children. In cases of sus- an annual calendar, must detail the organization of teach-
pected deviation from normal development, the pre- ing, the content and objectives of education provided,
school staff or specialists do, however, conduct appro- student assessment procedures, assessment of school-
priate assessments. The directors of preschools evaluate related work, extra-curricular activities, and various other
their programs regularly and the Ministry is responsible aspects of school operation.
for conducting comprehensive assessments. The Ministry issues guidelines regarding the hours
Icelandic law governing compulsory education ren- of instruction required for each grade as well as the pro-
ders school attendance obligatory for all children be- portion of total teaching time to be devoted to individual
tween the ages of 6 to 16. The law sets the length of the subjects. The number of lessons increases lightly during
academic year, the minimum number of lessons to be the 2001-2002 academic year with 30 weekly lessons
given weekly, and identifies required subjects. The law slated for grades 1 through 4, 35 lessons per week for
further makes it the duty of parents to register their chil- children in grades 5 through 7, and finally, 37 lessons
dren and see to it that they attend regularly. The law provided for students in grades 8 through 10. At the con-
makes it the domain of the state and local municipalities clusion of 10 years of compulsory education, students’
to insure that education is implemented in accordance time will have been partitioned in the following way: Ice-
with the dictates of the Ministry. landic, 18 percent; mathematics, 15 percent; arts, crafts,
and home economics, 20 percent; modern languages, 9
Primary education (grades 1-7) and lower-secondary percent; natural sciences, 6 percent; social studies, 7 per-
education (grades 8-10) are considered part of the same cent; religious studies, 3 percent; physical education, 10
general level of education. However, primary teachers in- percent; and electives and miscellaneous studies, 12 per-
struct one class in most academic subjects; whereas in cent. Danish is studied from the sixth through the tenth
lower-secondary school, teachers usually teach one or grades, with English studied during grades 7 through 10.
more subjects to several different classes. There are no
entrance requirements. Local school districts cover the Children are expected to cover the same material in
costs of school construction, teaching, and other person- approximately the same amount of time and the students
nel-related instructional expenses, as well as the costs of are not separated into instructional groups based on abili-
daily operation. In addition, they provide specialist ser- ty. However, students who experience difficulty are pro-
vices including pedagogic counseling, counseling related vided with remedial help. Teachers are free to select the
to particular academic subjects, educational counseling, methods that they find best suited for their students, the
and school psychology services. On the other hand, the instructional goals, and the teaching conditions. Teachers
state monitors adherence to educational law and National generally strive to use as much variety as possible in their
Curriculum Guidelines by evaluating individual schools instruction. Children with special needs are assisted by
while also supplying educational materials including a remedial teacher within the regular classroom environ-
textbooks. ment or they are brought to another small room for one-
on-one help by the remedial teacher. Many schools also
Compulsory school in Iceland is divided into 10 have special departments for students with severe learn-
grades, many schools housing all ten grades, some ing disabilities.

588 WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA

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Examinations and other forms of assessment are de-

signed and administered by individual teachers and
schools. Methods for reporting student progress varies
considerably across schools. Many compulsory schools
assign numerical or letter grades, while others use oral or
written comments. All schools issue some form of stu-
dent progress report at regular intervals throughout the
academic year. When students complete compulsory edu-
cation, they take a nationally coordinated exam in Icelan-
dic, mathematics, English, and Danish. Grades ranging
from 1-10 are assigned by the Institute of Educational Re-
search, which is also responsible for designing the test.
The results provide information related to the student’s
relative standing in their group and are used to assist stu-
dents in choosing a course of study in upper-secondary
school. Beginning in 1995, nationally coordinated exams
in Icelandic and mathematics have been administered to
children in grades 4 and 7. Similar to the requirement for
preschools, each compulsory school must undertake ex-
tensive periodic self-evaluations that consider teaching,
1) general academic schools that offer four-year aca-
administration, and internal and external communication.
demic programs concluding with the matriculation
Every five years the schools’ methods of assessment are
examination that is required for entrance into the
evaluated by an external agent and the Ministry regularly
higher education programs;
evaluates compulsory schools to ensure compliance with
the law. 2) industrial-vocational school offering theoretical and
practical programs of study in skilled and some non-
SECONDARY EDUCATION skilled trades;

In Iceland, upper-secondary education is governed 3) comprehensive schools that provide programs of

by law that was enacted in 1996, with certain provisions study comparable to those offered in the general aca-
having taken effect in stages and becoming fully imple- demic and vocational-industrial schools in addition
mented (2000-2001 school year). The law defines the to other specialized vocational training programs;
framework for upper-secondary education outlining aims and
as well as the role of the state and local municipalities. 4) vocational schools that offer programs of study de-
Further, in accordance with the law, the Ministry issues signed for specialized employment.
National Curriculum Guidelines describing the content
and objectives of each program of study. Although upper- The law stipulates that four general types of programs
secondary education is not obligatory, everyone who should be offered at the upper-secondary level. These in-
completes compulsory education has a right to pursue clude vocational programs, fine arts programs, a general
this level of education. Between 87 and 89 percent of stu- academic program that leads to matriculation, as well as
dents completing compulsory education enroll in upper- a shorter general academic program. Students in voca-
secondary programs, but the dropout rate is rather high. tional programs are given the opportunity to complete ad-
All upper-secondary schools are co-educational and free ditional course work if they are interested in university
of charge. However, students must pay enrollment fees, studies.
cover textbooks, and provide partial costs for materials
if in a vocational program. The law allows for different General academic education is organized into three
entrance requirements to the different programs depend- subject areas: general subjects that all students are re-
ing on the demands of the courses of study. Students not quired to enroll in (approximately two-thirds of the cur-
meeting the minimal requirements for a desired program riculum), specialized subjects that fit with the aims of
are offered the opportunity to receive remedial training particular programs, and electives. There are three differ-
in the core courses. ent academic programs leading to matriculation (foreign
languages, natural sciences, and social sciences) with
There are approximately 40 upper-secondary schools possibilities for more focused study within each of these
varying in size from fewer than 50 to more than 1,500. broader programs. A shorter academic program is de-
Four different types of upper-secondary schools are oper- signed for students who are undecided about what partic-
ated in Iceland: ular course of study to pursue and for those who need

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additional preparation prior to committing to the longer nary. In 1876 the Seminary was followed by the Medical
academic track or a vocational program. School and then in 1908 the School of Law. These three
institutions merged in 1911 with the foundation of the
Although the length of vocational programs varies,
University of Iceland in Reykjavik. The contemporary
most are four years with students choosing training in
higher education system encompasses three universities
various skilled trades, agriculture, the travel industry,
with research responsibilities and more than one program
fisheries, food production, health, or commerce. A num-
of study in addition to 11 specialized technical, vocation-
ber of the vocational programs, in addition to those for
al, and art colleges. With the exception of the University
skilled trades, award legal certification for certain types
of Iceland, fewer than 1,000 students are enrolled at all
of employment. For example, certification is provided for
other higher education institutions. The University of Ice-
nurses’ aides and sea captains. The law of 1996 requires
land with an enrollment of 5,900 students (59 percent fe-
vocational councils composed of representatives from
male), remains the principal institution and it hosts nine
employers and employees in each vocation along with
faculties (economics and business administration, den-
one representative from the Ministry to convene regularly
tistry, engineering, humanities, law, medicine, natural
for the purpose of defining knowledge and ability needs
sciences, social sciences, and theology). Many of the fac-
of each vocation and to make curricular recommenda-
ulties are subdivided into departments. For example, the
tions.
Faculty of Social Sciences offers majors in ethnology, li-
The academic year is divided into autumn and spring brary and information science, political science, psychol-
terms with students attending 32 to 40 forty-minute les- ogy, social anthropology, and sociology. The University
sons per week. Most upper-secondary schools operate of Iceland is a rapidly expanding and diversified institu-
under a unit-credit system that allows students to regulate tion with a total of more than 50 degree programs. The
the amount of time it takes to complete their programs. National and University Library, with 15 branches on and
In this type of system each subject is divided into a num- off campus, contains approximately 700,000 volumes
ber of defined course units lasting for one semester. with regular subscriptions maintained for 2,600 foreign
journals.
The objectives of upper-secondary level education,
outlined by law, encourage the overall development of The University of Iceland does not have restrictions
students to equip them for active participation in a demo- on admission for those who have passed the matriculation
cratic society, preparing students for employment and exam. However, in the Faculty of Medicine, the Depart-
further study, and fostering several personal qualities in- ments of Medicine, Pharmacy, Nursing, and Dentistry
cluding responsibility, broad-mindedness, initiative, self- operate under a system wherein the number of students
confidence, tolerance, discipline, independence, critical permitted to continue their studies beyond the first se-
thinking, appreciation for cultural values, and the desire mester is limited and based on their performance on an
to seek lifelong learning. The National Curriculum examination. Further, the Department of Pharmacy and
Guidelines prescribe the framework for individual the Faculty of Science require students to have matricu-
courses of study including the content, duration, and as- lated from upper-secondary programs emphasizing math,
sessment requirements. As with education at lower le- physics, or natural science.
vels, students with special needs are provided appropriate
instruction and training in the mainstream classrooms to The University of Akureyri has four departments:
the fullest extent possible. Health Science, Management Study, Fishery Studies, and
Regardless of the type of school, upper-secondary Education. The University College of Education is pri-
schools typically have examinations at the conclusion of marily responsible for the education of teachers at the
each semester, with grades on other course assignments compulsory school level. This institution also offers a
figured into the final grades. For the skilled trades, there Master of Education Degree with specialization in curric-
are the journeyman’s and nationally coordinated subject ulum studies, special education, educational administra-
area exams. Upper-secondary schools are required by law tion, and educational theory.
to write School Working Guides describing program of-
Colleges in Iceland offer technical and vocational
ferings, teaching methods employed, and the role of the
courses in addition to training in the arts. Most colleges
administration. They must also conduct regularly se-
specialize in a single field of study with some colleges
quenced self-evaluations addressing teaching, adminis-
belonging formally to the upper-secondary school level
tration, and communication.
while actually operating higher education programs.
Courses of study are offered in several areas: physical ed-
HIGHER EDUCATION
ucation, social pedagogy, preschool education, drama,
Contemporary higher education in Iceland dates music, fine and applied arts and design, computer studies,
back to 1847 with the formation of the Theological Semi- management, civil and electrical engineering technology,

590 WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA

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laboratory and radiology technology, and agricultural sci-

ence.
Icelandic is the primary language of instruction in
higher education, although textbooks are frequently in
English, a widely understood language in the country.
Operating under a semester system, the academic year
begins in September and lasts until May. There are no tu-
ition fees at state-run Icelandic institutions, students only
pay registration fees. The few private institutions do
charge tuition. Icelandic students attending institutions of
higher learning are eligible for state loans. The total loan
amount is based on the student’s income, with repayment
deferred until two years after completion of one’s studies.
Grants are offered for post-graduate research-oriented
studies at universities in Iceland and are based on propos-
als submitted jointly by a student and a professor.
Higher education assessment in Iceland is typically
in the form of oral or written examinations in addition to
other course-related assignments. Moreover, university
degrees are only conferred with successful completion of
a final thesis or research project.
A diploma or certificate is awarded for 2 to 3 years in conjunction with a thesis research project. The MEd
of postsecondary study in drama, fine and applied arts degree is awarded at the University College of Education
and design, music, computer studies, management, and following two-years of post-graduate study and comple-
civil and electrical engineering. A BA degree is granted tion of a thesis research project. Doctoral level training
to students who have completed 3 to 4 years of study in is only offered at the University of Iceland. There are two
humanities, theology, and social sciences and have fin- types of doctoral programs: a doctor of philosophy de-
ished a final thesis or research project. The BS degree is gree in Icelandic literature, language, and history and one
awarded to students who have completed 3 to 4 years of that is not based on a predefined course of studies, but
study in economics, business administration, natural sci- instead involves independent research by a candidate. As
ences, health subjects, fishery studies, agricultural sci- a rule, admission to doctoral programs requires comple-
ences, and engineering. A BE degree is earned after 3 tion of a professional degree (candidatus) or a master’s
years of course work designed to prepare students to degree.
teach at the preschool, compulsory, or upper-secondary Although there is no general legislation governing
level or for 3 years of study in the area of social pedago- higher education, each institution is directly responsible
gy. A BphilIsl degree (Baccalaureatus Philologiae Is- to the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture. The
landicae) is granted upon completion of the program in law pertaining to the operation of each institution defines
Icelandic for foreign students. A Candidatus degree is of- its mission as related to education and research, the inter-
fered only at the University of Iceland and qualifies the nal structure, and administrative roles. Within the frame-
recipient for a particular profession or office. This type work outlined by the state, each university or college
of degree is essentially an academic/professional degree designs and updates the aims, scope, and length of pro-
offered in the fields of theology, medicine, pharmacy, grams offered as well as the content of courses.
law, business administration, engineering, and dentistry.
Students in Iceland have a long history of traveling
The University of Iceland offers a number of post- abroad to study, with 20 percent of higher education stu-
graduate degree programs. One year post-bachelor de- dents (mostly post-graduate) studying overseas at any
gree programs lead to certificates in education, social given time. The number of foreign exchange students en-
work, journalism, and mass communication. The MS de- rolled in Icelandic universities and colleges has increased
gree is awarded following successful completion of two throughout the last several years. In response to their
years of post-graduate study and a thesis research project presence, the number of short intensive Icelandic courses
in the faculties of medicine, economics and business ad- has expanded along with services designed to enrich the
ministration, engineering, and natural sciences. Similar- daily lives of foreign students. For example, excursions
ly, the MA degree is awarded after two years of post- and lectures pertaining to the country and Icelandic soci-
graduate study in the Humanities and the Social Sciences ety are regularly available.

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ICELAND

ed into districts with local school boards responsible for

running primary schools.
Between 1968 and 1995 an experimental Lab-school
operated in conjunction with the University College of
Education. The teachers experimented with various
teaching methods and arrangements. Many of them were
active in teacher education, and were promoters of topics
such as educational drama, team teaching, integrated cur-
riculum, the Scottish storyline approach, media-studies,
hands-on science, new math, creative writing and inqui-
ry-based reading instruction.
For more than a decade, two funds have assigned
grants to developmental projects at the compulsory
school level. Each year between 40 and 60 projects are
provided support. The projects differ in size and scope,
but most are small scale projects dealing with curriculum
development in a limited area, small surveys, special edu-
cation efforts, particular teaching projects, the compila-
tion of curriculum materials or experimentation with
teaching methods or assessment procedures.
ADMINISTRATION, FINANCE, &
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Ingvar Sigurgeirsson, an Icelandic educational re-
searcher, attempted to identify the extent to which inno-
The Icelandic parliament is responsible for education vative teaching methods have been adopted in schools
in Iceland, developing the basic objectives and adminis- throughout the country. Head teachers and deputy heads
trative framework. More specifically, all forms of educa- in 200 Icelandic schools (96.6 percent of all compulsory
tion fall under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of schools in 1994) were interviewed. Respondents in 28
Education, Science, and Culture. Directed by a Secretary schools (14 percent) emphasized that alternative (to the
General, the Ministry is divided into three offices: 1) the traditional model) teaching methods were frequently ap-
Office of the Minister and Secretary General, which en- plied (thematic studies, topic work, work with various re-
compasses four departments (Administration, Financial sources) in their classrooms. The remainder continued
Affairs, International Relations, and Legal Affairs), 2) use of the traditional form of teaching. Despite this, peda-
the Office of Educational Research and Development, gogical research has expanded dramatically and there has
and 3) the Office of Cultural Affairs. Each of the offices been considerable growth related to teaching ideas and
is supervised by a Director General. The Ministry is di- models. In particular, research has focused on co-
rectly responsible for insuring that legislation is imple- operative learning, ‘‘effective school’’ and ‘‘effective
mented, planning system changes, and issuing teaching’’ research, developments in authentic and con-
educationally-based regulations. For example, the Minis- structivist learning, and the assessment and promotion of
try issues National Curriculum Guidelines for compulso- teacher research.
ry and upper-secondary schools that offer detailed
educational objectives with specific information pertain- NONFORMAL EDUCATION
ing to how they should be met. However, responsibility
for compulsory education shifted from the State to au- An Adult Education Act was introduced in the Alth-
ing in 1979 as an effort to organize and coordinate the
thorities within the local municipalities. While upper-
various educational programs available for adults in Ice-
secondary schools are managed by school boards with
land. The Reykjavik School of Adult Education was
representation from the Ministry, the local authority,
founded in 1939 and is operated by the city. A variety of
teachers, and students, higher education institutions are
afternoon and evening courses are offered. Similar
the sole responsibility of the Ministry. In general, super-
schools run by local authorities have been established
vision of education occurs at the local level with final re-
throughout the country. In addition, there are private
sponsibility residing with the Ministry. Eight regional
adult education schools devoted to adult education in for-
authorities share responsibility for primary education; eign languages, fine arts, and music.
each authority, headed by a superintendent, appoints an
education council of three to five members for four year A few compulsory school and upper-secondary insti-
terms. The eight educational regions are further subdivid- tutions have courses open to mature students. These

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schools have evening classes with programs comparable and one-third practical at either the Icelandic College for
to those offered during the day in traditional schools and Preschool Teachers or at the University of Akureyri. In-
designed to meet the needs of adults with daytime com- service training for preschool teachers is not officially
mitments. Upper-secondary schools generally have edu- mandated by law, yet preschool personnel frequently
cational counseling available to assist students in the supplement their education after working for 3 or more
selection of programs of study, design of a plan of study, years in a preschool setting.
and with academic and personal problems.
Compulsory education teachers complete a three-
Distance education has a relatively strong presence year course at a teacher training college, and as with pre-
in Iceland. A number of college courses and a few college school teaching, participation in in-service training is not
programs are offered using only network communication. mandatory. However, collective bargaining agreements
For example, the College of Education at the University enable teachers to attend training sessions.
of Iceland offers a B.Ed. distance education program.
Available data gathered from both lecturers and students Legislation requires upper-secondary general aca-
suggest some discrepancy in their views regarding the ef- demic school teachers complete at least four-years of uni-
ficacy of the program. The majority of the lecturers felt versity-level education. A minimum of two years needs
that all of the aims of the curriculum were equally well- to be devoted to a major subject and one year to the study
served in the distance program and the traditional pro- of education and instructional methodology. Teachers of
gram. However, students expressed a need for face-to- vocational subjects must be qualified in their field or be
face courses as a supplement to the distance learning. A a master craftsman with a minimum of two years experi-
few secondary schools in Iceland have likewise adopted ence working in the trade in addition to one year of study
distance learning programs. For example, one program in education and instructional methodology. Teachers are
evolved in a rural school based on widespread adult inter- paid by the state but hired locally. In-service training
est in evening courses. When the interest spread beyond courses are held annually for upper-secondary school
commuting distance, correspondence courses and a dis- teachers.
tance learning program were instituted to fulfill the need.
Teacher education in Iceland has a history extending
The Adult Education Center is located in Reykjavik more than a century and leading to the founding of the
with annexes in other locations throughout the country. Iceland University of Education. Legislation in 1997 re-
Students range in age from 17 to 67 years and the center sulted in the merging of three other colleges with the for-
provides short courses for people who do not have access mer University College of Education (founded in 1907).
to other educational opportunities. The courses provide These three colleges were the Icelandic College of Early
training for independent or semi-independent living to Childhood Education, The College for Developmental
people possessing widely varying physical and psycho- Therapists, and the College of Physical Education at Lau-
logical handicaps with the goal of enhancing their quality garvatn. There are two departments at the Iceland Univer-
of life. The curriculum is divided into basic living skills sity of Education (the Department of Undergraduate
training, reading, writing, arithmetic, computer skills, Studies with five divisions and the Department of Gradu-
physical exercise, swimming, home economics, arts and ate Studies).
crafts, music, and drama. The format of education is very
flexible and the each student has his or her own curricu- The postgraduate program offers courses ranging
lum that is constantly evaluated and modified. As is char- from 15 to 60 units for professionals in education and
acteristic of other forms of education in Iceland, there is social work. Study at this level is largely in the form of
a strong emphasis on values and needs of the individual. distance education, with a few periods of residency re-
quired. Students either complete their training with a di-
TEACHING PROFESSION ploma in Education (15-30 units) or with a Med degree
All teachers in Iceland are civil servants with the na- (60 units). A full year of study is 30 units. Graduate stu-
ture and length of training varying as a function of the dents specialize in administration, curriculum and in-
educational level. Although preschool teachers are gener- struction, educational theory, special education or
alists and compulsory education teachers are specialists educational technology. Approximately 200 students are
in one or more subject areas, at both levels, teachers must enrolled in graduate programs.
complete a three-year bachelor of education course of Icelandic teachers show considerable interest in
study. Upper-secondary teachers finish a four-year BA or keeping up with current developments in the education
BS degree in addition to 30 credits in pedagogy and di- field. Most seminars, workshops, and in-service courses
dactics. are well attended as are education conferences. A rela-
Teachers in Iceland’s preschools complete a 3-year tively large Institute of Continuing Education also oper-
course of study that is two-thirds academic or theoretical ates within the University. The main purpose of the

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ICELAND

Institute is to provide education for professionals in edu- Teachers in Iceland have historically been relatively
cation and social work. In addition, the Institute occa- poorly paid by international standards. However, there is
sionally provides training for other groups and fosters evidence that this trend is reversing. According to a wage
research and development projects. There is a strong em- contract, upper-secondary teachers with a BA or BS will
phasis on distance learning and use of information tech- receive a starting salary of US$2,083 rising to $2,380 by
nology within the Institute. 2004. According to the previous contract, the minimum
starting wage was US$1,309. Teachers with 10 to 15
The Iceland University College of Education has ap- years of experience will receive raises of US$773. The
proximately 170 faculty members and other permanent agreement also included fewer compulsory overtime
staff. All assistant, associate, and full professors teach hours. Although the status of teaching as an occupation
and maintain a program of research. The University of has been rather low in the past, there is evidence to sug-
Iceland has a Department of Education within the Faculty gest that this is changing. One recent study of the
of Social Sciences. This Department offers a Teaching vocational plans of Icelandic teenagers revealed that be-
Certification Program designed to train lower-secondary coming a primary school teacher ranked in third place.
and upper-secondary school teachers. The program is for
four years (129 units) and involves specialized study in
SUMMARY
a particular discipline (BA/BS) along with one year of in-
structional methodology. An average of 50 students grad- Compulsory education in Iceland is targeted for all
uate from the program each year. children between the ages of 6 and 16, with those desiring
to continue their education beyond the compulsory period
The University of Akureyri is the youngest of the pursuing programs of study of various forms in upper-
three Universities offering teacher training. The Faculty secondary schools. A matriculation certificate from an
of Education began operation in the Fall of 1993 with a Icelandic general academic upper-secondary school or an
BEd program for compulsory school teaching. A Pre- equivalent from an abroad institution is necessary for ad-
school Program and a Teaching Certification Program are mission to a higher education institution. There are also
offered as well. The Compulsory School Program has a a number of technical, vocational, and specialized upper-
special focus on science and training teachers for small secondary schools that prepare students to enter the
rural schools. In 1998 the Ministry of Education, Science, workforce upon completion of required class work and
and Culture released a report of an extensive external as- supervised practical experiences. Higher education is of-
sessment of the Teacher Certification Program at the Uni- fered at three universities in Iceland and several colleges
versity of Iceland, the programs offered at the University provide training in the arts, agriculture, technology, pre-
College of Education, and both the Compulsory School school education, and physical education.
Program and the Teaching Certification Program at The
University of Akureyi. The review team, chaired by Dr. The majority of Icelandic schools at all levels are
Benjamin Levin, Dean of the Continuing Education Divi- fully supported by the State (over 90 percent), yet private
sion at the University of Manitoba, concluded that all schools have become more common. Students with spe-
three programs were making ambitious efforts to meet cial education needs are usually taught in inclusive-type
the needs of teachers in training. They commended the classrooms, with less than 1 percent of the special needs
Icelandic institutions’ use of information technology in population educated in separate schools. More than 80
teacher education training, concluding that efforts went percent of Icelandic children between the ages of 3 and
well in comparison to similar institutions in other nations. 5 are enrolled in fee-based pre-compulsory education.

The team also identified areas needing more focused The Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture
attention. For example, they recommended more long- generally oversees the curriculum and publishes a Na-
range planning or a vision. Future aspirations seemed to tional Curriculum Guide for all levels of compulsory edu-
be contingent upon the actions of others such as the Min- cation and for both vocational and academic upper-
istry, and the review team felt that the faculty at each in- secondary education. The curriculum guides also contain
stitution should develop a public document outlining recommendations pertaining to teaching and assessment;
their plans for initial and continued training, graduate however, teachers actually choose their own methods of
programs, and research. Other recommendations includ- classroom assessment and may adopt preferred instruc-
ed greater coordination among the three institutions relat- tional methods. No general legislation governs higher
ed to curriculum development, continuing education education in Iceland, but each institution is held account-
efforts, and access to and delivery of distance education, able to the Ministry. Laws define the mission of each in-
increased availability of computer facilities, the need for stitution with respect to education and research, the
more active collection of student data, and improving internal structure, and administrative roles. However,
conditions for research. each university or college is granted relative autonomy

594 WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA

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tus associated with the profession, and finally 5) en-

hanced interest and use of technology in the classroom.
Iceland has experienced profound cultural shifts over
the course of the last century from gaining independence
to radical changes in the economy. Compared to transfor-
mations that occurred relative to these other realms, mod-
ifications to the educational system have been far less
dramatic. However, with the consciousness shared by the
government, industry, businesses, and the public, it
seems inevitable that Icelanders will work to put their
ideas into practice.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Durrenberger, Paul, and Gisli Palsson, eds. An Anthro-
pology of Iceland. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press,
1994.
Edelstein, Wolfgang. ‘‘The Rise and Fall of the Social
Science Curriculum Project in Iceland, 1974-84: Reflec-
to develop and update the aims, scope, and length of pro- tions on Reason and Power in EducationalProgress.’’
grams. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 19 (1987), 1-23.
Icelanders have an admirable respect for and interest Edelstein, Wolfgang, and David Hopkins. ‘‘The Chal-
in their past as well as a contemporary perspective that lenge of School Transformation: What Works.’’ A paper
embodies enthusiasm for current trends and technology circulated in relation to theInternational Workshop for
and careful planning for the future. Public education in School Transformation in Berlin (February 1998).
Iceland combines a long history of devotion to learning, Gisli, Palsson, and Paul Durrenberger. Images of Con-
cultural values (tolerance, open-mindedness, responsibil- temporary Iceland: Everyday Lives and Global Contexts.
ity to others), emphasis on the unique educational and Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1996.
socio-emotional needs of individual students, and appre-
Hjalmarsson, Jon. History of Iceland: From the Settle-
ciation for contemporary pedagogical knowledge.
ment to the Present Day. Reykjavik, 1994.
Various cultural factors have unfortunately impeded Hreinsdottir, Helga. ‘‘Distance Teaching at a Secondary
the process of modernization of the educational system School in Iceland.’’ The Delta, Kappa, Gamma, 61
in the country over the last few decades. For example, the (Spring 1995), 55-58.
system has been one that has been highly regulated by a
Jonasson, Jon Torfi. A Forecast of Diverse Aspects of Ed-
national government that has swayed considerably in
ucation in Iceland, 1985-2010. Reykjavik, 1990.
terms of support for educational reform based on differ-
ing political party agendas. Another problem has been Ministry of Culture, Science and Education. ‘‘Culture
that language barriers have limited teachers’ access and Education: A Foundation for the Future.’’ Reykjavik,
to primary educational literature. Efforts to evaluate February 1996.
strengths and weaknesses of the education system at all ———. ‘‘Education and the Making of a New Society.’’
levels have been less than systematic. Further, Icelandic Reykjavik, April 1996.
teachers have been underpaid and the profession has
———. ‘‘The Educational System inIceland.’’ Reykja-
tended not to be one associated with high status.
vik, 1998.
Nevertheless, several recent trends suggest that the Ministry of Culture and Education. ‘‘External Assess-
future will bring a respectable system to compete with the ment of the University of Iceland, University College of
best educational systems in the world. These trends in- Education, and University of Akureyri: Report of the
clude the following: 1) unified effort on the part of the Peer Review Group,’’ March 1998.
state and the public to more effectively replace traditional
teaching practices with contemporary ones by developing Sigurgeirsson, Ingvar. ‘‘The Challenge of School Trans-
specific methods for translating accepted theory into formation: What Works.’’ A paper circulated in relation
practice, 2) transfer of many educational operations from to the International Workshop for School Transformation
the state to the local level, 3) more focused effort to gath- in Berlin (February 1998).
er data on school effectiveness, teaching competence, and Taylor, Ronald. ‘‘Functional Uses of Reading and Shared
teacher training, 4) higher pay for teachers and higher sta- Literacy Activitiesin Icelandic Homes: a Monograph in

WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA 595

INDIA

Family Literacy.’’ Reading Research Quarterly, 30, tional system is a product of centuries-old dualities that
(1995), 194-219. characterize the genius and decadence of an ancient but
wounded civilization. Speaking to the UNESCO World
—Priscilla Coleman Conference on Higher Education, India’s Minister of Re-
source Development and Science and Technology, Murli
Manohar Joshi, asserted the centrality of education to the
Indian heritage. ‘‘Pursuit of integral knowledge and lib-
eration, which has been a constant endeavor of Indian
INDIA culture, is also the central objective of education,’’ Joshi
told the conference (1998). Joshi further addressed the
connection between education and the preservation of
culture:
BASIC DATA
Education is also visualized as an evolutionary force so
Official Country Name: Republic of India that each individual is enabled to evolve from purely ma-
terial consciousness towards superior planes of intellec-
Region: East & South Asia tual and spiritual consciousness. Education is also
Population: 1,014,003,817 perceived as a bridge between the past, present, and the
future and as a means by which the best of the heritage
Language(s): English, Hindi, Bengali, is transmitted to the new generations for its further pro-
Telugu, Marathi, Tamil, gression. (Joshi 1998)
Urdu, Gujarati,
India has the world’s oldest and largest education
Malayalam, Kannada,
system. Its antiquity and diversity are reflected in the
Oriya, Punjabi,
roots of cultural norms and institutions that go back to a
Assamese, Kashmiri,
distant and venerable past. It is believed that the world’s
Sindhi, Sanskrit,
first university was established in Takshila in 700 B.C.
Hindustani
It was a center for higher learning that attracted about
Literacy Rate: 52% 10,500 students who studied nearly 60 subjects.
Number of Primary The ruins of Nalanda University, southeast of Patna,
Schools: 598,354 reflect India’s prestigious status for the 10,000 pupils and
Compulsory Schooling: 8 years 2,000 teachers who came there from all over the world
between the fourth and twelfth centuries. Hieun-Tsang,
Public Expenditure the famed Chinese traveler-scholar, studied and taught at
on Education: 3.2% Nalanda. His writings offer a vivid and authentic account
Educational Enrollment: Primary: 110,390,406 of India’s political and social realities that prevailed
Secondary: 68,872,393 around the fifth century. Nalanda saw the rise and fall of
Higher: 6,060,418 empires that built several shrines and monasteries. King
Educational Enrollment Harshwardhan endowed a college of fine arts. Both Na-
Rate: Primary: 100% garujuna and Dinnaga—a Mahayana philosopher and the
Secondary: 49% founder of the school of logic, respectively—taught here.
Higher: 7% If Takshila and Nalanda are any testimony, educa-
Teachers: Primary: 1,789,733 tional standards and knowledge development had
reached an epitome of excellence that subsequently van-
Student-Teacher Ratio: Primary: 47:1 quished in the wake of social and political changes.
Secondary: 33:1 Caste, religion, gender, and class have always determined
Female Enrollment Rate: Primary: 90% the content, context, and delivery of educational goals
Secondary: 39% and programs. As attitudes toward these things change,
Higher: 5% so does education.

Population: India is home to roughly one-fifth of the

global population and is the world’s largest democracy.
The latest provisional results of Census 2001 indicate that
HISTORY & BACKGROUND India has become the second most populous country in
the world after China. In the decade between 1991 and
Historical Evolution: Education always evolves out of 2001, India produced more people, but also a more even
historical and cultural contexts. India’s current educa- ratio of men to women and a higher literacy rate.

596 WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA

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According to the Express News Service, the popula-

tion of India in early 2001 was 1,027,015,247, reflecting
a growth since 1991 of 181 million people. While the
country’s share of global population increased by 16.7
percent, its growth rate actually declined by 2.52 percent.
The sex ratio was 944 females to 1,000 males, a signifi-
cant increase from 1991. The largest states are Uttar Pra-
desh, Maharashtra, and Bihar.
The News Service also reports that illiteracy began
in 2001 to decline for the first time in over 50 years.
Overall, 75.9 percent of males and 54.2 percent of fe-
males are literate, reflecting a decrease in the gap be-
tween male and female literacy. Literacy varies greatly
by region: Kerala reports a literacy rate of 90.9 percent,
while Bihar maintains a literacy rate of only 47.5 percent.
India as the world’s largest educational system is
both a model and case-in-point for planners and academ-
ics addressing the issues and problems of a developing
nation. The system serves nearly 1 billion people with
limited resources and unlimited demands.

CONSTITUTIONAL & LEGAL menting, and financing various proposals. In keeping

FOUNDATIONS with the policy objectives, ‘‘the targets for the Ninth Five
Year Plan have been fixed under three broad parame-
India’s constitution and its Directive Principles of ters—universal access, universal retention, and universal
State Policy form the legal-constitutional foundation of achievement’’ (Tiwari 2000).
national policy on education. Article 45 of the Directive
Principle mandates that ‘‘the State shall endeavor to pro- Though education is in the concurrent list of the na-
vide within a period of ten years from the commencement tional constitution, the state governments play an impor-
of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education tant role in the planning and delivery of education,
for all children until they complete the age of fourteen especially in the primary and secondary sectors. Joshi de-
years.’’ Article (i) provides for any citizen having a dis- scribed to the UNESCO World Conference the particular
tinct language or script. Article 46 addresses the special responsibilities of the national (Union) government:
care of the economic and educational interests of the un- Under the Constitutional scheme, ‘‘education’’ is in the
derprivileged sections, particularly the Scheduled Castes concurrent list, and the Union Government and States
and Scheduled Tribes, making them an obligation of the exercise joint responsibilities. As a result, while the role
state. (Scheduled Castes and Tribes are legally estab- and responsibilities of the States in regard to education
lished ethnic subgroups—formerly called ‘‘untouch- remains unaltered, the Union Government accepts a larg-
ables,’’ a term since outlawed—with specific educational er responsibility to reinforce the national and integrated
and vocational privileges, special representation in par- character of education, to maintain quality and standards,
to study and monitor the educational requirements of the
liament, and protection from discrimination, as outlined
country as a whole in regard to manpower for develop-
in the modern Indian constitution.)
ment, to cater to the needs of research and advanced
The national education policy has evolved through study, to look after international aspects of education,
the periodic evaluation of priorities and the subsequent culture and human resource development, and in general,
development of plans to achieve those goals. Since the to promote excellence at the tertiary level of the educa-
tional pyramid throughout the country (1998).
1950s, India has followed a planned process of social and
national development, incrementally implemented in a
EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM—OVERVIEW
series of five-year plans. In 1968, in its Resolution on the
National Policy on Education, expansion and quality, es- India contains about 888,000 educational institutions
pecially for education for girls, were emphasized. The ac- with an enrollment of about 179 million students. The el-
tual National Policy on Education (NPE) was not ementary education system in India is the second largest
formulated until 1986. It was updated in 1992 with a in the world, with 149.4 million children of 6-14 years
comprehensive policy framework, the Plan of Action, enrolled (about 82 percent of the children in that age
stipulating main responsibilities for organizing, imple- group) and 2.9 million teachers.

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As a democracy, India is committed in principle to the standards for students’ academic achievement were
compulsory and free education for all its people with spe- to be raised, and assessment methods were to serve
cial provisions for its underprivileged and traditionally ‘‘formative purposes’’ (Venkataiah 2000).
oppressed people. The reality, however, is far from the
desired outcome. Poverty and cultural deprivation leave The implementation of these goals is somewhat con-
millions of young minds without education. On the con- founded by the diversity of India’s population and the
trary, a very sophisticated infrastructure of elitist educa- complexity of its governance. In practice, primary educa-
tion modeled after the British private schools exists for tion is a dilemma-ridden field where teachers, schools,
the children of rich and influential people who continue communities, and states muddle through a rugged terrain
to dominate the society in different sectors. Among the without consensus. As a result, local, regional, and politi-
residential boarding schools designed exclusively for the cal influences override the foundational issues in peda-
elite are The Lawrence School, Lovedale; Kodaikanal In- gogical discourse. In particular, zealous religious groups
ternational School, Kodaikanal; Rishi Valley School, have been divisive.
Chittor; Montford Anglo Indian Boys School, Yercaud;
S. Venkataiah, a leader in primary and secondary ed-
Chinmaya International Residential School, Coimbatore;
ucation in India, argues that the legal force and the pro-
United World College, Pune; Dow Hill School, Kur-
fessional support, even the very goals, of the 1988 reform
seong; St. Paul’s School, Darjeeling; The Lawrence
act created a problem of manageability: ‘‘One of the par-
School, Sanawar; Mayo College, Ajmer; Welham Girls’
adoxes was that there would have been no manageability
High School, Dehradun; and Colvin Tallukedar School,
problem without the principles embodied in the curricu-
Lucknow.
lum required by the 1988 Act’’ (2000). Venkataiah iden-
tifies three types of problems that arose for those charged
PREPRIMARY & PRIMARY EDUCATION with managing the curriculum at the school level: curric-
ulum time allocation, teacher expertise, and resources in
Basic Principles: While ‘‘primary education provides primary schools.
the fundamentals of all formal learning’’ (Sharma 1997),
preprimary learning may be called the foundation for A further problem with meeting the expansive goals
both education and personal development. Little informa- of the nationally determined curriculum of primary
tion exists on formal preprimary education in rural India, schools has been many teachers’ shallow approach to ed-
although the family and community function as a broader ucation. ‘‘The dominating difficulty in the purpose of pri-
arena for holistic learning. In urban communities, the mary schools is the fact that ‘knowing’ is rated more
level of preprimary education corresponds directly to the highly than ‘teaching,’ despite the importance of the lat-
factors of class and wealth. Only the rich and educated ter and its equally intimate connection with ‘learning,’’’
opt for kindergarten and Montessori schools, which writes Venkataiah (2000). Venkataiah adds:
abound in affluent neighborhoods, while poor, neglected, The agency responsible for the National Curriculum ad-
underprivileged children languish in the streets of Indian vised the Government that the statutory curriculum
cities. would have to be slimmed down; the agency responsible
for the national inspection arrangement reported that
At least in terms of national priorities, primary edu- those schools that had nearly covered the statutory cur-
cation takes as a model a humanistic pedagogy, empha- riculum had done so only by encouraging superficial
sizing the needs of the child over all means and methods learning in their pupils. (2000)
of education. Neerja Sharma succinctly writes:
The buildings, school administration, teachers and per- Initiatives: Universalization of the entire educational
sonnel, syllabi and textbooks, furniture and uniforms system has been the main goal of government since inde-
exist because children need education. This truism has pendence. Formal and nonformal primary education,
been recognized in the Program of Action of the National however, have been the main challenge to this goal. Uni-
Policy on Education (1986) that states under its Imple- versalization of Elementary Education (UEE) is fraught
mentation Strategies: The country’s faith in its future with systemic and socioeconomic factors that call for
generations will be exemplified in the system of elemen- massive public education and advocacy. A total-literacy
tary education, which will get geared around the central-
campaign is underway despite numerous barriers. Even
ity of the child (11). (1997)
provision of textbooks in poverty-ridden areas is a chal-
A 1988 governmental reform of the primary curricu- lenge. A comprehensive program seeks to target ‘‘i)
lum set forth the principles that were to govern this type teachers and all those involved in education of children;
of education. Students were entitled to a ‘‘broad and bal- ii) students and parents of students, particularly non-
anced curriculum’’ including such diverse subjects as re- literate parents; and iii) community opinion leaders’’
ligious education, science, and technology. In addition, (Government of India 2001).

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Residential education of girls, especially from bro- mary education in the remote and economically disad-
ken homes and poor families, has lately received vantaged villages of Rajasthan with a focus on girls. The
planners’ attention. A program named after Mahatma Shiksha Karmi Project has constituted VECs in 2,000 vil-
Gandhi’s wife, the Kasturba Gandhi Shiksha Yojana, has lages to promote community involvement in primary ed-
been funded with Rs. 2,500 million (rupees). Other finan- ucation and encourage village-level planning. The role of
cial incentives and scholarships for poor girls have been the VEC is to mobilize resources for maintenance, repair,
provided. All such programs, as recorded in the NPE- and construction of school infrastructures. The VEC also
1986, ‘‘pay special attention to increasing girls’ enroll- helps in determining the school calendar and school-day-
ment, improving educational outcomes, strengthening timings in consultation with the local community and
community involvement, and improving teaching and Shiksha Karmis (educational workers). Shiksha Karmis
learning materials and providing in-service teacher train- are frequently used as substitutes to compensate for
ing’’ (Government of India 2001). The status of some of teacher absenteeism.
these initiatives is discussed below.
In addition to the more formal courtyard schools
(Angan Pathshalas), the Shiksha Karmi Project also runs
Operation Blackboard: According to the government nonformal classes called Prehar Pathshalas (schools of
of India, the number of primary schools that have been convenient timings). For girls’ education, Angan Path-
transformed under this initiative with central assistance shalas are run in three blocks. As of 2001 the program
is 523,000. The main purpose of this program is to im- covered over 150,000 students in 1,785 schools and 3,520
prove the environment in schools by providing basic fa- Prehar Pathshalas, involving over 4,271 Shiksha Kar-
cilities. mis.

Decentralization: According to the government of Lok Jumbish Project: Lok Jumbish is extended to 75
India, the management of elementary education, as envi- blocks covering a population of approximately 12 million
sioned by the NPE, has emphasized direct community in- in Rajastahan. The project involves government agen-
volvement in the form of Village Education Committees cies, teachers, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs),
(VECs). The 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments and elected representatives to promote universalization
provide for decentralization of the local self-government of primary education. The seven guiding principles of
institutions, called Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs). Lok Jumbish are (a) a process rather than a product ap-
PRIs have thus become pivotal in the delivery of educa- proach, (b) partnerships, (c) decentralized functioning,
tion in rural and urban communities. The oppressed (d) participatory learning, (e) integration with the main-
groups—women, Scheduled Castes and Tribes, and mi- stream education system, (f) flexibility of management,
norities—have especially found PRIs very helpful. This and (g) multiple levels of leadership.
approach is essentially grass-roots educational policy and
delivery. District Primary Education Program (DPEP): The ob-
Decentralization has been reinforced during the jectives of DPEP, a major program to implement UEE,
Eighth Five-Year Plan. The VECs, District Primary Edu- are
cation Program, and Lok Jumbish have been chiefly in- • to provide all children with access to primary educa-
strumental in this process. A Special Orientation Program tion either in the formal system or through the non-
for Primary Teachers has further reinforced support to formal education (NFE) program;
primary level teachers. During 1992 to 1993 and 1995 to
1996, Rs. 8,163 million were allocated; the outlay for • to reduce differences in enrollment, dropout rates,
1996 to 1997 was Rs. 2,910 million. More recent data is and learning achievement among gender and social
not available. groups to less than 5 percent;

Mobilizing the village community to take responsi- • to reduce overall primary dropout rates for all stu-
bility for ensuring quality education for every child is the dents to less than 10 percent;
core strategy of both the Shiksha Karmi Project and Lok • to raise average achievement levels by at least 25
Jumbish and in their efforts to universalize and improve percent over measured baseline levels; and
primary education. Community involvement has been
crucial for the success of these projects. • to ensure achievements of basic literacy and numeric
competencies and a minimum of 40 percent achieve-
ment levels in other competencies by all primary
Shiksha Karmi Project: The Swedish International De-
school children.
velopment Cooperation Agency has assisted in the imple-
mentation of the Shiksha Karmi Project. The project aims The Government of India finances 85 percent of the
at universalization and qualitative improvement of pri- project cost as a grant to the DPEP State Implementation

WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA 599

INDIA

Societies, and state governments provide the rest. As of school day to all children in classes I-V is an ambitious
2001, the International Development Agency (IDA) of program in a country of 1 billion people. The program
the World Bank had approved credit amounting to $260 was launched in 1997 to 1998 to support UEE in achiev-
million and $425 million under Phase I and Phase II of ing its goal of increasing enrollment, retention, and atten-
DPEP, respectively. The European Union is providing a dance in primary classes. In 1997 to 1998 the program
grant of 150 million euros. The ODA (of the United covered nearly 110 million children in primary classes.
Kingdom) is extending a grant of $80.21 million, and a Reportedly school enrollment and rates of retention have
grant from the Netherlands amounts to $25.8 million. increased.
DPEP has been implemented in phases in different SECONDARY EDUCATION
states beginning with 42 districts in the states of Assam,
Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamilnadu, Enrollment: Secondary education acts as a bridge be-
and Madhya Pradesh. In the second phase, the program tween primary and higher education and is designed for
was launched in 80 districts of Orissa, Himachal Pradesh, students ages 14 to 18. Of the estimated 96.6 million peo-
Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, ple eligible, the enrollment figures of the 1997 to 1998
and in Phase I States. The main projects are summarized school year showed that only 27 million attended schools.
below to exemplify varied governmental objectives. Thus, two-thirds of the eligible population remains out of
the school system. To educate children in schools at the
Bihar Education Project: The Bihar Education Project, secondary level, there are at present 110,000 institutions
launched in 1991, emphasized participatory planning to (1998 to 1999). With the emphasis on the universaliza-
uplift the deprived sections of society, such as Scheduled tion of elementary education and programs like District
Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and women. A midterm review Primary Education Program, enrollment is expected to
highlighted major achievements including (a) a strong increase. Once this universalization takes place, more
Mahila Samakhya component; (b) organization of VECs than 200,000 institutions will be needed at the secondary
and community involvement in program implementation level.
at grassroots levels; and (c) nonformal education through
NGOs. Support Organizations: Secondary education is sup-
ported by several organizations under the administrative
control of the Department of Education: National Council
Uttar Pradesh Basic Education Program: The govern-
of Educational Research and Training, Central Board of
ment of Uttar Pradesh launched the World Bank project
Secondary Education, National Open School, Kendriya
Education for All in June 1993. The project, operating in
Vidyalaya Sangathan, Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti, Cen-
12 districts as of 2001, is planned to expand its coverage
tral Tibetan Schools Administration, Central Institute of
to 15 districts under DPEP Phase II. It has an outlay of
Education Technology, and the State Institute of Educa-
Rs. 7,288 million spread over 7 years. The IDA would
tion Technology. A brief introduction to some of these
provide a credit of $163.1 million, and the state govern-
organizations and their programs is given below.
ment’s share would be approximately 13 percent of the
total project cost. About 40,000 teachers have been
Central Board of Secondary Education: The Central
trained.
Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), a self-funded
agency, was created by a special Resolution of the Gov-
Andhra Pradesh Primary Education Project: The An- ernment of India in 1929 to raise the standard of second-
dhra Pradesh Primary Education Project (APPEP), imple- ary education and to make the services of CBSE available
mented in the south-central state of Andhra Pradesh, to various educational institutions in the country. CBSE
adopts a two-pronged strategy of improving classroom has seven committees: Finance, Curriculum, Examina-
transaction by training teachers and giving a fillip to tion, Results, Affiliation, Committee for Private Candi-
school construction activities. The Andhra Pradesh area dates, and Committees of Courses. The chairman of
has a female literacy rate of just 34 percent. The project CBSE is also the Head of the Governing Body, which in
has trained an estimated 80,000 teachers in 23 districts, turn reports to the Education Secretary. CBSE has six
and more than 3,000 teaching centers have become oper- regional offices at Ajmer, Chandigarh, Chennai, Allah-
ational. The project is assisted by the UK’s ODA with an abad, Guwahati, and Delhi to ensure better communica-
estimated outlay of Rs. 1,000 million in the Eighth Five- tion and services. The number of schools affiliated with
Year Plan. CBSE has gone up phenomenally from 309 in 1962 to
more than 5,237 in 1999.
National Program of Nutritional Support to Primary Ed-
ucation (School Meal Program): Providing a free, Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan: Kendriya Vidyalaya
nutritious cooked meal of 100 grams of food grains per Sangathan, an autonomous organization established in

600 WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA

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1965, has a four-point mission for Kendriya Vidyalayas HIGHER EDUCATION

(KVs): (a) to cater to the educational needs of children
of transferable Central Government employees, includ- General Survey: Addressing the graduates of the Al-
ing defense and paramilitary personnel, by providing a lahabad University in 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru, the first
common program of education; (b) to pursue excellence Prime Minister of India, said:
and set the pace in the field of school education; (c) to
initiate and promote experimentation and innovations in A university stands for humanism, for tolerance, for rea-
son, for the adventure of ideas and for the search for
education in collaboration with other bodies such as
truth. It stands for the onward march of the human race
CBSE and the National Council of Educational Research toward higher objectives. Universities are places of
and Training; and (d) to develop the spirit of national in- ideals and idealism. If the universities discharge their du-
tegration and create a sense of ‘‘Indian-ness’’ among ties adequately, then, it is well with the nation and the
children. There are 874 KVs at work and a proposal is people. (Quoted in Joshi 1998)
under consideration to open some more.
According to Joshi, although prior to independence
Navodaya Vidyalaya Samiti: Navodaya Vidyalaya the university system grew slowly, after independence
Samiti, through the institution of Navodaya Vidyalayas the pace quickened. Evaluating India’s progress towards
(NVs), seeks to (a) provide high-quality modern educa- these goals in higher education almost 20 years later, crit-
tion up to the senior secondary stage to talented children ic Robert Gaudino described the dueling motives control-
predominantly from rural areas, without regard to their ling the growth of higher education in India, saying:
family’s socioeconomic condition; (b) act as a trendsetter Higher education in India is less purposeful innovation
and pacesetter in the areas where NVs are located; and than casual change, less inspired initiative than hastily
(c) serve, in each district, as a focal point for improve- assembled new departures, less far sighted planning than
ment in the quality of school education through sharing uneven movement. Irregular and unpremeditated as this
experiences and facilities. The program is competitive, as moment may be, it is pushed forward by two clear, self-
it is designed to serve 240 students at each unit. In 2001 consistent, antagonistic impulses, two persuasions, each
there were only 404 NVs. Plans for the future, however, sure of itself but in tension with the other. One is the
include an NV for each district. drive to democratize, to expand, to admit greater num-
bers; the other is the drive to professionalize, to raise the
Central Tibetan Schools Administration: The Central standards, to increase equipment and research in special
fields. (1965)
Tibetan Schools Administration was established to pro-
vide education for the Tibetan refugees in India. The Ti- Since then, despite dramatic changes, some of the
betan community, displaced from their native land, fundamental challenges remain the same. Expansion and
receives special modern education in harmony with their decentralization, not to mention increasing privatization,
traditional system and culture. There are 87 schools in the have opened up institutional gates to millions, but three
country to serve Tibetans. basic issues continue to vex educational planners: diver-
sity, excellence, and accountability.
Centrally Sponsored Schemes: Secondary education
is supported by a number of centrally sponsored India’s higher education system, the largest in the
‘‘schemes’’: world according to the Indian government, includes 237
universities, 10,600 colleges, 41 Deemed Universities,
1. Vocationalization of secondary education; 7.1 million students, and 331,000 teachers. Among these,
2. Integrated education for disabled children; there are 12 science and technology universities, 7 open
universities, 33 agricultural universities, 5 women’s uni-
3. Computer literacy and studies in schools (CLASS);
versities, 11 language universities, and 11 medical uni-
4. Education technology; versities. Specialized schools of journalism, law, fine
5. Improvement of science education in schools; arts, social work, planning and architecture, and other
studies are also a part of the Indian university system.
6. Promotion of yoga in schools;
The government expenditure on higher education was Rs.
7. Strengthening culture and values in schools; 42,126 million in 1996 to 1997, and it has increased since
8. Strengthening boarding and hostel facilities for girls; then.
and
Degrees Offered: The higher education continuum in-
9. Environmental orientation to school education. volves three levels: bachelor or undergraduate, master’s
These ‘‘schemes’’ are designed to support local and re- or post-graduate level, and doctoral and predoctoral level.
gional schools in areas that are crucial for a fuller and de- Diploma courses are also offered at the undergraduate
velopmentally complete education. and postgraduate levels. Bachelor’s degrees in arts, com-

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universities and colleges, advises central and state Gov-

ernments on the measures necessary for the improvement
of university education, and frames regulations such as
those on the minimum standards of instruction.

Its composition comprises of the chairperson, vice-

chairperson, and 10 other members appointed by the gov-
ernment. The chairperson is selected from among those
who are not officers of the central government or any
state government. Of the 10 members, 2 are representa-
tives of the central government. Not less than 4 must be
teachers in the universities. Others are selected from
among eminent education specialists, academics, and ex-
perts in various fields. The chairperson is appointed for
a term of 5 years or until the age of 65 years, whichever
is earlier. The vice-chairperson is appointed for a term of
3 years or until the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier.
The other members are appointed for a term of three
years. The chairperson, vice-chairperson, and members
merce, and sciences involve 3 years of education after 12 can be appointed for a maximum of two terms.
years of primary and secondary school education. Honors
and special courses are selectively offered. Professional Although a central funding body, UGC has no funds
baccalaureate degrees require four years of education in of its own. It receives grants from the central government
agriculture, dentistry, engineering, pharmacy, technolo- to carry out the responsibilities assigned to it by law. It
gy, and veterinary medicine; five years in architecture; allocates and disburses full maintenance and develop-
five and a half years in medicine. Degrees are also offered ment grants to all Central Universities, colleges affiliated
in education, journalism, and library science. A bache- to Delhi and Banaras Hindu Universities, and some of the
lor’s degree in law can be taken either as an integrated institutions accorded the status of ‘‘Deemed to be Uni-
degree lasting five years or as a three-year course as a versities.’’ State universities, colleges, and other institu-
second degree. It normally takes two years to obtain a tions of higher education receive support only from the
master’s degree with or without research work. Engineer- Plan grant for development schemes. In addition, the
ing, technology, and medicine require the Graduate Apti- UGC provides financial assistance to universities and
tude Test and Combined Medical Test, respectively, for colleges under various schemes and programs for pro-
admission. A pre-doctoral program, Master of Philoso- moting relevance, quality, and excellence, as well pro-
phy (M.Phil.), is taken after completion of the master’s moting the role of social change by the universities.
degree. The Ph.D. is usually awarded two years after the
Beyond the UGC, a number of professional councils
M.Phil. or three years after the master’s degree. Students
are responsible for the recognition of courses, promotion
are expected to write an original dissertation to earn doc-
of professional institutions, and provision of grants to un-
toral degrees.
dergraduate programs. The statutory professional coun-
cils include the All India Council for Technical
Administration: The central government regulates and Education, the Distance Education Council, the Indian
funds policies and programs relating to higher education Council for Agriculture Research, the Bar Council of
in the country. Through the University Grants Commis- India, the National Council for Teacher Education, the
sion and other institutions, the government promotes Rehabilitation Council of India, the Medical Council of
higher education to help students achieve national and in- India, the Pharmacy Council of India, the Indian Nursing
ternational recognition and to address the country’s com- Council, the Dentist Council of India, the Central Council
plex needs. of Homeopathy, and the Central Council of Indian Medi-
The University Grants Commission (UGC), estab- cine.
lished by an Act of Parliament in 1956, discharges the
constitutional mandate of coordination, determination, Central Universities: Universities that are under the
and maintenance of standards of teaching, examination, statutory control of the central government serve under
and research. It also serves as a vital link between the the president of India, who is the Visitor of all Central
Union, state governments, and the institutions of higher Universities. As Visitor, the president nominates some
learning. It monitors developments in the field of colle- members to the Executive Committee, the Board of Man-
giate and university education, disburses grants to the agement, and the Court and Selection Committees of the

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university. The Department of Education provides secre- graduate courses, 17 M.Phil and 22 doctoral programs,
tariat service for appointment of the vice-chancellor, Ex- and a 5 year integrated master’s degree program in 2 dis-
ecutive Committee nominees, Court nominees, Selection ciplines. It also has a community college. Several institu-
Committee nominees, and so forth. A brief description of tions are affiliated to PU (13 are located in Pondicherry,
these central universities follows. 3 in Karaikal, 2 in Mahe, 1 in Yanam, and 3 in the Anda-
man and Nicobar Islands).
Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU):
IGNOU was established in 1985 as an Open University Visva Bharati: Founded by Rabindranath Tagore,
to promotion the distance education system. It offered 43 Visva Bharati was incorporated as a Central University
programs during 1998. The total number of students reg- by the Visva Bharati Act of 1951. Its jurisdiction is re-
istered for various programs was 163,000. Students sup- stricted to the area known as Santiniketan in the district
ports services in 1998 consisted of 19 Regional Centers of Birbhum, West Bengal. It is unique in its inclusion of
and 346 Study Centers. IGNOU programs telecast on the education from the primary level to post-graduate and
Doordarshan Network six days a week. Its jurisdiction is doctorate levels as a unitary residential body. It has 12
throughout the country, and study centers can be de- institutes: 8 at Santiniketan, 3 at Sriniketan, and 1 in Cal-
signed for overseas demands. The Distance Education cutta. There were 6,336 students enrolled in 1997.
Council has the responsibility for the coordination and Jamia Millia Islamia, Jamia Nagar: Recognized as a
maintenance of standards in open and distance education Deemed University since 1962, it acquired the status of
system in the country. a Central University in December 1988 by an act of par-
University Of Hyderabad: Also called ‘‘The Golden liament. It has six faculties, eight centers and five
Threshold’’ (the residence of the late Sarojni Naidu), the schools. A.J. Kidwai Mass Communication Research
University of Hyderabad serves as a city campus to pro- Center provides training at the post-graduate level in
mote post-graduate teaching and research. The university mass communication, and produces educational material
has eight schools and a Center for Distance Education of- on different subjects for the UGC and INSAT Program.
fering post-graduate diplomas in five disciplines. Admissions are made on the basis of merit adjusted
through an admission test.
University Of Delhi: Established in February 1922
Aligarh Muslim University (AMU): AMU, estab-
as a residential university, the University of Delhi has 14
lished in 1920, is a leading residential institution. It has
faculties, 82 teaching departments, and 78 colleges
92 departments, institutions, and centers grouped under
spread over the national Capital Territory of Delhi. Indra-
11 faculties. It maintains four hospitals, six colleges (in-
prashtha Vishwavidhlaya has come up in Delhi as a new
cluding medical, dental, and engineering colleges), and
affiliating state university.
two polytechnic schools. Six diploma courses are exclu-
Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwavidy- sively for women.
alaya (MGAHV): MGAHV came into existence in 1997 Banaras Hindu University (BHU): BHU came into
as an outcome of the Wardha Mahatma Gandhi Antar- existence in 1916 as a teaching and residential university
rashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalaya Act passed by the par- in Varanasi. It consists of three institutions: the Institute
liament in December 1996. As an international of Medical Sciences, Institute of Technology, and Insti-
institution, four schools were proposed under this univer- tute of Agricultural Sciences. It has faculties with 121 ac-
sity. ademic departments and 4 interdisciplinary schools. It
Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University: Estab- maintains a constituent Mahila Mahavidyalaya and 3
lished as a state university in 1994 in Lucknow and rec- school-level institutions, including a 1,000-bed modern/
ognized as a Central University in January 1996, Ayurvedic hospital.
Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University seeks to pro- Jawahar Lal Nehru University (JNU): Primarily es-
vide instructional and research facilities in new and fron- tablished with a post-graduate mission in education and
tier areas of learning. Currently it has three schools and research, New Delhi-based JNU has 7 schools consisting
three centers: the School of Ambedkar Studies, School of 24 centers of studies and a separate center for biotech-
for Information Science and Technology, School for En- nology.
vironmental Studies, Center for Rural Technology, Cen-
Maulana Azad National Urdu University: This uni-
ter for Vocational Studies, and Center for Human Rights.
versity was established in 1998, with its main administra-
Pondicherry University (PU): PU has jurisdiction tive office in Hyderabad. It has three regional offices in
over the Union Territory of Pondicherry and the Anda- Delhi, Patna, and Bangalore. Its aim is to promote and de-
man and Nicobar Islands. Established in 1985 as a teach- velop the Urdu language and to impart vocational and
ing-cum-affiliating university, it has 6 schools, 16 technical education in Urdu through traditional and dis-
departments, 2 post-graduate diplomas and 27 post- tance education.

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Assam University: Established as a teaching-cum- National Facilities: National Facilities represent

affiliating university in 1994, Assam University com- India’s cutting edge fields, such as science and technolo-
mands jurisdiction over the districts of Cachar, Karim- gy, that are deemed essential for the country’s future ad-
ganj, Karhi, and Hailakandi in the state of Assam. It has vancement. These centers are funded by UGC in selected
53 affiliated colleges, 24 Departments under 8 schools of universities:
studies, and 3 centers of studies.
• Western Regional Instrumentation Centre, Bombay
Nagaland University: Established as a teaching-cum- (Design and development of indigenous equipment
affiliating university in 1994, Nagaland University serves and training of staff in instrumentation);
the whole of the state of Nagaland. It has 39 affiliated col-
leges with campuses in Kohima, Lumami, and Medsiphe- • Regional Instrumentation Centre, Indian Institute of
ma. Science, Bangalore (Design and development of in-
digenous equipment and training of staff in instru-
Tezpur University: As a non-affiliating unitary Cen-
mentation);
tral University set up in the state of Assam in 1994, Tez-
pur University seeks to offer employment-oriented and • Crystal Growth Centre, Anna University, Madras
interdisciplinary courses, mostly at the post-graduate (Research and dissemination of knowledge and orga-
level. It has 11 departments under 4 schools of studies nization of training program in crystal growth);
and 6 centers of studies.
• MST Radar Centre, Sri Venkateswara Tirupati
North-Eastern Hill University (NEHU): Established (Studies in atmospheric dynamics to enable teachers
in 1973, NEHU has a campus at Aizwal and a center in to use MST/radar facility;
Tura with its headquarters in Shillong. Its jurisdiction is
over the states of Meghalaya, Arunachal, and Mizoram. • Eastern Center for Radio Astrophysics, Calcutta
Six schools of studies include certain post-graduate de- University (Research in astrophysics);
partments and four centers of studies. It has 58 under- • Japal-Rangapur observatory, Osmania University,
graduate colleges, 8 professional colleges, and is Hyderabad (Science research observatory); and
affiliated with the North-Eastern Regional Institute of
Science and Technology (NERIST). It also has a Region- • Center for Science Education & Communication,
al Sophisticated Instrumentation Center. New Delhi (Popularization of science).

Specialized Institutes & Research Centers: Trends:

Inter-University Centers: Heavy investment in infra-

Organization & Growth: In 2001 the Ninth Five-Year
structure has placed some facilities beyond the reach of
Plan was in process. Its main foci included measures for
individual universities. Under Section 12 of the UGC
quality improvement, modernization of syllabi, renewal
Act, the Commission has established the following Inter-
of infrastructure, extra-budgetary resource mobilization,
University Centers (IUCs) to provide common facilities,
and greater attention to issues in governance. Access and
service, and programs to universities:
relevance would also receive attention. The plan placed
• Nuclear Science Center, New Delhi, 1984 (Accelera- a priority on the conferment of greater autonomy to de-
tor-oriented research); serving colleges and the professional upgrading of teach-
ers through Academic Staff Colleges.
• IUC for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Pune (State of
the art instrumentation for research in astronomy); Emphasis is being placed on consolidation and opti-
• Inter-University Consortium for the Department of mal utilization of the existing infrastructure through insti-
Atomic Energy facilities, Indore, 1989; tutional networking, restructuring, and expansion, so as
to meet the demands of the traditionally underserved pop-
• Information and Library Network (INFLINET), Ah- ulations, with a focus on women and underprivileged
medabad, 1996 (Networking of libraries through groups. The Open University system, which has been
electronic media); growing in popularity and size, is striving to diversify its
• Consortium for Educational Communication, New courses and offerings and to gain wider acceptability by
Delhi, 1993 (To disseminate countrywide programs upgrading its quality. The main focus of this effort is also
through television); to serve the educational needs of women and rural popu-
lations, including professional training of in-service em-
• National Assessment & Accreditation Council, Ban- ployees (Government of India 2001).
galore, 1994 (To assess and accredit public and pri-
vate institutions of higher learning) (Government of Among other new initiatives is an emphasis on ca-
India 2001). reer orientation in higher education. Under a program

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launched in 1994 to 1995, a university or college could tion is shown now to find the funds for the programs laid
introduce 1 to 3 vocational courses to provide career ori- down in this policy. While actual requirements will be
entation in 35 identified subjects. Attention to higher edu- computed from time to time on the basis of monitoring
cation for women is also a contemporary trend. and review, the outlay on education will be stepped up
According to Joshi, ‘‘A special emphasis has come to be to ensure that during the 8th Five-Year Plan and onwards
it will uniformly exceed 6 percent of the national income.
laid on women’s education. The number of women’s col-
(NPE-1986, Paragraph 11.4)
leges has recorded a substantial increase, and India has
1,195 women’s colleges today. The enrollment of women Higher Education: Higher education has witnessed
at the beginning of 1997-1998 was 2.303 million, 34 per- similar growth. According to Joshi, government expendi-
cent of them being of the postgraduate level’’ (1998). ture on higher education rose from Rs. 172 million in
The growth of the system overall has also compelled 1950-1951 to Rs. 42,035 million in 1996-1997, although
the evolution of the universities’ structure. Most of the inflation and increases in the population of both the na-
universities are affiliating universities, which prescribe tion and the student body mitigate this increase. Joshi re-
the affiliated colleges’ course of study, hold examina- views the trends in spending over the last 50 years of the
tions, and award degrees. Many of the universities, along twentieth century:
with their affiliated colleges, have grown rapidly to the On the whole, the trends suggest that higher education
point of becoming unmanageable. Therefore, as per the had a good start during the 1950s (with real growth of
NPE-1986, a scheme of autonomous colleges has been 7.5 percent per annum), and had its golden days during
promoted. In the autonomous colleges, whereas the de- the 1960s, with the real expenditure increasing at an an-
gree continues to be awarded by the university, the name nual rate of growth of 11 percent; but it suffered signifi-
of the college is also included. The colleges develop and cantly during the 1970s, with the rate of growth coming
propose new courses of study to the university for ap- down to a meager 3.4 percent as educational planners
proval. They are also fully responsible for conduct of ex- aimed at consolidation of higher education instead of its
amination. There are at present 138 autonomous colleges rapid expansion; and showed some tendencies to recover
during the 1980s. Though the growth in expenditure on
in the country.
higher education has been erratic during the 1980s, it had
Additional trends and initiatives of the early twenty- increased on the whole at a rate of growth of 7.3 percent
first century include protective discrimination, diversifi- per annum. The 1990s heralded an era of austerity and
cation, a national eligibility test for the selection of quali- higher education suffered greatly. (1998)
fied teachers, an emphasis on quality, and examination
reforms. Educational Research: The National Council of Edu-
cational Research and Training (NCERT), established in
Cultural Traditions: India’s classic Vedic culture be- 1961, serves as a resource center in the field of school ed-
queathed a rich heritage of Vedas, which many Hindu ucation and teacher education. It undertakes programs re-
scholars consider the fount of knowledge. This ancient lated to research, development, training, extension, and
belief system continues to inspire and guide dominant dissemination of educational innovations through various
ideologies that determine educational policies. Thus uni- constituent departments at the headquarters in New Delhi
versities and the UGC have clashed over the validity of and 11 field officers all over the country. Publication of
subjects and sciences considered by some to be obsolete. school textbooks and other educational materials, such as
An example is the 2001 dispute over the status of astrolo- teachers’ guides or manuals, is its major function.
gy. NCERT also undertakes time-bound projects in pre-
school education, education for girls, and education for
ADMINISTRATION, FINANCE, & Scheduled Castes and Tribes. NCERT has five constitu-
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ent units in the field: (a) RIE at Bhubaneshwar, Ajmer,
Mysore, and Bhopal; (b) the Central Institute of Educa-
Expenditures: India’s investment in education, despite tion Technology (CIET); (c) NIE; and (d) PSSCIVE,
competing priorities, has been increasing from 0.8 per- Bhopal. A fifth RIE is proposed at Shillong. CIET is an
cent of the Gross National Product (GNP) in 1951 to important unit of NCERT; it is engaged in the production
1952 to 3.3 percent in 1994 to 1995. The goal of reaching of satellite-based audio and video programs for elementa-
6 percent GNP, stipulated in NPE-1986, has been an on- ry and secondary levels, which are aired on All India
going challenge and commitment. Radio and Doordarshan.
NPE-1986 recognized this challenge, offering the
following qualifications:
NONFORMAL EDUCATION

Since the actual level of investment has remained far Governmental Programs: India’s open universities,
short of that target, it is important that greater determina- adult education programs, and widespread distance edu-

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cation cater to the needs of a diverse population. The De- mal education was enshrined in its familial and cultural
partment of Education, since 1980, has been sponsoring units.
nonformal education (NFE) for children of ages 6 to 14,
especially those marginalized from the formal system for Students and educators in India thus usually share a
various reasons, especially poverty. In 2001, some 740 common history and a legacy of collective wisdom. This
voluntary agencies were implementing NFE programs in learning process reinforces the curricular thrusts in struc-
25 states. Another 85 agencies sanctioned 9,485 NFE tured settings. To isolate the two systems from each other
centers during 2000 (Tiwari 2000). is to fracture the whole learning process. There are
fields—fine arts, medicine, astronomy, and numerous
The National Open School (NOS) was established in other skills—where knowledge has been transmitted
November 1989 as an autonomous registered society to from one generation to another within familial ties with-
examine and certify students up through pre-degree out any formal structures. One can argue that India’s cul-
courses. NOS provides the following programs: (a) foun- tural continuity is indebted to this informal system of
dation course, (b) secondary education course, (c) senior education.
secondary education course, (d) open vocational educa-
tion program, (e) life enrichment program, and (f) basic Venkataiah calls this education beyond structured
education for Universal Elementary Education (UEE). curricula ‘‘a collective alternative self-curriculum, for
NOS provides individualized support through a network over the years it involves learning, in the neighborhood
of study centers. Also called Accredited Institutions, the and more intensely in the playground, a succession of
972 study centers serve about 400,000 students all over codes and adjustments and conventional learned re-
the country. The aforementioned Indira Gandhi National sponses through which children complement their devel-
Open University (IGNOU) also provides distance educa- opment with collective experience’’ (2000).
tion.
TEACHING PROFESSION
Community-based Learning: Traditional societies
have thrived on their nonformal systems of education. Teaching traditionally was a priestly function as-
Joshi writes: ‘‘Ancient records of the Indian tradition tes- cribed to the people at the helm of a caste hierarchy. As
tify to the search for the Rishis and sages for higher society advanced, individual accomplishments replaced
knowledge (para vidya), and their discoveries have been the higher-caste monopoly on teaching. The status of
continuously transmitted to posterity and kept alive teachers, though materially lesser than other lucrative and
through its history, marked by periods of expansion, spe- rewarding professions like medicine, law, engineering,
cialization, decline and renewal’’ (1998). Long before the and civil services, has tremendously increased as salary
bureaucratized western structures of schooling mush- and other benefits have been nationally upgraded at all
roomed in the ‘‘less developed’’ nations, India’s nonfor- levels.

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While much can be written to credit and discredit the village to raise and to destroy a child. The plight of poor
people involved in the calling of teaching, it must be real- children has not received the attention it merits, while the
ized that society has an obligation to uphold the dignity culture of privilege looms large with ominous conse-
of a profession that it deems essential for progress. Edu- quences. India’s cultural conundrums are mirrored in an
cation and its processes, however, do not exist in a vacu- educational system that treats people with different back-
um. Public corruption, nepotism, and unfair assessment grounds in different ways. True universal achievement
practices have paralyzed a system that is potentially capa- will require more than self-congratulatory reports and
ble of empowering the whole nation. self-righteous resolutions.
Student Unions and Teachers Associations abound. BIBLIOGRAPHY
While their role is not always functional, their organiza-
Gaudino, Robert L. The Indian University. Bombay: Pop-
tional strengths and weaknesses characterize what ails the
ular Prakashan, 1965.
academic world. However, they do serve as incubators
for future leadership that will run the Indian democracy. Government of India. Department of Education. Avail-
able from http://www.education.nic.in/.
SUMMARY ‘‘Home away from home: Elite residential schools.’’
India Tribune 42 (17 March 2001): 24-25.
India’s achievements during the post-Independence
era are phenomenal. The progress India has made in Joshi, Murli M. ‘‘Higher Education in India: Vision and
educational, professional, scientific, and technological Action.’’ Paper presented at the UNESCO World Confer-
spheres can neither be underestimated nor adequately ence on Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century,
summarized in a brief essay. Paris, October 1998. Available from http://
www.education.nic.in/htmlweb/unhighedu.htm/.
India’s vision for its education system is reflected in
the resolution passed by the UNESCO-sponsored World Mohan, Brij. Democracies of Unfreedom: The U.S. and
Conference on Higher Education in Paris, which reads: India. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1996.
———. ‘‘The metaphysics of oppression: Human diver-
Ultimately, higher education should aim at the creation
of a new society—nonviolent and non-exploitative—
sity and social hope.’’ Paper delivered to the Second Di-
consisting of highly cultivated, motivated and integrated versity Conference, University of South Carolina,
individuals, inspired by love for humanity and guided by November 2000.
wisdom. (Quoted in Tiwari 2000) Sharma, Neerja. Evaluating Children in Primary Educa-
The gap between rhetoric and reality, however, is ev- tion. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House, 1997.
ident if one travels through India’s vast cultural land- Tiwari, Satish, ed. ‘‘Education: Development and Plan-
scape. India is a land of contrasts. One finds impov- ning.’’ In Encyclopedia of Indian Government Series.
erished schools and marginalized children as frequently New Delhi: Anmol Publications, 2000.
as squalor and poverty. The ubiquity of deprivation, cru- Venkataiah, S, ed. ‘‘Primary and Secondary Education.’’
elty, and neglect outweighs the glamour and elegance of In Encyclopedia of Contemporary Education Series. New
elite schools which nourish the chosen ones of the rich Delhi: Anmol Publications, 2000.
and influential classes.
The Indian educational system maintains its dyna- —Brij Mohan
mism by interacting with international bodies that seek
collaboration and partnership. India’s collaborative en-
deavors with foreign universities and professionals, espe-
cially in the United States, Canada, most European
countries, Russia, Japan, and many Afro-Asian countries, INDONESIA
is a success story. The American Institute of Indian
Studies, the U.S. Educational Foundation in India, and
the Shastri Indo-Canadian Institute, to mention the main BASIC DATA
ones, organize bilateral programs of international signifi-
cance. Official Country Name: Republic of Indonesia
India’s goal of achieving universal access and Region: Southeast Asia
achievement, noble as it seems, will ring hollow and hyp- Population: 224,784,210
ocritical unless the barriers of inequality and injustice are Language(s): Bahasa Indonesia,
demolished through a thoughtfully planned program of English, Dutch,
progressive education and equal opportunity. It takes a Javanese

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Literacy Rate: 83.8% the continuous decrease of employment opportunities in

Number of Primary the area of agriculture and an increasing demand for
Schools: 173,893 knowledge and skills in industry. The structural shift in
the economy has generated new challenges and demands
Compulsory Schooling: 9 years affecting the education system. According to the 1987
Public Expenditure Survey of the National Labor Force, 70 percent of the
on Education: 1.4% labor force had not been educated beyond primary school
Foreign Students in level, inadequate for a society approaching the era of
National Universities: 1,147 modernization. However, the 1990 population census
shows a growing tendency toward higher education with-
Educational Enrollment: Primary: 29,236,283 in the labor force. Likewise, over the past 25 years, the
Secondary: 14,209,974 number of pupils more than doubled for primary school,
Higher: 2,303,469 rose four and a half times for the junior secondary school,
Educational Enrollment eight times for the senior secondary schools, and about
Rate: Primary: 113% 10 times for higher education. Such growth has resulted
Secondary: 51% in a more educated population and labor force.
Teachers: Primary: 1,327,178 In June 1993, UNESCO awarded President Suharto
Secondary: 986,896 with the Avicenna Medal (Ibnu Sina Award), recognizing
Higher: 157,695 Indonesia for implementing its universal education pro-
Student-Teacher Ratio: Primary: 22:1 gram for 7 to 12 year olds in a much quicker way when
Secondary: 14:1 compared to other developing countries. Jacques Hallak
Female Enrollment Rate: Primary: 110% from the Institute for Educational Planning, UNESCO,
Secondary: 48% wrote in 1990 that ‘‘higher level industrial countries with
better social economic conditions like the United States
and other developed West European countries like
France, Germany and England needed 60 to 100 years to
accomplish universalization of basic education.’’
HISTORY & BACKGROUND
Indonesia is the world’s largest archipelago, strad- CONSTITUTIONAL & LEGAL
dling the equinox and formed by 17,670 islands. Its na- FOUNDATIONS
tional territory stretches from Australia to Southern Asia
The national educational system draws heavily from
and is the fourth most populous country after the People’s
the Indonesian culture. The system-based on Pancasila,
Republic of China, India, and the United States.
the 1945 State Constitution, and the National Education
Indonesia’s population of nearly 200 million experi- Law No. 2/1989 aims to ‘‘generate abilities and to in-
enced a diminishing growth rate of 1.82 percent in the pe- crease the standard of living and dignity of the Indonesian
riod 1990-1995, when compared to its 2.32 percent people in order to achieve the national development ob-
growth rate the previous decade (1971-1980). Although jectives.’’
the population growth will decrease, the total population
of Indonesia is expected to increase from 195.7 million Undergirding all government programs is Pancasila,
in 1995 to 242.6 million in 2020. The World Bank esti- Indonesia’s state philosophy. Also known as the Five
mates a continuing decrease in population growth, to less Principles, Pancasila was first articulated by President
than one percent in 2015-2020. The decrease is attribut- Sukarno on 1 June 1945 when declaring Indonesian inde-
able to the nation’s proactive family planning efforts. Na- pendence. The Five Principles serve as the nation’s blue-
tional literacy rates have progressed rapidly since print for Indonesian society and way of life. These basic
Indonesia’s independence on 17 August 1945, in spite of truths are presented visually in the nation’s coat of arms
natural impediments such as the nation being made up of and are actively taught in school. In fact, the entire first
400 distinct ethnic groups and the fact that more than week of each new school term is called ‘‘Pancasila
two-thirds of the population live in rural areas. In 1930, Week.’’
less than six percent of the population was literate, while
The following values constitute Pancasila:
the 1990 census data reveals an 84 percent literacy rate
of those over 10 years of age. 1. Belief in ‘‘One Supreme God’’
Corresponding to the advancements in literacy is the 2. A call for a just and civilized humanity—not tolerat-
change in the Indonesian labor force as characterized by ing physical or spiritual oppression of any person

608 WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA

 INDONESIA

3. Promoting nationalism and Indonesian unity—a con- pect of PJP II is the strong emphasis on human resources
cept of one nation and one language binding together development through a commitment to excellence in sci-
the country’s diverse people ence and technology equal to that of other developed na-
tions.
4. Pancasila-style democracy—this calls for discussion
(musyawarah) and mutual assistance (gotong EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM—OVERVIEW
royong) establishing a national authority of consen-
sus (mufakat) rather than domination Compulsory Education: Presidential Instruction De-
5. A system of social justice—assuring equal distribu- cree No. 10 of 1973, initiated Indonesia’s program of
tion of welfare and the protection of the weak compulsory education and by 1984 the government of In-
donesia had fully implemented the six year compulsory
Building upon the state’s philosophy is the 1945 education for primary school age children (7-12 years).
State Constitution, Article 31 which assures that ‘‘Every The result of this new policy was significant in that the
citizen has a right to obtain an education and that the gov- participation rate in primary school reached 92 percent
ernment shall create and execute a system of national ed- in 1993 compared to 79 percent just 10 years earlier.
ucation provided by law.’’ The National Education Law
No. 2/1989 provides the foundation for one national edu- Ten years after the compulsory primary education
cation system to be universally implemented in a com- program came fully into effect, Indonesia launched the
plete and totally integrated manner. Universal means Nine Year Basic Education Program, as proclaimed by
open to all people and valid throughout the country; com- President Suharto on 2 May 1994, extending compulsory
plete means to cover all channels, levels and types of edu- education to the 13- to 15-year-old population. The com-
cation; and integrated means that there are mutual pulsory nine-year basic education affords opportunities
supporting links between all types and levels of national for Indonesian citizens to get an education. The extension
education and development efforts. from six years to nine years of basic education was also
intended to alleviate the problem of child labor.
The National Education Law further issued two ob-
jectives of the national education system: first, to estab- Age Limits: According to the National Education Law
lish a high-quality and self-reliant human being whose No. 2/1989 and the Government Regulation No. 28/1990,
values are based on Pancasila, the state philosophy; sec- basic education is a general education program with a du-
ondly, to keep and maintain Indonesia’s cultural back- ration of nine years—six years of primary education and
ground while at the same time generating the knowledge, three years of junior secondary education. The nine-year
skills, and scientific progress that will keep the nation Compulsory Basic Education Program attempts to pro-
abreast in the twenty-first century. National education as- vide an education for every Indonesian in the 7 to 15 age
pires to improve the life of the nation along with fully de- group.
veloping the intellectual, moral, spiritual, physical, and
social capacity of its citizens. (This National Education Academic Year: At the primary and secondary levels
Law gains support from the Presidential Decree No. 10, the school year lasts 38 weeks on the average. The aver-
1973 launching compulsory primary education for 7 to age length of teaching periods on the primary level is 30
12 year olds and the Government Regulation No. 28/1990 minutes in grades one and two, 40 minutes in grades three
expanding compulsory education to every Indonesian to six, and 45 minutes in junior secondary school.
7-15 years of age. President Suharto reiterated this na-
tional policy of compulsory education in 1994.) Language of Instruction: Classroom instruction is
provided in the national Bahasa Indonesian language.
The National Guidelines of the State Policy of 1993
stress that the nation will pursue a three-pronged ap- Curriculum Development:
proach to development. Speaking directly to the educa-
tion aspect, President Suharto’s speech to the People’s Primary School Education: Basic education offered in
Consultative Assembly (MPR) on 6 January 1993, em- primary schools aims to provide the ability to read, write,
phasized, ‘‘We have to see that education is being devel- and do arithmetic, and to instill primary knowledge and
oped more fairly and equally to meet the needs of skills that are useful for pupils in line with their develop-
development and to be able to produce output in the form ment levels, as well as to prepare students to attend edu-
of human resources of quality . . . . Education should be cation in lower secondary school. Basic education is also
directed to and in accordance to the need of productive carried out in lower secondary schools and is aimed at ex-
working power in all sectors, in all fields and in all devel- panding the knowledge and improvement of skills ob-
opment activities.’’ tained in primary schools that are useful for students to
In 1994 Indonesia entered the nation’s second 25 develop their lives as individuals, members of society,
Year Development Plan (PJP II). The most significant as- and citizens.

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The education program for primary schools is pre- Vocational secondary school implements education
scribed by Article 39, Clause 3, Law No. 2/1989 and Ar- programs according to the perceived present and future
ticle 14, Clause 2, Government Regulation No. 28 of demands for employment types. The vocational second-
1990, and the February 25, 1993 decree of the Ministry ary school curriculum program is envisioned to be com-
of Education and Culture No. 060/U/1993. The curricu- pleted in three to four years. The curriculum is divided
lum content of compulsory primary education consists of into six groups: the agricultural and forestry group, for
subject matter covering Pancasila education, religious ed- occupations in such areas as agribusiness, agronomy, ani-
ucation, citizenship education, Indonesian language, mal husbandry, fisheries, and agriculture production
reading and writing, mathematics, introduction to science management; the industrial technology group, offering
and technology, geography, national and general history, professions in building construction, mining, marine en-
handicrafts and art, physical education and health, draw- gineering, graphics, textiles, informatics, and industrial
ing, and the English language. Such subject matter instrumentation; the business and management group,
groups are not necessarily course titles as more than one leading to careers in accounting, office management, fi-
material group can be combined with another subject; nance and banking, trade, and secretarial work; the com-
likewise, one subject can be divided into more than one munity welfare group, targeting employment with social
subject. services, community health, and community develop-
ment; the tourism group, whose graduates move into the
Secondary School Education: The general secondary hotel, catering, fashion, and beauty occupations; and the
school curriculum is determined by the 25 February 1993 arts and handicraft group, whose skills are focused on ap-
decree of the Minister of Education and Culture No. 061/ plied arts, visual arts, and the handicraft industry.
U/1993. This program covers study materials and sub-
jects required for Class l and II students: Pancasila educa- Special Education: Special education is intended for
tion and citizenship, religious education, Indonesian students with physical, mental, and/or behavioral disabil-
language and literature, national and general history, En- ities. The programming is organized by multiple agencies
glish language, physical and health education, mathemat- including the government’s Ministry of Education and
ics, natural sciences, social sciences, and arts education. Culture, other ministries, and private and nongovernmen-
The language program consists of four subjects: Indone- tal organizations.
sian language and literature, English language, other in-
ternational languages, and cultural history. The natural The aim of special education is to help disabled stu-
science program includes physics, biology, chemistry, dents acquire knowledge about their environment and to
and mathematics. The social science program offers eco- develop skills for competing in the job market or to con-
nomics, sociology, public administration, and anthropol- tinue their education beyond the customary special pre-
ogy. These subjects are aimed at improving pupils’ school (one to three years duration), special primary
abilities and stimulating interactive relationships with the school (at least six years duration), and special secondary
social, cultural, and natural environment. schooling (at least three years duration).
Built on foundational courses in Class I and II, the In the 1995 school year, there were 703 schools
special teaching program implemented in Class III can be teaching special education, with 32,921 students, 7,723
selected by pupils according to their abilities and inter- teachers and a student-teacher ratio of 4.26:1. There is a
ests. This program prepares students to continue on to measure of difficulty in assessing the student-teacher
higher education in the academic or professional field. ratio within the field of special education. In addition to
Apart from general and special programs, there are numbers of students, other criteria must include the stu-
also extracurricular activities that are offered outside the dent’s degree of disability, curriculum to be pursued, and
teaching hours. These activities—such as scouting, physical and mental therapies offered.
school health activities, sports, and first aid—along with
the theoretical knowledge gained in the curricular pro- Higher Education: In the early stages, higher education
gram are intended to develop the whole person. used the program structure inherited from the Dutch colo-
nial period consisting of bachelor’s, master’s, and doctor-
Vocational Secondary Education: This curriculum was al programs. The curriculum was based on a prescribed
set forth by the Minister of Education and Culture in De- course of study, the whole of which should be taken by
cree No. 080/U/1993. The objective of vocational educa- the student. In 1979 the semester credit unit system was
tion is to prepare students to enter employment and to adopted offering more latitude in choice of courses.
develop professional skills and to prepare students to
choose a career, to instill the ability to compete and de- The master’s program consists of a class load of 36
velop independently, and to foster a national workforce to 50 semester credit units and a written thesis to be com-
to meet the manpower needs of business and industry. pleted in no less than four semesters and no greater than

610 WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA

 INDONESIA

ten semesters. Study for a doctorate requires 40 semester schools, 343,466 students, 10,423 teachers, and a stu-
credit units and a dissertation which is to be completed dent-teacher ratio of approximately 32:1. By the 1995-
in no less than four semesters yet not exceed 14 semes- 1996 school year, the numbers had increased to 40,715
ters. schools, 1.6 million students, 98,094 teachers, and a stu-
dent-teacher ratio of less than 17:1. These figures demon-
Following secondary education, graduate studies for strate an increasing community support of this
educators consist of diploma programs (Diploma I-IV) preparatory educational level for students.
and specialist programs (Specialist I-II). The Diploma I
study load ranges from 20 to 50 semester credit units and Six years of compulsory education for primary
is taken over a period of 2 to 4 semesters after secondary school-age children (7-12 years) was instituted in 1984.
education. The Diploma II program study load is from 80 Then, in 1990, by order of Government Regulation No.
to 90 semester credit units scheduled over a period of 4 28/1990, compulsory education was expanded to a total
to 6 semesters. The Diploma III study program consists of nine years, adding three years of junior secondary edu-
of 110 to 120 semester credit units spanning 6 to 10 se- cation thereby covering children 7-15 years of age. The
mesters. And the Diploma IV study program is 144 to number of primary schools and children attending them
160 semester credit units scheduled over 8 to 14 semes- increased from 63,056 schools and 12.8 million pupils in
ters. 1969 to 149,954 schools and 3.6 million pupils by 1995.

The standard load for Specialist I study is 36 to 50 The goal of basic education, as expressed by the In-
semester credit units taken over 4 to 10 semesters after donesian Ministry of Education and Culture, is to develop
the graduate program. And Specialist II study is 40 to 50 the lives of children as individual members and good citi-
semester credit units over 4 to 10 semesters after the Spe- zens of society. The core content of basic education cur-
cialist I program or its equivalency. riculum consists of Pancasila (state ideology), religion,
civic education, Indonesian language, reading and writ-
ing, mathematics, introduction to sciences and technolo-
PREPRIMARY & PRIMARY EDUCATION
gy, geography, national and world history, handicraft and
Preschool education is aimed at stimulating the art, physical and health education, drawing, English lan-
physical and mental growth of pupils outside the family guage, and local content.
environment before entering primary school or out-of- For the calendar year 1995, figures indicate nearly
school educational programs. Among the types of pre- one hundred percent enrollment of 7 to 12 year old stu-
school education available are kindergartens, playgroups dents in government-funded primary schools. For the
and child care centers. Kindergartens are part of the same calendar year, 62 percent of 13 to 15 year old chil-
school-based education system and, as such, are under dren (junior secondary level) were enrolled in govern-
the Ministry of Education and Cultural Development ment-funded schools. This represents a decline from
(Government Regulation No. 27 of 1990). Play groups primary level enrollment which parallels a decline in
and childcare centers are part of the out-of-school system government subsidy for students over 12 years of age.
and the responsibility of the Ministry of Social Affairs.
Preprimary education is not considered to be neither a In addition to the regular school system, there are re-
prerequisite nor a requirement for entry into primary ligious schools, known as madrasas, equivalent to prima-
school. Preschool is provided for children from four to ry and junior secondary schools. The distinction is that
six years of age, while play groups and child care centers the school curriculum, administered by the Ministry of
are attended by children under three years of age. Apart Religious Affairs, is founded upon the Koran and com-
from these schools, there are also special Islamic pre- mentaries of the Koran, sayings of the Prophet Muham-
schools which have the same status as kindergartens. mad, and the Arabic language. This is where Muslim
These schools, known as Bustanual Atfal and Raudlatul children learn the precepts and traditions of the Islamic
Atfal, are organized by the Ministry of Religious Affairs. faith to carry back to their homes and villages. Such in-
struction sustains the living presence of Islam among the
Subject matter taught at the kindergarten level in- world’s largest Muslim population, Indonesia having
cludes: Pancasila (state ideology), moral education and more Muslims than all the Arab nations combined. In the
religion, discipline, language skills, intellectual stimula- 1994-1995 school year, there were 24,232 Islamic prima-
tion, creativity, emotional harmony, social skills, manual ry schools, with 3.5 million students and 138,931 teach-
skills and physical ability, and health. ers.
Kindergartens have increased in terms of total num-
SECONDARY EDUCATION
bers of school buildings, students, and teachers, and have
experienced a dramatic reduction in the student to teacher Senior secondary education is available to graduates
ratio as well. In 1969, for example, there were 6,072 of basic education, (six years of primary school education

WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA 611

INDONESIA

and three years of junior secondary education). The types lor’s, master’s, and doctoral programs. A non-graduate
of secondary education include general secondary educa- program leading to a diploma was simultaneously insti-
tion, vocational secondary education, religious secondary tuted as another type of terminal degree.
school, service secondary school, and special secondary Enrollment of new students into a national university
school. is based on a national entrance exam or a portfolio assess-
General secondary education gives priority to ex- ment, also called achievement monitoring (PMDK).
panding knowledge and developing students’ skills in an Those who are accepted through the PMDK process are
effort to prepare them to continue their studies at the not required to take an entrance exam as they are judged
higher levels of education. Vocational secondary educa- to have content-eligible academic performance ever since
tion gives priority to expanding specific occupational they were enrolled at senior secondary level. (The PMDK
skills and developing professional attitudes as students selection process is not implemented at all universities.)
prepare to enter the world of work. The government in- In 1995 there were 1,300 institutes of higher educa-
troduced something similar to Germany’s dual system, tion, with 2.3 million students enrolled, less than 10 per-
transforming the role and function of the more than 200 cent of the total 19 to 24 year old age group. The vast
vocational schools spread over Indonesia. The concept of majority of senior secondary school graduates opt for the
vocational education is to create a work/study program job market and employment rather than higher education.
through the participation of industry and commerce.
More than 2,000 commercial and industrial institutes ADMINISTRATION, FINANCE, &
have pledged their cooperation in making training space EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
available for students.
The Ministry of National Education and Culture
Religious secondary education gives priority to the (MOEC) is the organizational structure of the Indonesian
mastery of special religious knowledge. Service second- educational system. It consists of seven principal units at
ary education is education that emphasizes preparedness the central level. These seven units are the Secretariat
for employment in the nation’s civil service or govern- General, Office of Educational and Cultural Research
ment work. Special secondary education is specifically and Development, Inspectorate General, Directorate
intended and designed for the physically and/or mentally General of Basic and Secondary Education, Directorate
limited students. General of Higher Education, Directorate General of
Out-of-School Education and Youth and Sports, and the
In 1995, approximately 39 percent of 16 to 18 year Directorate General of Culture.
old students were enrolled in government sponsored se-
nior secondary schools. With 13 set as the minimum age These positions assist the Minister of National Edu-
level for employment, and with family incomes averag- cation in setting forth an administrative structure of edu-
ing a meager US$1,000 annually, many young people opt cation, developing curriculum, financing education,
to extend the family’s limited resources through employ- establishing the infrastructure and providing for equip-
ment rather than pursing an education beyond the junior ment necessary for carrying out educational activities,
secondary level. Tuition fees also place secondary educa- and training faculty and staff to serve the education sys-
tion beyond the reach of many families. tem.
At the local level, the Ministry of Education and Cul-
HIGHER EDUCATION ture is represented by an Office of Education and Culture
in each of the 27 provinces, and by a district office in
Higher education follows the secondary school for- each of Indonesia’s 305 districts. The major task of the
matting with some institutions designated for academics provincial and district offices is to interpret and imple-
and others for professional education. Academic educa- ment ministerial policies on education and culture with
tion is mainly aimed at mastering science, technology, recognition given to distinctive features of the local area.
and research, whereas professional education is aimed
more at developing practical skills. Centers for higher ed- The Ministry of Religious Affairs is responsible for
ucation include academies, polytechnic schools, colleges, the Islamic preschools, primary schools, junior secondary
institutes, and universities. Higher education is offered by schools, and senior secondary schools. Provision of
both the government and the private sector with approxi- higher education is managed by the Ministry of National
mately 51 public universities and more than 1,000 private Education and Culture through the directorate general of
universities. higher education, as well as by the Military Academy and
the College for Civil Servants.
In 1979 a semester credit unit system was officially
introduced and academic education modeled along the Finance: Technically, the government is responsible
lines of the U.S. system. This system consisted of bache- for financing education. However, costs for education

612 WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA

 INDONESIA

carried out by the community is recognized as the respon-

sibility of those institutions. In some cases the govern-
ment funding is limited to specific elements of com-
pulsory education. The education programs funded by the
government are mainly financed through the administra-
tion’s annual budget along with a separate development
budget. Other funding sources are international aid (loans
and grants) and assistance from regional governments
and the private sector.
Primary school is free and theoretically requires no
fees. Routine assistance for financing the middle and
higher levels of education is the responsibility of the fam-
ily in the form of a school fee paid to the state by each
school to be reallocated back to the schools through an
account known as the Education Funds Support. While
the government offers subsidies to universities and
among the various regions, it strongly encourages the
participation of the local government, community and
business in educational finance. Essentially each educa-
tional institution is expected to manage its own admission
process and finances.
Bank totaled more than US$507 million. The World
The Ministry of Education budget has expanded con-
Bank provided assistance to Indonesia during 1970-1995
tinuously over time. Within the first five-year develop-
for developing education in the amount of US$1.54 bil-
ment planning period or Repelita (1969-1973) the budget
lion. The total amount of Asian Development Bank loans
was 147 billion rupiah. There was a marked increase in
during the period 1975-1995 was US$1.39 billion.
monies appropriated in 1973 in support of the presiden-
tial decree launching the compulsory six years of primary
school education. The budget increased to 12.9 trillion Educational Research: The key to quality postgradu-
rupiah during the Fifth Repelita (1989-1993), and finan- ate education is in focusing on research conducted by the
cial allocations for the first year of the Sixth Repelita university. Regular and continuous funding for research
(1994-1999) expanded to 4.6 trillion rupiah. The annual has only been available within this decade. With this
percentage of MOEC budget fluctuates in close proximi- funding availability has come greater opportunity to
ty to the gross domestic product (GDP). solve education development problems such as enhanced
capacity for lecturers of various science and math sub-
During the Fifth Repelita, 83.5 percent of the routine jects. Further, university research is rendering technology
budget of the MOEC was designated for salaries and em- innovations having commercial and copyright potential
ployee related expenditures. This concentration of the in such fields as agriculture, tropical rain forests, biotech-
routine budget on employee-related expenditure resulted nology, and computer software programs. Increased re-
in limited availability of funds for procurement of teach- search capacity might allow for academicians to travel
ing supplies, educational facility development, and ad- outside their campus, helping to develop small and strug-
ministrative activities. Most consistently noted in gling industrial business enterprises, and in identifying
allocations is the preeminence given by the Indonesian and solving problems at regional and local levels.
government in making of good citizens through the
teaching of Pancasila. For example, in the school year
1997-1998, approximately 1.3 percent of the budget was NONFORMAL EDUCATION
allocated toward the development of ‘‘Followers to Be-
lieve in God’’ whereas the government allocated 2 per- Nonformal or out-of-school education is a substitute
cent of the total allocations toward producing more program designed to eradicate illiteracy in letters and nu-
professional educators. merals and the Indonesian language. Programming also
provides individuals with an opportunity to develop
Also during the Fifth Repelita, international loan as- knowledge and skills required to work and generate an
sistance amounted to 51 percent of the total development income; to enable individuals to proceed to a higher level
budget. Loans from the World Bank (International Bank within the formal educational system; and to fulfill needs
for Reconstruction and Development) amounted to of persons, families, and communities that cannot be met
US$457 million, and loans from the Asian Development by the formal education system.

WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA 613

INDONESIA

Out-of-school education provides an educational ploma II. The new requirement for junior secondary
equivalent to primary and junior secondary schools and school teachers is to have at least D II education. The
is offered outside the formal education system. Features teachers of senior secondary schools are mostly recruited
distinguishing nonformal from formal education include from D II and D III teacher training, and a master’s de-
flexibility of the former in relation to the time and period gree, also referred to as Level I.
spent, the age of the learners, the content of the lessons, The quality of education at the various school levels
the way the lessons are organized, and the assessment of is closely related to the capacity of the Teacher Training
the outcome. Institute to produce quality teachers. The institute gradu-
Courses are organized at the basic, middle, and ad- ates an average of 7,500 primary school teachers at the
vanced level. Groups studying ‘‘Packet A’’ are organized Diploma II level per year. This is a relatively small num-
to obtain an educational level equivalent to the primary ber when compared to the national demand for teachers
school level. Groups studying ‘‘Packet B’’ are organized (296,653 primary school teachers in 1994-1995). There
to obtain the equivalent of the junior high school level of are four contributing factors to the teacher shortage:
education. (1) the number of teachers retiring, dying, or leaving for
Out-of-school education is provided by governmen- non-teaching jobs each year, which reached 23,453
tal and nongovernmental agencies, the private sector, and persons or 2 percent in 1994-1995;
the community. Communities may provide all types of (2) the imbalance in the geographic distribution of
education with the exception of formal education. teachers;

TEACHING PROFESSION (3) the current surplus and shortage of teachers depend-
ing on the subject matter (e.g., surplus teachers are
Previously, primary school teachers were graduates in subjects like Pancasila education, Bahasa Indone-
of schools for primary school teachers (SPG), a three- sia, social science, handicraft and arts, sports and
year program following junior secondary education (at health, national history, sociology, geography, and
the same level as the senior secondary school). However, foreign languages; a shortage of teachers is found to
in order to improve the quality of primary school, the be in mathematics, science, English, and local con-
government increased the educational requirements of tent); and
primary school teachers to a two-year diploma course (D
II program) following senior secondary education. At the (4) the final challenge to the Teacher Training Institute
same time, the government launched a national in-service is in the high number of current teachers not meeting
training program for primary school teachers throughout the published teacher standards.
Indonesia using the Open University. Its objective is to For example, in the 1994-1995 school year, there were
train existing teachers to the equivalent level of the Di- 1.1 million primary school teachers, 392,588 junior sec-

614 WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA

 INDONESIA

ondary school teachers, and 316,479 senior secondary skills. This partnership would allow the nation’s educa-
school teachers. Of the total number of primary school tion system to attain excellence in designing a well-
teachers, 5.3 percent were deemed qualified, 87.5 percent balanced, broad spectrum approach of preparing future
semiqualified, and 7.2 percent underqualified. Of the workers.
total number of junior secondary school teachers 38.5
percent were judged to be qualified, 50.3 percent semi- Higher Education: Universities are being challenged
qualified, and 11.2 percent underqualified. Of the total to become independent institutions, free from govern-
number of senior secondary school teachers 45.7 percent ment subsidy and involvement. Yet it is a nation’s com-
placed in the qualified category, 39.2 percent semiquali- mitment to public education that most contributes to the
fied, and 15.1 percent underqualified. prosperity and well being of society. Should the nation
continue to disavow itself from higher education, nega-
SUMMARY tive outcomes might result. For example, without state-
sponsored schools, only elitists could afford to attend
National Focus: Indonesia’s second 25 Year Long school; the nation might experience a ‘‘brain-drain’’ with
Term Development Plan, covering the period 1994-1995 students attending affordable schools in other lands and
to 2018-2019, emphasizes the economy as the most deci- remaining there to work. Scrambling for resources, some
sive factor of national development. Yet, steady improve- schools of higher education are bound to disappear over
ment of a society cannot be separated from investments time, thereby weakening Indonesia’s overall educational
made in human capital, specifically that of the nation’s offerings. The government (MOEC) must remain in-
educational system. This requires a financial commit- volved in higher education, in order to equip future gen-
ment on the part of the government to ensure universal erations, ensure institutional improvements through a
application of compulsory education for all students national accreditation system for public and private uni-
without regard to their ability to pay, adequately trained versities, and encourage research for resolving issues of
and compensated teachers, newly constructed and reha- national import.
bilitated classrooms, textbooks, and other quality teach-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ing tools.
Basic Education Curriculum. Jakarta: Indonesia’s Minis-
try of Education and Culture, 1993.
Administrative Coordination: Consolidation of edu-
cation oversight, from several ministries to one, would Campbell-Nelson, John. Indonesia in Shadow and Light.
allow for better coordinated efforts, as well as redirect New York: Friendship Press, 1998.
duplicated administrative costs to the field. Of further Center for Informatics. Statistik Persekolahan. Jakarta:
benefit would be the creation of a master plan, a roadmap Balitbang Dikbud.
to the future, with clear concepts, involving all elements
The Development of Education in Indonesia: A Country
of the education system—state and local governance,
Report. Jakarta: Indonesia’s Ministry of Education and
teachers, parents, and students.
Culture, 1994.
Teacher Training Institute: Studies offered at the Flanz, Gisbert, ‘‘Indonesia.’’ In Constitutions of the
Teacher Training Institute should maintain flexibility so Countries of the World. New York: Oceana Publications,
as to respond to the numerous trends and challenges with- Inc., 1998.
in education. Flexibility, coupled with educational quali- ‘‘Human Resources and Education Policy.’’ Paper pres-
ty improvement programs (creating, monitoring, and ented at the 1993 Second Economics Conference Roundt-
evaluating systems of educational quality) will help the able, Government of Indonesia, Jakarta, 1993.
institute to become an inseparable part of the educational ‘‘Issues and Challenges in Educational Development:
process. Cooperation and Linkages.’’ Paper presented at the The-
matic Symposium of the Twenty-ninth Southeast Asian
Private Sector Participation: Industries require job- Ministers of Education Council’s Conference, Yogy-
specific trained employees from the educational system; karta, February 1994.
yet, as global markets shift and the Indonesian economy
matures, higher critical thinking skills will be required of Lippman, Thomas W., Understanding Islam: An Intro-
the work force. A system that might better serve the duction to the Muslim World. New York: Meridian
needs of students and businesses alike would be a part- Books, 1995.
nership between the Ministry of Education and the pri- Ministry of Education and Culture. Fifty Years Develop-
vate sector, in which the nation’s education system ment of Indonesian Education. Jakarta: Office of Educa-
equips students with the fundamentals required for work tional and Cultural Research and Development, MOEC,
readiness while private industry teaches specific job 1997.

WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA 615

IRAN

———. ‘‘Education Development in Indonesia: A Coun- Libraries: 1,002

try Report.’’ Paper presented at the International Confer- Educational Enrollment: Primary: 9,238,393
ence on Education, 45th Session, Geneva, 1996. Secondary: 8,776,792
Moegiadi and Jiyono. Indonesia. International Encyclo- Higher: 579,070
paedia of National Systems of Education 2nd ed. Edited Educational Enrollment
by T. N. Postlethwaite, 435-38. UK: Cambridge Univer- Rate: Primary: 98%
sity Press, 1995. Secondary: 77%
‘‘Plans and Priorities for Educational Development,’’ Higher: 18%
Paper presented at the Donor Coordination Meeting on Teachers: Primary: 298,729
Education, Jakarta, February 1994. Secondary: 280,309
‘‘Priorities in Human Resource Development: An Educa- Higher: 40,477
tion Perspective.’’ A presentation made at a meeting of Student-Teacher Ratio: Primary: 31:1
the World Bank at the National Development Planning Secondary: 32:1
Agency (BAPPENAS), Jakarta, 1994. Female Enrollment Rate: Primary: 95%
Soedijarto, H. Policies, Strategies and Programmes on Secondary: 73%
Education for All: The Case of Indonesia. Jakarta: Minis- Higher: 13%
try of Education and Culture, 1994.
United Nations, Statistical Yearbook. Paris, 1996 and
1998.
———. World Data on Education. Bangkok, Thailand: HISTORY & BACKGROUND
UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pa-
cific. The Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI), a country located
in the Middle East, covers an area of 1,648,00 square ki-
‘‘Welcome Address.’’ Presented at the Opening Ceremo- lometers and is surrounded on the north by the former So-
ny of the Twenty-ninth Southeast Asian Ministers of Ed- viet Union and the Caspian Sea, on the east by
ucation Council’s Conference, Jakarta, February 1994. Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian
Gulf and the Oman Sea, and on the west by Iraq and Tur-
—Jane Sabes key. The climate is arid and the terrain mountainous.
Roughly 20 percent of its landmass is desert and infertile,
55 percent is natural pasture, and 8 percent is forest. Only
the remaining 10 to 15 percent is arable.

IRAN The population as of July 2000 was estimated to be

65.6 million. More than half of the country’s population
(61 percent) is between 15 and 64 years old, and 34 per-
cent is under 14 years of age, making Iran one of the
BASIC DATA youngest countries in the world. Recent figures show that
this might be changing, however. The population’s annu-
Official Country Name: Islamic Republic of Iran
al growth rate was estimated in 2000 at .83 percent, a sig-
Region: Middle East nificant decrease from the 3.6 percent that was estimated
Population: 65,619,636 between 1976 and 1986—an economically disastrous
Language(s): Persian, Turkic, burden believed to be caused by the absence of a family
Kurdish, Luri, Balochi, planning program during the height of the revolutionary
Arabic, Turkish period that overthrew the former ruler, the Shah of Iran.
Literacy Rate: 72.1% Iran is commonly misperceived as an Arab country,
Number of Primary but in truth, its Arab population comprises only 3 percent
Schools: 63,101 of its ethnic identity. The major ethnic groups are Persian
(51 percent) and Azeri (24 percent). And, in fact, Arabic
Compulsory Schooling: 5 years
is only used in religious contexts and expressions, while
Public Expenditure Farsi (Persian) is spoken by 58 percent of the population.
on Education: 4.0% Other spoken languages include Turkic, Kurdish, Luri,
Foreign Students in Balochi, and Turkish. Of these, only Turkic is spoken by
National Universities: 622 a significant portion of the population (26 percent). The

616 WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA

 IRAN

official religion, in accordance with Article 12 of the Is- ty. Another important factor was its weakness in the face
lamic constitution, is the Jafari Faith of the 12 Imams. of European power.
About 99 percent of the population is Muslim, 89 percent
of which belong to the Shi’a sect. Religious minorities in Despite European influence on the Qajar’s by both
Iran include Christians, Jews, and followers of the an- Britain and Russia—at one point those two had divided
cient Persian faith, Zoroastrianism. Iran into spheres of influence—Iran was never colonized
or fully controlled by any European authority and has tra-
Iran is one of the Middle East’s main reservoirs of ditionally maintained a fierce independence from western
oil, and in recent years numerous other industries have society. The westernization of education was seen as a
developed and expanded, but agriculture still employs means of empowering the country to fight western domi-
roughly 33 percent of the workforce. Twenty-five percent nance—a paradox that plagued many reformists of the
of the population is involved in industry, while 42 percent period. When the Constitutional Revolution took place in
work in other service positions. With a 1999 unemploy- 1905, the intellectuals who inspired it focused on devel-
ment rate estimated at 25 percent, an inflation rate of 30 oping primary education and pushed through the Supple-
percent, and a real growth rate of 1 percent, the Iranian mentary Constitutional Law of 1907. The law guaranteed
economy has suffered from continuous stagnation since the freedom of ‘‘acquisition . . . and instruction in all sci-
the revolution. In 1996, approximately 53 percent of the ences, arts and crafts’’ and established The Ministry of
population was living below the poverty line. Sciences and Arts to govern all educational institutions.
In 1910 the Ministry of Education was established. This
Historical Evolution: In 1979 the Islamic revolution was the first real attempt to nationalize the educational
ended Pahlavi rule and the ancient tradition of monarchi- system. The constitution also mandated the inclusion of
cal government from which it claimed authority. The Islamic studies in school curriculums and gave the Minis-
Pahlavi’s, a relatively short-lived dynasty in the history try of Education the power to exclude any textbook seen
of Persian Civilization, seized power from the Qajars in to be in conflict with the tenets of Islam.
1925. That occurred 20 years after the Constitutional
Revolution had limited their (the Qajars) authority and The rise to power of Reza Shah Pahlavi reflected the
created in Iran a constitutional monarchy, recognizing the failure of the constitutional experiment to live up to the
people as a source of legitimacy. challenges of western power, as was made painfully evi-
dent during World War I. The influence of the Pahlavi’s
The tradition of absolute monarchical rule dates back on education was profound, for it was under their leader-
to the sixth century B.C. and the Achaemenid Empire, a ship that the basic educational structure and system was
successful regime that made the subsequent Persian em- developed and westernized. As of 2000, the education
pire not only one of the most powerful of the ancient structure in Iran continued to reflect the French system,
world, but also the most progressive. Its contributions to which was selected as a model under Pahlavi rule: prima-
art, literature, science, and law make it one of the seed- ry, secondary, and higher education, with degrees at the
beds of civilization. The Islamic foundations of Iranian university level, including bachelor’s, master’s, and doc-
government were not introduced until the Islamic con- toral. It was under the Pahlavis that the first university in
quest of the seventh century, which had a profound im- Tehran was established as a coeducational institution in
pact on Iranian culture in general by introducing a new 1920, and after World War II other institutions of higher
language, social, and legal system. In the ninth century, learning were established in Tabriz, Esfahan, Mashhad,
the Islamic Empire broke up and Farsi again replaced Ar- Shiraz, and Ahvaz.
abic as the spoken language in a reconstituted Iran; how-
ever, by that time, Islam had taken hold. The Safavid The Ministry of Education was further empowered
dynasty (1501-1732) made Shi’a Islam the state religion, and was given the responsibility of regulating all public
institutionalizing its preeminence and creating a presence and private schools. There was also an increase in stu-
in Iranian government and education that would not be dents studying abroad, as the Shah Reza sought to bring
seriously challenged by its rulers for hundreds of years. western advancements to his country. Most notably, the
Under the Qajar dynasty, though, the traditional Islam- educational system was secularized, with the emphasis
based approach to education began to show its inadequa- on training Iranian youth to succeed in modern occupa-
cy, as Iranian intellectuals increasingly stressed the need tions—especially science and administration. In the eyes
for the inclusion of Western educational mechanisms and of many Iranians, especially the clergy and leftist politi-
a national educational system; this was seen as a response cal groups, westernization became an increasing trend in
to European power. However, very few intellectuals went the development of education as Pahlavi Rule passed to
so far as to advocate a separation of education from reli- Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi. And in fact, the educa-
gion. In fact, a contributing factor to the demise of the tional system was a high-profile example of how the re-
Qajar dynasty was its perceived lack of religious authori- gime supported modernization. Textbooks used at that

WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA 617

IRAN

time downplayed religious history and emphasized loyal- and enrollment in the public educational system, the Sec-
ty, modernity, and nationalism. Under the Pahlavi’s, the ond Economic, Social, and Cultural Development plan
vatan or mihan (motherland)—and a citizen’s commit- (1995-99) made education not only free, but also compul-
ment to it—was the highest value, and the purpose of ed- sory, requiring school age children and illiterate adults
ucation was to train students to serve the needs of the under age 40 to attend education and literacy courses.
motherland above any other authority, including religion. The constitution does not touch on issues of educational
practice other than to establish the importance of intellec-
The success of the Pahlavi regime in terms of educa- tual freedom and equality based on Islamic revolutionary
tion literacy and enrollment is difficult to judge because principles. Because of the doctrine of velayet-I faqih,
there are few reliable statistics available before 1940. It there is no separation between the Qur’an and the ideo-
is known that although the Pahlavis were never able to logical and legal foundations of the educational system.
fully realize a national educational system, they did make Furthermore, interpretation of what Islamic revolutionary
significant progress. In 1940, only 10 percent of all ele- principle is comes from the religious leader, the Ayatul-
mentary-age children were enrolled in school, and less lah. The aims of the educational system envisioned by the
than 1 percent of youths between the ages of 12 and 20 Ayatullah Khumayni were made apparent in 1980 when
were in secondary school. By 1978, these statistics had he called for the formation of a Council for Cultural Rev-
improved dramatically, as 75 percent of all elementary- olution, requiring that education be in keeping with Is-
age children were enrolled in primary schools, and nearly lamic culture and that educators be committed to the
50 percent of all teenagers were attending secondary ideals of the revolution.
schools. It is also known that although the Mohammed
Reza Shah made significant attempts at improving litera- This effort began the Islamization of Iranian educa-
cy, the illiteracy rate in 1976 was still 63 percent. tion. The first step was to stop the secularization of the
system and to purge those academics that did not embrace
The rise to power of the Iranian ulama—religious
revolutionary principle. Efforts to forcibly de-secularize
scholars—was a manifestation of public dissatisfaction
the university system led to several violent clashes, the
with the Shah’s attempt to modernize and westernize a
suspension of higher education for three years, the clos-
nation that did not have a strong industrial infrastructure
ing of 200 institutes of higher learning, and a radical de-
and was culturally and spiritually dependent on its Islam-
crease in enrollment for those institutions that re-opened
ic traditions. When economic crises caused by a fluctuat-
in 1983. Enrollment at the University of Tehran, for ex-
ing oil market made class and wealth distinctions
ample, dropped from 17,000 to 4,500 students, and the
intolerable, the absence of meaningful spiritual and cul-
percentage of women’s enrollment in institutions of
tural leadership became intolerable as well. What the Is-
higher learning plunged from 40 percent in 1980 to 10
lamic theory of political and spiritual leadership, the
percent in 1983. The emphasis on revolutionary commit-
velayet-i-faqih, offered was a strong leadership that, in
ment over expertise also led to a lowering of overall edu-
theory, placed the leader of the republic in a position to
cational quality and a reduction in the emphasis placed
interpret and administer the will of God. What it did not
on the necessity for sufficient skilled manpower needed
provide, in terms of education, was a resolution to the
to achieve economic goals.
conflict between modernizing the education system so
that Iran could compete with western nations, and main- Like the Pahlavi regime, the ulama saw the purpose
taining an identity as an Islamic nation. The new regime of education as a means of supporting the ideology of the
also had to face many cultural and economic challenges government. At the primary and secondary level ‘‘Islam-
that effected educational practice and principle, including ization’’ and ‘‘Westoxification’’ mainly focused on
a major war with Iraq, a high rate of illiteracy, and a pop- changing textbooks to those that transmitted acceptable
ulation explosion. ideological beliefs and social behaviors. Particularly in
the humanities, textbooks were purged of all ideas that
CONSTITUTIONAL & LEGAL were thought to promote western values and were rewrit-
FOUNDATIONS ten to promote the concept of a New Islamic citizen in
terms of political beliefs, cultural values, and role mod-
In Article 3, the IRI constitution of 1979 establishes els.
the goal of ‘‘free education and physical training for ev-
eryone at all levels, and the facilitation and expansion of A national literacy campaign was central to the gov-
higher education.’’ Additionally, article 30 requires that ernment’s plans for cultural Islamization, and one of
the government ‘‘provide all citizen with free education Khumayni’s first acts after the revolution was to establish
up to secondary school,’’ and ‘‘expand free higher educa- the Literacy Movement of Iran. The regime also placed
tion to the extent required by the country for attaining great emphasis on primary education and teacher training
self-sufficiency.’’ To ensure the expansion of literacy as a means of propagating revolutionary ideals. Especial-

618 WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA

 IRAN

ly in the early 1980s, a commitment to Islamic revolu- Primary education in Iran is split into two types: ele-
tionary principles was more important than competency mentary and lower secondary, or guidance, schools. The
at nearly all levels of instruction, especially within the elementary level is a four-year program and includes reli-
Literary Movement Organization (LMO). gious training and the study of the Qur’an, Persian com-
position, dictation, Persian reading comprehension,
EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM—OVERVIEW social studies, arts, hygiene and natural science, mathe-
The precollege educational system in the Islamic Re- matics, and physical education. Special emphasis at this
public of Iran has not changed significantly since the rule level is given to reading comprehension. In grade one,
of the Pahlavis and is modeled after the French system. half of the 24 allotted teaching hours are set aside for this
It consists of one year of preprimary education at age 5, discipline. The main objectives of primary education are:
five years of primary education (from age 6 to 11), three • Creation of a favorable atmosphere for the purifica-
years of lower secondary, or guidance, school (from age tion and moral superiority of students
11 to 14), and three years of secondary school (from age
14 to 17). Students who wish to enroll in a university • Development of student’s physical strength
have to take one year of pre-university training and pass
• Enabling the students to read, write, and upgrade
the National Entrance Examination. Secondary vocation-
their calculating skills, and providing necessary
al and technical education is also available. At all levels,
training on proper social behavior
the language of instruction is Farsi, except at the Univer-
sity of Shiraz, where English is used. In accordance with • Instruction for individual hygiene and providing nec-
Article 30 of the IRI constitution, education through age essary advice on how to behave at home as well as
11 is both free and compulsory. The official length of the in society
academic year for preprimary to lower secondary levels
is 10 months, but the official starting date is subject to All subject musts be passed in order for students to
change. Traditionally it has run from September to June. pass on to the guidance cycle. Textbooks are standardized
Most universities operate on a similar time frame. The and must be prepared and approved by the Ministry of
grading system through all levels of education is based Education. The dropout rate at the primary level from
on a 20-point scale, with an A being worth four points 1993 to 1994 was 1.9 percent. The repetition rates for the
and an F worth zero points. To graduate, a C average in same year varied depending on grade level but were high-
all courses is required. est in grades one (9.5 percent) and five (8.7 percent). In
the 1994-95 academic year, the transition rate from the
PREPRIMARY & PRIMARY EDUCATION primary to lower secondary level was 94.2 percent.
Preprimary education is a one-year period in which The lower secondary, or guidance, cycle (doreh-e
five-year-old children are prepared for primary school. rahnamaii) is a three-year program in which the empha-
The main goals of preprimary education are: sis on instruction changes from teaching general knowl-
edge to an effort at helping a student discover an area of
• To contribute to the physical, mental, emotional, and
specialization. The goals of the guidance cycle include:
social growth in young children based on religious
and ethical principles • Developing a student’s moral and intellectual abili-
ties
• To develop the abilities and talents of students in
order to prepare them for future studies • Increasing the student’s experiences and general
• To promote the Persian language, particularly in the knowledge
provinces, which have different native languages • Helping students to continue the habits of discipline
• To prepare children for social relationships and co- and scientific imagination that have been taught in
operation elementary school

• To help families with low incomes by creating a safe • Diagnosing individual preferences and talents in stu-
educational atmosphere to train their young children dents so that they may be directed towards suitable
studies and professions
The curriculum at this level is standardized through
use of two teaching manuals titled Content and Methods At this level the subjects of history, geography, Ara-
of Instruction in Pre-Primary Centers, Volumes I and II. bic, vocational training, foreign languages, and defense
These demonstrate appropriate behavioral and pedagogi- preparation are added to the curriculum. Mathematics
cal techniques as well as a general curriculum focusing and natural sciences are given a larger portion of the 28
on basic life skills, natural sciences, hygiene, literacy, allotted teaching hours—four to five hours—although
history, and religious history and practice. Persian language and literature remains the focus of in-

WORLD EDUCATION ENCYCLOPEDIA 619

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
ive.'] Showing appreciation: having the quality of forming an
adequate estimate, of recognizing the good points in an object, or of
being sensitive to delicate impressions. Const, of. 1850 LYNCH Tlu-
oph. Trin. v. 84 Kindly appreciative words. 1867 DICKENS Lett.
(1880) II. 313 A very quiet audience . . appreciative but not
demonstrative. 1879 CHURCH in CnssetFs Techn. Educ. I. 247/1 The
eye has become less appreciative of red, and more appreciative of
the other colours. Appreciatively, adv. [f. prec. + -LY-.] In an
appreciative manner : with estimation of comparative value ;
discriminatingly ; with sympathetic recognition of excellence. 1656
HOBBES Liberty, etc. (1841) 315 Yet appreciatively in the estimation
of judgment, he accounts the offence of God a greater evil than any
temporal loss. 1656 JEANES Mi.vt. Schol. Div. 13 Appretiatively,
preferring him, and his will, before all other things. 1879 T. ESCOTT
Eng. I. 166 Slowly, lovingly, and appreciatively acquired, not
purchased readymade. Appre'ciativeness. [f. as prec. 4- -NESS.] The
quality of being appreciative ; the habit of recognizing excellence.
1862 Frascrs Ring, July 12 A liberality of judgment and an
appreciativeness of taste. 1881 Daily Nevus 7 Nov. 3/3 The thorough
appreciativeness of the crowded audience. Appreciator
(aprrj~i|>t3.i). [n. of agent (on L. analogy) f. apprctiarc: see
APPRECIATE. Cf. mod.Fr. apprcciatcur] One who appreciates or
forms an adequate estimate. 1842 DF.QuiNCEY/V*//0.j.
Hcradot.'Wk*. IX. 208 A discovery for which there was no
permanent appreciator. 1849 MILL Ess. (1859) II. 358 An incapable
appreciator of the situation and its exigency.
Appreciatorily(aprrj~i|at3Tili), adv. [f.next-f-LY^.J In an appreciatory
manner ; appreciatively. Appreciatory (aprrji,at3ri\ a. [f.
APPRECIATOR: see-ORY.j Of or befitting an appreciator ;
appreciative. 1819 W. TAYLOR in Month. Rev. LXXXIX. 36 That
appretiatory criticism which scrupulously weighs the evidence
adduced. 1861 GEO. Enor Silas M. 68 Mr. Macey. .paused, in the
expectation of some appreciatory reply. Appredicate (a'pre-dik^t).
[ad. mod.L. appr&dicatitm ( — Gr. TrpoffKarrj'^opov/j.fvov') : see
APpref.\ and PREDICATE.] An addition to the predicate : (see quot.)
1837-8 SIR W. HAMILTON Logic xiii. I. 228 By Aristotle, the predicate
includes the Cflpnla ; and . . the latter has, by subsequent Greek
logicians, been styled the afprt-dicate. Apprefe, variant of APPIUKIF,
Obs., proof. Apprehend (X'pr/he'nd),^. \a..Yr.a}pn:hcnt!e r (I5U1 c.
in Godef.), ad. L. app-, adprehend-Sre to lay hold of, seize, f. ad to
+prehenJ-ere to seize. In the contracted form apprcnd-ere, the word
survived in the Romance langs. in the fig. sense ' lay hold with the
mind, comprehend, learn,' whence 411 also later ' teach, inform * :
cf. Fr. apprendre, and Eng. APPRISE. Subsequently, the full
apprehcnd-ere was taken into Fr. and Eng. in its orig. form and
sense. APPUEND is occas. in i6-i7th c.] I. Physical. fl. To lay hold
upon, seize, with hands, teeth, etc. Also said of fire, andyf^-. of
trembling, fear, etc. Obs. or arch. 1572 BOSSCWKLL Armoric in. 5 A
great quakyng and tremblyng dyd apprehende hys hands. 1607
TOPSELL l-'our-f. Beasts 124 His dogs, .apprehending the garments
of passengers. 1613 Life William I. in Harl. Misc. (1793) 28 A fire
began . . which apprehending certain shops and warehouses, etc.
^1643 Maximes Unf. 8 Fury and affrightment apprehend the
desperate. 1645 RUTHERFORD Tryal ff Tri. /Vi/V£(i845> 63 A lame
hand that cannot apprehend. 1843 E.JONES Sensat. $ Event 122
While those two lips his brow did apprehend. b. transf. To seize
upon, take down, in writing. Jig. To seize upon (points of a subject).
Ohs. 1611 CORYAT Crudities 480, I apprehended it [an epitaph] with
my pen while the Preacher was in his pulpit. 1615 T. ADAMS Spir.
Navig. 24, I will only apprehend so much as may serve to exemplify
this dangerous world. 2. To seize (a person) in name of law, to
arrest. 1548 UDALL, etc. Erasni. Par. John vii. i iR.) To fynde sum
occasion, .to attache and apprehende him. 1642 ROGKKS Naamati
44 Paul, .going like a Pursivant. .to Damascus, to apprehend the
Saints there. 1768 KLACKSTONE Comui. IV. 287 A justice of the
peace cannot issue a warrant to apprehend a felon upon bare
suspicion. 1855 MACAULAY Hist. Eng. III. 328 Troops had been sent
to apprehend him. f 3. To seize upon for one's own, take possession
of. Alsoy^-. Obs. 1513 DOUGLAS SEneis xt. vii. 70 Ellis quhare . . to
wend, Thayre dwelling place for ay to apprehend. 1611 KIBU-: Phil.
iii. 12 If that I may apprehend that for which also ^1 am
apprehended of Christ lesus. 1652 NKEDHAM tr. Scldais Mare C7. 21
That Vacancies are his who apprehend's them first by occupation. f4.
To seize or embrace (an offer or opportunity;. 1586 T. B. La Primaitii,
Fr. Acad, 750 If we apprehend not that great grace and mercy of the
Father offered to all. a 1619 DONNE Biathan. ( 1644' 126 If he
apprehend not an opportunity to escape. 1633 Hi1. HALL Hard Texts
56 His faith, whereby he did firmely apprehend the . . aid of his
eternal Father. II. Mental. ^5. gen. To learn, gain practical
acquaintance with. Also absol. (The earliest use in Kng. ; cf. Fr.
apprcndrc?) Obs. 1398 TREVISA Earth. De P. R. it. ii. (14951 28 He
holdeth in mynde . . without foryetynge, all that he apprebendyth.
1531 EI.YOT Govcrnonr (18341 2I5 Thereby they provoke many
men to apprehend virtue, a 1680 BUTLER Rem. (1759^ I. 204
Children. . Improve their nat'ral Talents without Care, And
apprehend, before they are aware. 6. To become or be conscious by
the senses of (any external impression). 1635 AUSTIN Medit. 60
When this Light shone in darkenesse, and our darkenesse, though it
apprehended, yet it comprehended it not. 1651 HOBBKS Leviatk. in.
xxxiv. 212 That caused Agar supernaturally to apprehend a voice
from heaven. 1855 BAIN Sens. STONE Homer III. 393 The eternal
laws, such as the heroic age apprehended them. b. absol. or with
subord. d. 1614 B. JONSON Barth. Fair \. iv. 8 If liee apprehend you
flout him once, he will (lie at you. 1775 J. LYON in Sparks Corr. Antcr.
Rei: (1853) I. 101, I apprehend that secrecy is as necessary now as
ever it was. 1839 HALLAM Hist. Lit. APPREHENSION. iv. vi. g 17 In
general, I apprehend, the later French critics have given the
preference to Racine. 10. To anticipate, look forward to, expect
{mostly things adverse). 1603 SHAKS. Meas. for M. IV. ii. 149 A man
that apprehends death no more dreadfully, but as a drunken sleepe.
1749 FIELDING Tom Jones (1836) I. in. iii. 100 A triumphant
question, to which he had apprehended no answer. 1879 ToURGKB
Fool's Errand 'ii. ir Love had taught her with unerring accuracy to
apprehend the evil which impended. 11. To anticipate with fear or
dread ; to be fearful concerning ; to fear. a. with olij. 1606 SHAKS.
Tr. • Cr. in. ii. So Oh let my Lady apprehend no feare. 1643 SIR T.
BROWNE Relig. Med. I. § 54 Which makes me much apprehend the
ends of those honest Worthies. 1702 Eng. Theophr. 53 He
apprehends every hreath of air as much as if it were a Hurricane.
1832 HT. MARTINF.AU Hill % Valley xiii. 125 No one., could think ..
that any further violence was to be apprehended. b. with sitbord. el.
To be apprehensive, to fear. 1740-61 MRS. DEI.ANY Life ff Corr.
(1861) III. 210, I don't apprehend that even the Hath could hurt her.
1868 HAWTHORNE Our Old Home (18701 186, I sometimes
apprehend that our institutions may perish. Apprehe-nded, ///. a. [f.
prec. + -ED.] 1. Taken hold of, seized ; arrested. 1597 DANIEL Civ.
Wares \ I. Iviii, Th' apprehended Duke. 2. Laid hold of by the mind,
conceived. 1668 HOWE Bless. Righteons (1825) 129 Lord ! whence
is this apprehended inconsistency? 1880 CYCLES Hum. Exp. i. 17
The intellectually-apprehended Executive System. 3. Anticipated
(with aversion), dreaded. 1742 RICHARDSON Pamela IV. 7 When the
apprehended Time shall be over. 1825 SOUTHKY Paraguay iv. 29 On
Monnema the apprehended ill Came first. Apprehender
(eeprfhrndai). Also 7 -or. [f. as prec. + -Kill.] 1. One who lays hold of
or seizes ; csp. one who seizes or arrests in the name of justice.
1608 CHAPMAN Byrons Trag. Plays II. 282 This short sword . . which
if I haue time To show my apprehendor, he, etc. 1684 CHARNOCK
Attrih. God 118341 II. 65 How would the . . number of malefactors
be greater than that of apprehenders ? 2. One who lays hold with
the senses or mental faculties. ,11619 DONNE Biat/iaa. (1644184 All
these proceed from the indisposition and distempred taste of the
apprehendor. 1678 CUDWORTH Intcll. Syst. I. v. 639 Truth is bigger
than our minds, and we are. .rather apprehenders than
comprehenders thereof. 1862 F. HALL Hindu 1'liilos. Syst. 177 By '
beholder ' is meant knower, or apprehender. Apprehending, vbl. sb.
[f. as prec. + -ING '.] The action of the vb. APPREHEND ;
APPREHENSION, esp. in senses 3, 7, 12. 1398 TREVISA Bartli. lie- /'.
K. in. ix, The vertu of apprehendynge LL. agprehensiva. potential,
bat is maner knowynge, is departid a tweyne. 1553 87 FOXE A. *r
31- HI321 Going from place to place, to avoid the peril of
apprehending. 1581 SIDNEY Astrophel\-ni\, Quick apprehending .
.Of euerie image which may comfort show. 1855 MACAU LAV Hist.
Eng. III. 508 To issue a proclamation for the apprehending of
Ludlow. 1880 CVPI.KS Hum. Exp. ii. 40 Experience includes the
apprehending of a regulative order, &c. Apprehending, ///. a. [f. as
prec. + -INC -.] That apprehends; understanding, perceptive. 1656
RIDGLEY Pract. P/iysic2o6 Imagination . . is an apprehending power.
1823 LAMB Elia Ser. it. xviii. (1865) 359 Newly-apprehending
gratitude at second life bestowed. Apprehe'ndingly, adv. rare. [f.
prec. + -LY^.] ]!y apprehending or laying hold. 1581 NOWELL & DAY
in Confer. 1.11584) E iiij, Faith doeth iustifie apprehendingly,
workesdoe iustine declaringly. Apprehensibility (cepnhe^nsibrliti). [f.
next : see -BILITY.] The quality of being apprehensible. 1827 DE
QUINCEY Lessing Wks. XIII. 287 Clothed in a form of sensuous
apprehensibility. 1875 WHITNEY Life Lang. i. 6 Simplicity and
popular apprehensibility will be everywhere aimed at. Apprehensible
(eeprfhe-nsib 1), a. [ad. L. apprehensibil-is (Tertull.), f. apprehens-
ppl. stem of apprehend-lre : see APPREHEND and -BLE. Cf. mod.Fr.
apprehensible^ Capable of being apprehended or grasped by the
senses or intellect ; liable to be felt emotionally (obs.) Const, by, to.
a 1631 DONNE Select. (1840) 181 It is apprehensible by sense. 1632
SIK T. HAWKINS Unhappy Prosp. 95 Who wept not for himselfe ; for
an object so sad and apprehensible as this could not bend his
gravity. (11716 SOUTH 12 Serin. 11717) IV. 318 Discoursing of the
Nature . . of God in a language neither warrantable nor
apprehensible. 1841 DE QUINCEY Rket. (1860) 358 Apprehensible
even to the uninstructed. 1855 MILMAN Lat. Chr. (1864) II. in. vii.
151 A world of invisible beings . . assuming forms, uttering tones,
distilling odours, apprehensible by the soul of man. Apprehe-nsibly,
adv. rare. [f. prec. + -LT A] In an apprehensible manner ; so as to be
apprehended or laid hold of. 1672 SIR T. BROWNE Let. to Friend vii.
(1881) 131 The dead and deep part of the night, when Nox might be
most apprehensibly said to be the daughter of Chaos. Mod. The two
notions are not apprehensibly distinct. Apprehension (sepriTie-n^n).
[ad. (? through Fr. apprehension, I gth c. in Littre) L. apprehension-
em, n. of action f. apprchend-cre to seize upon : see APPREHEND
and -ION.] gen. The action of seizing upon, seizure, grasp. As in
other adopted words, employed in the mental before the physical 52
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accurate

APPREHENSIVE. senses, for which native Eng. and OFr.

words were in use. I. Physical. 1. The action of laying hold of or
seizing (physically) ; prehension, grasping, rare. 1646 SIR T.
BROWNE Pseud. Ep. (J.) [A lobster's claw is] a part of apprehension
whereby they seize upon their prey, 1835 Sourmv. SMITH Philos.
Health I. v. 262 The superior extremities [of the body] are organs of
apprehension. 2. Law. The action of taking manual possession. 1832
AUSTIN Jurispr. (1879) II. Ivi. 928 The absolute property rei singitlx
cannot be acquired commonly without an apprehension or a taking
possession of the thing by the acquirer. 1875 POSTE Gains n. 203
Kither constructive delivery (traditio} or apprehension (Perceptio). 3.
The seizure of a person, a ship, etc., in the name of justice or
authority ; arrest. Const, subjective £?«.of the actor, objective gen.
of the person arrested, the latter being more frequent : 'The king's
apprehension of Pym,' 'Pym's apprehension by the king.' 1577
HARRISON Ens*, i. n. iv. 103 If they be taken the third time and
have not since their second apprehension applied themselves to
labour. 1614 SIR R. DUDLEY in Fort esc. Pap. 6 Your answer tuiching
his Majestys aprehension of the forcible vessell. 1881 Chatnb. Jrnl.
No. 916. 457 A warrant for his apprehension was obtained. II.
Mental. f4. £t'M. The action of learning, the laying hold or
acquirement of knowledge. Obs. 1398 TREVISA Bart ft. Di* P. R. v.
vj. (1495") in Meane moeuynge of the eye is to be praysed, for it
sygnefycth easy apprehensyon. 1641 WILKISS Math. Magick \. i. 3
The ancient Philosophers esteemed it a great part of wisdome to
conceale their learning from vulgar apprehension or use. 5. The
action of laying hold of with the senses ; conscious perception, arch.
1590 SHAKS. Mids. -V. in. ii. 178 Dark night, that from the eye his
function takes, The eare morequicke of apprehension makes. 1635
AUSTIN Mcdit. 9 She [the Virgin] had a corporal!, as well as a
mental apprehension of the Messenger. 173* ].\\\* Serious Call \\.
177 Invisible to his Eyes, being too glorious for the apprehension of
flesh and blood. to. The action of 'feeling' anything emotionally ;
sensitiveness or sensibility to ; sympathetic perception. Obs. rare.
1605 BACON A_ih>. Learn. \. Hi. §6 [They] have not their thoughts
established . . in the love and apprehension of duty. x6iz T, TAYLOR
Cottint. Titus i. 15 If men did conscior.ably and in right apprehension
of Gods good ties blesse their meale. 1644 H KYI. IN Laud l, 206
The Queen . .out of a deep apprehension of that lamentable
accident, forthwith directed, etc. 7. The action of grasping with the
intellect ; the forming of an idea ; conception; intellection. 1597
J.PAYNI-: Riiyal Kxch. 25 Better .. ys a short and diligent readinge.
.then to turn manie leaves with small regard and less apprehciition.
a 1680 (ii.ANVii.L (J.» Simple apprehension denotes no more than
the soul's naked intellection of an object. 1751 JOHNSON Ratnbl.
177 FT, My quickness of apprehension, and celerity of reply. 1866
DK. ARGYLL Reign of Law ii. 1 10 A clear apprehension of this
Abstract Idea was necessary to a right understanding. 1870 BOWKN
Logic i. 28 Simple Apprehension corresponds very nearly to that sort
of thinking which we now call Conception. 8. The apprehensive
faculty ; ability to understand ; understanding. 1570 DKE Afath.
Prsef. 4 So . . dull is our apprehension. 1607 DKKKKR West™. Hoe
lit. i, () the quick apprehension of women. 1636 HEY WOOD Lwe's
Mistr. Pref., It was above my apprehension to conceive, 1851
HAWTHORNE Sntnu linage (18791 214 How forcibly the lapse of
time., came home to my apprehension. 9. The product of grasping
with the mind ; a conception or idea ; also, the abiding result of
such conception ; a view, notion, or opinion entertained upon any
subject. '579 TOMSON Calvin $ Serin. Tim. 763/2 We haue no
apprehension of y- heauenly life, when we are thus tyed to this
world. 1670 UAXTER Cure Ch.-Div. 19 Fix not too rashly upon your
first apprehensions. 1758 JOHNSON Idler No, 10 P4 Which according
to vulgar apprehension swept away his legs. 1774 RKID Aristot. Log.
ii. § i The first part of logic treats of simple apprehensions and of
terms. 1871 R. W. DALK Ten Command. Introd. ii We must obey the
moral law to have a true apprehension of it. f 10. The conception or
idea expressed by a word ; meaning, sense. Obs. rare. 1615 T.
ADAMS Leaven 102 'The kingdom of Heaven'. . hath a diverse sense
and apprehension in the Scriptures. 1646 SIR T. BROWNE Pseud. Ep.
15 Other wayes there are of deceit which consist not in false
apprehension of words. 11. The representation to oneself of what is
still future ; anticipation ; chiefly of things adverse. 1603 SHAKS.
Meas.for M. in. i. 78 The sence of death is most in apprehension.
1693 OWEN Holy Spirit 12 Sorrow had filled their Hearts upon the
Apprehension of his Departure. 1719 WATKRLAND Vind. Christ's Div.
Pref. A ij, The following Queries were drawn up. .when I had not the
least apprehension of their appearing in print. 1853 RANK Grinnell
E*p. xxxix. (1856) 358 Leaving us to the thaws of summer and the
stormy winds of September before our imprisonment ceases. The
apprehension has no mirth in it. 12. Fear as to what may happen ;
dread. 1648 SANDERSON 21 Sertn. Ad Aul. xvi. (167 ^ 227 The bare
fears of such tilings and apprehensions of their approach, 1709
Tatler No. 108 F i, I. .looked about with some Apprehension . . for
Fear any Foreigner should be present. 1825 T. JKKKERSOM
Antobiog. Wks. 1859 I. 67 Their representatives at Paris expressed
apprehensions that France would interfere. 1836 MACGILLIVRAY
Huntboldt's Trav. xviii. 263 Not without apprehension of being bitten
by serpents. Apprehensive (iepn"he'nsiv), a. [ad. med.L. 412
apprehcnsiv-us, f. apprehens-, ppl. stem of apprehendcre : see
APPREHEND and -IVK. Cf. Fr. apprehensif, -ivc^\ Characterized by
apprehension j Habitually apprehending. T"l. In the habit of seizing,
ready to seize or embrace (an offer or opportunity). Obs. 1620
SANDERSON Scrm. Ad Pop. i. (1674) 136 So apprehensive of but an
outward enforced semblance of contrition from the hands of an
Hypocrite, a 1641 LD. STRAFFORD (O.) I shall be very apprehensive
of any occasions wherein I may do any kind offices. 2. Pertaining to,
or fitted for, the laying hold of sensuous or mental impressions. 1398
TREVISA Karth. De P. R. in. vi. (14951 53 All the wyttes come of the
vertue Racional and apprehensiue. 1589 PVTTENHAM Eng. Pot'sif i
Arb.) 268 Illfauorednesse or disproportion to the partes
apprehensiue, as. .when a sound is either too loude or too low. 1671
MILTON Samson 623 Thoughts, my tormentors, armed with deadly
stings, Mangle my apprehensive tenderest parts. 1861 F. HALL Hindu
P kilos. Sysf.BS When the apprehensive faculties offche soul are in
their full vigour. 3. Of mental faculties and their operations : Showing
apprehension or grasp of a subject ; intelligent, discerning, quick.
1621 BURTON Anat. J\Icl. i. ii. in, i, If the Imagination be very
apprehensive, intent, and violent. 1785 CoWPBR Task Vi. 612 In
some [animals] are found Such teachable and apprehensive parts,
1863 MRS. C. CLARKK Shnks. Char. x. 258 The reasons he gives.. are
neat, apprehensive, and witty. 1874 J. H. \K\VM AN Gerontius 20 A
sense so apprehensive and discriminant. 4. Of intelligent beings : In
the habit or capable of grasping with the mind, perceptive ; hence,
quick to learn, intelligent, ' sharp.' Const, of. 160* SHAKS. Jtil. C.
m.i. 67 And Men are Flesh and Blood, and apprehensiue. 1627
Lisandcr fy Cal. iv. 63 Those who are apprehensive of love. 1636
HEVwoonC/irt//t*#£i? in.i, My daughter is an apt, and wittie lasse : I
know her apprehensive, and welt-lirayn'd. 1670 MILTON Hist. Eng. it.
1,18511 84 More fond of Miracles, than apprehensive of Truth. 1697
KVKLYN Xnniism. ix. 295 Spaniels, .docile and apprehensive. 1868
BROWNING Ringfy Bk. III. VIM. 1500 The lower phrase that suits
the sense O' the limitedly apprehensive. 5. Having an apprehension
or notion ; understanding, realizing, conscious, sensible. Const, of or
suhord. cl. arch. 1611 Sri-: ED Hist. Gt, Hrit. ix. vii. 70 The King
apprehensiue of his meaning, called his Lords. 1683 Loud. Gaz.
nidcccxlix/2 We are deeply apprehensive of the Confluences of
Blessings, which . . we enjoy. 1764 HARMER Ofrserr1. xi. iii. 104, I
am apprehensive that this is an additional proof of the requisiteness
of attending to the customs of the East when we would explain the
Scriptures. 1843 J. H. NEWMAN 3/iractfs 58 Miracles, .wrought . . by
instruments but partially apprehensive that they are such. 6.
Anticipative of something adverse ; fearful of what may be about to
happen. (Now the most usual sense.) a. simply. 1718 POPE ///Wxm.
812 From death he flies, And turns around his apprehensive eyes,
1742 RICHARDSON Pamela 1 1 1. 418, I am a sad weak,
apprehensive Uody J to be sure Iain ! 1837 CAKLYI.K Fr. Ri~v. in.v.
vi. 11857) "•• 311 Though physically ofa timid apprehensive nature.
b. with of. 1633 T. ADAMS Exp. 2 Pet. ii. 22 Swine are naturally
apprehensive of wind and weather, by an ingrafted knowledge ; and
run crying home before the storm. 1768 H. WALPOI.E J/ist. Doubts
107 Noah's niece, being apprehensive of the deluge, set out for
Ireland. 1848 C. BKONTE Jane Eyre v. (1873) 37 Mortally
apprehensive of some one coming in and kidnapping me. C. with
sitbord. d. 1704 SWIFT T. Tub Apol., Wks. 1778 I. 202 Being
apprehensive it might spoil the sale of the book. 1756 HUHKE Snbl,
(•(• B. Wks. I. 224, I am apprehensive that experience was not
sufficiently consulted. i8oa Gent/. Mag. Mar. 282/1 He was
apprehensive an operation would be necessary. d. the source front
which apprehensions come, or the object for whose safety they are
entertained, may be expressed. 1665 BOYLE Occas. Refl. n. xv.
(1675^ 142 \Vhy should I be more apprehensive for my Body than
my Mind. 1791 BUKKE .\'af. Assembly Wks. VI. 41 More
apprehensive from his servants .. than from the hired blood-thirsty
mob without. 1836 MACGILI.IVRAY Hmnboldt's Trnv. xvii. 220 They
became apprehensive for the safety of their canoe. •j- 7. Capable of
being apprehended, apprehensible ; intelligible. Obs. rare. 169* PR
YUEN ,W. Eurenumt's Ess. 176 Who cannot suffer that things should
be rendred apprehensive to Idle Persons, which he has learned
amongst the Ancients with pains. Apprehe'nsively, adv. [f. prec. + -
LY2.] In an apprehensive manner ; with apprehension. 1 1. By laying
hold. Obs. 1656 TKAI'P E.\-p. Rom. iii. 29 Men are said to be
justified . .apprehensively by faith. 2. With anticipation, esp. of
danger; with fear as to what may be coming. 1753 RICHARDSON
Grandison (iSiol VI. xxxii. 236 What think you. .made me write so
apprehensively? 18*8 SOUTH EV To A. Cunningham Wks. III. 315
The face Composed and apprehensively intent Upon the necessary
operation About to be perform 'd. f3. So as to be apprehended,
intelligibly. Obs. 1692 DKYDES St. Euremonfs Ess. 14 The Quality
considered In it self, to speak apprehensively, was very savage.
Apprehe'iisiveiiess, [f. as prec. + -NKSS.] 1. Aptness to apprehend ;
intelligence, perceptiveness, discernment. APPRENTICEHOOB. a
1639 Reliq, Wot ton. 81 We shall often mark in it [the eye] a
dulness, or apprehensiveness, even before the understanding. X7oa
S. P[ARKER] Tully's De Ein. 144 The Winged World make frequent
Discoveries of their Apprehensiveness and Memory. 1805 WORDSW.
Pret. vm. (1851) 190 Yet knowledge came. .In fits of kindliest
apprehensiveness, From all sides. 2. The habit of anticipating things
adverse ; fearfulness as to what may be coming. 1748 RICHARDSON
Clarissa 11811 > IV. 243 So much apprehensiveness that her fears
are aforehand with her dangers. 1860 WINDSOR Ethica vii. 399
Nervous anxiety and . . exaggerated apprehensiveness. t Appre'nd,
v. Obs. rare. \^.fr.apprend-reor "L-apprend-erc, contr. of apprehend-
ere\ see APPREHEND.] To seize ; to lay hold of with the mind. 1567
DRANT Horace Epist. i. xi, Apprende with greatfull hande eche
hower that god hath lente the here. 1643 H. MORE Song of Soul m.
n. xxviiL, The soul . . Oretakes each outgone beam ; apprends it by
advertence. t Appre nsion. Obs.rare~~*. [contr. var. of
APPREHENSION. Cf. next.] 1586 T. B. La Primaud. Fr. Acad, (1589)
182 Mad men, who have alwaies before their eies those Ideas and
shapes which worke the apprension of their furie. t Appre 'HSlve, at
payed neuere for his prentishode. 1417 York Girdlcrs Ord.t Vat nan
apprentice efter y* tyme of apprenticehed wyrk any werk . . prively
The text on this page is estimated to be only 22.66%
accurate

APPRENTICEMENT. 1593 SHAKS. Rich. II, i. iii. 271 Must I

not serve a long apprenticehood? 1619 [. HEATH House Correct. D iij
b, Who in his apprenticehood, being brought up to the Art of
Poleing, is now made free of the Shavers. Apprenticement (apre-
ntisment). rare. [f. APPRENTICE v. + -MENT.] An apprenticing;
apprenticeship. 1823 LAMB Elia (1860) 173 The premature
apprenticements of these tender victims. 1848 Blacfav. Mag. LXIV.
487 Seven centuries of painful apprenticement. Apprenticeship
(apre-ntisjip). Also 6-7 apprentiship(pe. ff. APPBLNTICE sb. + -SHIP
; superseding APPHENTICEHOOD.] 1. The position of an apprentice ;
service in the capacity of an apprentice ; initiatory training, under
legal agreement, in a trade, etc. ; esp. in the phr. To serve
apprenticeship. 1612 WOODALL Surg. Mate Wks. 1653 Pref. 18
Holding them in more base subjection then their masters ever did in
their apprentiship. 177*6 ADAM SMITH W. -V". I. i. x. 106 During
the continuance of the apprenticeship the whole labour of the
apprentice belongs to the master. 1855 MACAULAY Hist. Eng. III.
625 Prince George.. was serving his apprenticeship in the military
art. Ii. transf. or Jig. 1392 GREENE Dispitt. 22 Such as onely ayme at
your faire lookes, tye but their loues to an apprentishippe of beauty.
1638 BAKER Balzac's Lett. n. 11654) 4^ On whose banks the
Romans have performed the Apprentiships of their rare victories.
1862 MAX MiiLLESC5#*(l88o)I.v, 118 Men who have passed through
a regular apprenticeship in Sanskrit grammar. 3. The period for
which an apprentice is bound. (t 1667 CowLBvZz&rnfyWkK. 1710
11.677 This is but a short Apprenticeship, after which we are made
free of a Royal Company. 1758 JOHNSON Idler No. 47 f 2 Three
months after the expiration of his apprenticeship. 1826 DISRAELI
V'iv. Grey v. x. 218 That long apprenticeship of sorrow. 4. Hence : A
period of seven years. prentcesps ave past away. -nce was oun to e.
Apprenticing, vbl. sb. [f. APPRENTICE v. + -ING1.] The action of
binding as apprentice. 1870 Paily News 12 Dec., The apprenticing of
parish boys. Apprentis, -age, obs. f. APPRENTICE, -AGE. Appress,
obs. form of OPPRESS. Appress ^a-pre-s), v. [f. L. appress- ppl.
stem of apprimere> f. ap- = ad- to+prcmfre to press.] To press close
to each other, or to a surface, e.g. leaves to the stem ; = ADPKESS.
Hence Appressed ///. a. 1791 E.DARWIN Rot. Card. \\. 25 note,
During the night the upper . . surfaces of the leaves are appressed
together. 1843 LlNDLEY Sell. /Jot. vii. (1858) 126 Leaves . . obtuse,
api>ressed, convex. 1870 ROLI.ESTON Anini. Life 258 Has its ips so
closely appressed as to make the aperture invisible. t Appre'St, Obs.
[a. Fr. apprcste (mod. appri't)t UFr. aprcste, f. aprester to make
ready, f. a to +prc$t (mod.//tV) :— L. pr&stus ready.] 1. Preparation,
provision. 1539 State Papers Hen. VIII, \. 594 There is no apprest of
any ships in Spayne. 1570 HOLINSHEM Scot. Chron, 11806) I. 408
The Christian princes, .made their apprests for a new expedition. 2.
Pecuniary provision; loan. (Cf. K. prcstcr, prttcr.} 1443 HENRY IV in
Ellis Orig. Lett. in. 34 I. 80 Easing vs by wey of apprest of the
summe of c. marks. Appretiate, less usual sp. of APPRECIATE. t
Appre'VC, v. Ol>s. or dial. [ad. OF. a(p)pretive, tonic stem of aprovcr
(sometimes even extended to inf. apprcitvcr, Godef.) ; the northern
and, esp., Sc. equivalent of APPROVE v^ "With approba-, aprcuve,
apt-eve, cf. affora~t affcure, affect', and the north, mcve for move.
Now obs., exc. in later pa. pple approver! (on analogy of weave,
woven, etc.), which is regarded merely as a Sc. variant of approved]
= APPROVE vl c 1375 WVCI.IK \Vks. (1880) 388 Eny state aprevyd
of God. c 1400 Dcstr. Troy xix. 8055 Hit is a propertie apreuit. 1526
Act Jas. Ft 1814)3101 JAM. i Ratifijs and appreuis the contract and
appunctuament made. 1535 STEWART Cron. Scotl. II. 175
Richtmony. .Apprevit weill that that counsall wesgude. 1676 W. Row
Suppl. Blair's Autobiog. xi. (1848) 291 After somesmopthingsof it, it
was approven. iSz^CnALMi-iRsAVrw. I. 146 It is approven of as
having about it the solemn and suitable Characteristics of Godliness.
1 Apprrnze. Obs. rare~Y. [a. OF. aprinse, variant of aprise]
Enterprise; ? seizure. 1559 .Ifyrr. Mug., Dk. Suffolk vi. 5 The apprin/e
of Pucel Jone,In which attempte my travayle was nut smal. t
Apprrsable,.)J 1. To impart knowledge or information to ; give formal
notice to ; inform, acquaint. 1694 Ln. DEI.AMER Wks. 41 Though the
King of England may be never so well apprized in the use of them.
1741 RICHARDSON Pamela I. (1824) 52, I hope she has had the
duty to apprise you of her intrigue with the young clergyman. 1801
MAR. EDGE WORTH. -4 «P¥^«rt iv. (1832) 61 Miss Hodges is above
stairs- -she shall be apprized directly. 1869 GLADSTONE JUT. Mundi
xv. § i. 519 Telemachos apprises Menelaos that Ithaca is a goat-
feeding island. l>. Hence \t\pass. To be informed or aware, to know.
1712 STEELE .S/tr/. No. 518^9 You must be extremely well
apprised, that there is a very close correspondence, a 1797 H. WALI-
OH-; George II (1847) I. iv. 89 The little Princes, less apprized of his
history, .talked a good deal to him. 1819 SCOTT h'anhoe I. vi. 88
The adjoining cell, as the reader is apprised, was occupied by Gurth.
c. reft. ( ~ Fr. s'apprendre.) n 1719 AnnisoNC//;-. Reltg.Vl, i,The
learned Pagans might apprise themselves from oral information. 2.
To give formal notice of, notify, advise, rare. 1817 BYRON Works IV.
71 Morlands have not yet written to my hankers, apprising the
payment of your balances. Apprize, -ise (aprsi-z), v.'1 arch. Forms :
5apprise, 6- apprize, [a. OF. aprise-r, earlier aprisier, f. a to +prisiert
prcisicr to price, prize, praise ; or perh. directly on phrase a pris, as
if mcttrc a prix. Retained in Sc. Law, and used occasionally by Eng.
writers, but ordinarily represented in Kng. by App.tAiSE, in its
analysis the same word, but with a different history. Cf. also FRAI.SE
and PRIZE.] 1. Sc. Law. To put a selling price upon, put up for sale
at a set price, appraise. 1533 BELI.ENDESE Lh>y \\\. 22^ Thay . .
apprisit and sauld all the gudis. 1682 I.tnid. Gti.r. mdccxIvi/4 Very
tine Spanish Cloth. .Apprized from 10 to i6.c. per Yard. 1754
EBSKINE Vrinc. Sc. Law (1809) 258 The sheriff was to apprise or tax
the value of the lands. 2. To estimate the worth of, value,
appreciate. a 1400 Leg. ^>O('(^(i87i)2i8pe riche prince was JJere
aprised. 1401 Pol. Poems II. 113 Thou apprisist not the curse of
seint Franceis. 1536 HELLENDENE Cron. Scotl. (1821) I. 16 This last
opinioun wes maist apprisit. 1617 R. WILKINSON Barw.hridge Ded.,
How highly your Highnes apprize th peace. 1868 BROWNING Ringfy
Ilk, vni, 668 Whosoever at the proper worth Apprises worldly honour.
1877 Daily Nt^vs 5 Nov. 5/2 Art among women was apprized . . on
very much the same sort of principle. t Apprized, pa. pple. Obs. [pa.
pple. of vb. apprize, not otherwise found, intensive of PRIZE v. 'to
seize as a prize.' See A.- prcf. ii.] Seized, possessed as of a prize.
1521 WOLSKY in Strype Reel. Mem. I. ii. 29 Divers ships have been
rescued, .whereof one, with certain Frenchmen apprized thereof,
arrived here, .this day. t Apprizement, apprise-. Obs '. [a. K.
appriscmcnt, OF. aprisement, n. of action f. aprisier : see APPRIZE
v.'2 and -MENT.] The action of setting a value upon ; appraisement.
1605 BACON Sfi. A'. James (T.) By law, they ought to make but one
apprisement. Apprizer, -ser (aprarzai). arch. [f. APPRIZE v£ + -Eitl.]
One who appraises ; Sf. IMIV, A creditor for whose behoof an
appraisal is made. 1609 SKENK Reg. Maj. vii. 150 Apprysers of flesh,
.to appryse the flesh, .alsweil for the profile of the fleshers, as of the
people. 1754 EKSKINE Prine. Sc. Lain (1800) 257 The heritable
rights belonging to the debtor were sold for payment of the debt
due to the appriser. 1815 SCOTT Guy M. i, The apprizer (as the
holder of a mortgage was then called) entered upon possession.
Apprizing, -sing aprai"ziij),##/..r#.a?r& [f.as prec. + -IXG1.] The
action of attaching a value to ; estimation of value, appraisement ;
appreciation. c 1449 PECOCK Rcpr. 26 The iust apprising of Holi
Scripture. 1533 BELLENDENE Lh Fr. prochc, for propche, propj}
nigher, near, com par. of propc nigh. For app-, see AP- /;•(/* About
1600 the phonetic oa was introduced for .] 1. intr. To come nearer
(relatively), or draw near (absolutely), in space, a. simply. c 1374
CHAUCER Boeth. i. i. 6 Sche sau} ^se poetical muses apruchen
aboule my bedde. c 1400 Dcstr. Troy iv. 1276 pan APPROACH. polhix
aprochet in hast. 1557 PHAER sKneid\\. Q iv, Win m the Troyan duke
had found, Approching nere. 1605 SHAKS. Lear u. ii. 170 Approach,
thou Beacon to this vnder Globe, That by thy comfortable Beames I
may Peruse this Letter. 1627 SPEED Eng. Abridged xxx. § 8 A Spittle
for Lazers, a disease then newly approched in this Land. 1795
SOUTHEY Joan of Arc i. 20 At his bidding Claude Approach'd. 1863
MRS. OLIPHANT Sal. Clt. xvii. 301 A footstep outside approaching
softly. b. with to. arch. £•1325 K.E.Allit, P. B. 1781 To J?e palays
pryncipal |?ay aproched. c 1386 CHAUCER Man of L awes. T. 805
Hire ship approched to the londe. 1587 TURHKRV. Trag, T.
(18^71152 The cruell wightes. .Approched to the doore. 1611 BIBLE
2 Sam. xi. 20 Wherefore approached ye so nigh unto the city? 1860
TYNDALL Glaciers i. § 17 Masses sufficiently large approached near
to the shore. %, trans. To come near to. £-1305 St. Lucy 118 in /-,'.
E. /'. (18621 104 J>at a jjousend men scholde in mi side falle . . and
me aprochi 11031. 1393 GOWER Conf. I. 282, I approche . . The
place, where my lady is. 1605 SHAKS. Macb. n. iii. 76 Approch the
Chamber. 1847 YEOWEI.L Ane. Brit. Ch. iii. 28 When he came to
Koine . . he evidently approached it from the East. b.y%r. with
reference to a place in the field of conception, intr. and trans. , a
1577 GASCOIGNE Str. Passion (R.) I thinke How ioyes approch, when
sorrowes shrinke. 1777 PRIESTLEY Matt. ect. No. 477 f i Trees rising
one higher than another in proportion as they approach the centre.
1748 HARTLEY O&ser?'. Man i. i. § i '7 The Ventricles of tbe Brain
approach towards each other. 1751 CHAMBERS Cycl., *-\syntf>totc,
a line which continually approaches nearer and nearer to another,
yet will nevtr meet therewith, tho' indefinitely prolonged. Mod. At
this point tho boundary approaches, but does not quite reach the
river. 4. To come near to a person: i.e. into personal relations; into
his presence or audience; or Jig. within the range of his notice or
attention, a. intr. with to. arch. 6-1325 E. E.Allit. P. B-7 Renkejof
relygioun^at . .nprochen to hys presciis. c 1400 Dcstr. Troy xix. 7998
He approchet to be prini-e. 1611 BIHLE Isa. Iviii. 2 They take delight
in approching to God. 1794 MATHIAS Pursuits Lit. (1798)381 I'o the
Peers approach with awe. b. trans. c 1325 /-,'. E. Allit. P. B. 147 So
prest to aproche my presens. 1393 GOWER Conf. III. 288 He .. goth
to approche The kinges court and his presence. 1597 SHAKS. 2 Hen.
II ', v. v. 65 When thou do^t heare I am, as I haue bin, Approach
me. 1711 STEELK Spect. No. 118 ? i, I cannot approach her without
Awe. 1821 SCOTT Kenil'w. xvii, The Earl was approached . . by a
person quaintly dressed. 5. cuphein. Of sexual relations. (/////-. and
trans.} 1611 BIBLE LCT. xviii, 6 None of you shall approche to any
that is neere of kinne to him. 1798 COI.EBKOOKE Digest Hind. Law
(1801) III. 196 If either brother . . appreach the wife, he is
degraded. f6. To embrace or take up with (a habit). Obs. 1574
HELLOWES Giteuaras Epist. 1,1577) J5 Shunne euil, and approch to
do wel. 7. intr. Of time or events : To draw nigh. ("1374 CHAUCER
Troylns\.\ Aprochen gan thefatel destyne. 1393 LANGL. /'. /'/. C.
xviii. 209 pe tyme aproche^ fa^te. 1599 THYNNE Animad-i. 51
When deathe approched. 1697 DRYDEN Virg, Gcvrg. in. 195 When
now the Nuptial time Approaches, a 1732 G.\Y{J.) The hour of attack
approaches. 8. To come near in quality, character, or state; to be
nearly equal, a. intr. with to. c 1400 Di'sfr. Troy ii. 401 No filisofers . .
Might approche to 1-at precious apoint of her wit. 1538 STARKEY
England 21 Man so dowyng neryst approchyth to the nature of God.
1756 BURKE Vind. Nat. Soc. Wks. I. 36 We judge . . of them as they
approach to, or recede from this standard. 1871 B. STEWART Heat §
66 The coefficients of dilation . . approach more nearly to equality.
b. trans. a 1698 TEMPLE (J.) He was an admirable poet, and thought
even to have approached Homer. 1824 DIUDIN Libr. Coinp. 187 That
copy .. more decidedly approached such a form. 1872 FREEMAN
Xortn. Cong. IV. xviii. 143 Vigorous youths fast approaching
manhood. 9. Mil, To make 'approaches' to ; to work forward towards,
by means of entrenchments. See APPROACH sb. 9. 1598 BARRET
Tlteor. \\~arres v. i. 127 To aproach neare vnto the walles, with
trenches, or such like aprochlngs. a 1674 CLARENDON Hist. Reb.
(1703) II. vn. 228 The ground was very easy to Approach, and as
inconvenient, and dangerous to Storm. 1861 SHEPPARD Fall of Koine
vi. 339 The town . . had to be approached in regular form. 10.
causal. To bring near locally, to move or draw nearer ; approximate.
(Common in mod.Fr.) arch. 1541 R. COI-LAND Galyen's Terap. 2 D j,
Vf thou assay to approche them [the lips of an ulcer] by force. 1665
Bnvi i: Occas. Rejl. I. vi. 87 AH those changes . . shall serve to
approach him the faster to the blest mansion. 1795!*. JEFFERSON
Writ. (1859^ IV. 114, I . . should have been tempted to approach
myself to it. i8zi SCOTT Kenihv. x. (18531 107 So saying, he
approached to the fire a three-footed stool. \\.Jig. To bring near in
character, quality, rank. ^RUMM. OF HAWTH. ll'ks. 1711, 226 In
matter, none approach him [Petrarch] to Sidney. 1850 MERIVALK
ROM. Einp. (1865) II. xiii. 103 His object was . . to approach the
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APPROACH. Gaulish provincial* to Rome. 1863 LD. LYTTON

Ring of A^nasis I. 148 Forced these images into the foreground of
Fancy, thus approaching them nearer to reality. Approach (apwu-tf),
sb. [f. prec. vb.; cf. mod. Fr. approche, i6th c. in Littre.] 1. The act of
coming nearer (relatively), or of drawing near (absolutely), in space.
, f I5S5. R- MORICE in Strype Eccl. Mem. III. i. xxviii. 233 The
Bishop .. entered into the University church .. whose approach being
honorable, Latymer . . surceased from farther speaking. 1588
SHAKS. L. L. L. \\. i. 81 Nauar had notice of your fairc approach.
1696 WHISTON Th. Earth n. (1722) 180 The approach of a Comet to
the Earth. 1736 BUTLER Anal. i. ii. 52 The destruction of our bodies .
. upon too near approaches to fire. 1859 GEO. ELIOT A. Rede 9
Casson's thoughts were diverted by the approach of the horseman. 1
2. Nearer advance of an enemy ; offensive or hostile movement.
Obs, 1489 CAXTON Faytesof Armes \. xxv. 80 Or euer thou make
eny approche vpon thin enemies. 1607 SHAKS. Tinioii\'. i. 167 So
soone we shall driue backe Of Alcibiades th' approaches wild. 1652
NEEDHAM tr. Se/deiis Mare Cl. 22$ Intercept the provision and
supplies of their Knemles Shipping, and by diligent watchfulness
discover their approaches. 3. pi. Movements towards the
establishment of personal relations with one ; advances. 1642
ROGERS Xaaman 22 Thy timorous and weake approaches toward his
grace. 1654 GAYTON /-'est. Notts in. vi. 109 What Approaches,
Smiles, Shrugs, Habits, are . . requirable from them ! 1678 H.
VAUCMAS Thai. Rediv. < 1858) 234, I note their coarse and proud
approaches, Their silks, perfumes, and glittering coaches. 1681
HAXTER Apol. Xoncottf. Min. 4 Concessions and approaches. 1805
FOSTER Ess. i. ii. 24 Repel the approaches of sleep. 4. Power of
approaching, access, arch. 1563 GuArroN ('/fro//. ,l/«ryan. 3iR.'The
French men bad the more easie approche to the castell. . I. 1 66
Some sort of approach towards infinity. 1869 FKKI MAN Xcrni. Cctiif.
1 1 1. xii. 204 A type of cities to which England . . can present but
feeble approaches. 1881 GUIU.EMARD Let. in Life Maxwell xiii.
(1882) 414, I never . . heard an approach to a murmur. t 8. A
drawing near in reckoning ; an approximation. Obs. 1672 PKTTY Pol.
Anat. i'i6gi1 51 I»y the best Estimates ' and Approaches that I have
been able to make . . London is more healthful th:in Dublin by 3 in
32. 9. Mil. in //, Entrenchments or other works whereby the
besiegers draw closer to the besieged. 1633 1- STAFFORD Pac. J/ib.
xvi. (18211 387 That .. wee might the better make our neerer
Approaches. 1710 LoniL Gaz. mnnnmdcl.\xxvii/2 We have advanced
our Approaches to the first Ditch. 1834 Penny Cycl. II. 195/2 These
approaches sometimes consist of covering masses only, formed
either with earth in bags, with fascines, stuffed gabions, wool-packs,
or bales of cotton. b.A'. 1847 TENNYSON Princ. in. 267 Oh if our end
were le^s achievable By slow approaches. 1869 GOULHOL-RS Purs.
Holiness vi. 52 Approaches must be thrown up by prayers and
fastings. 10. Hort. The bringing of the branch of one tree close to
that of another on which it is to be grafted, in the method called
ablactation or inarching. 1658 EVELYN Fr. Card. (1675) 87 Either
inoculate or graft" them by approach. 1717 HKADI.EY Fam. Diet. s.v.
Grafting, All Pear-trees may be grafted by Way of Escutcheon, Slit,
Crown, or Approach. 1838 Penny Cycl, XI. 342/2 Inarching . . is
sometimes called grafting by approach. Approachability
(IpvMjlbHfti). rare. [f. next : see -BILITY.] The quality of being
approachable ; accessibility. 1851 RCSKIN Stones I7 en. I. xvi. § 9
The approachability of the window . . is the real point to be attended
to. Approachable (apr<7»-tjab'r, a. [lAPPBQAGRtr. -i- -ABLE ; cf.
mod.Fr. approchable] 1. Capable of being approached ; accessible.
1571 DiGGiis Pautoin. x, Dija, Without shadowe . . to take heigh thes
approchable. a 1797 H. WAI. POLK George II ^1847) III. v. 125 The
town was . . approachable only by a narrow causeway. 1856 KANE
Aret. K.vp. I. v. 50 It was desirable that . . it should be approachable
by boats. 2.yS£". in various uses of the vb. 1611 COTGR., Abordable,
affable, abboordable, approachable. 1750 JOHNSON Rambl. No. 72 F
ii He that regards the welfare of others should make his virtue
approachable. 1828 CARLVLE Goethe, Misc. I. 174 This Truth . .
approachable by most, attainable by some small number. 414
Approa'chableness. rare. [f. prec. -f -NESS.] The quality of being
approachable ; accessibility. 1731 in BAILEY. 1876 J. PARKER Paracl.
47 There must be in that life {Christ's] . , such simplicity and
approachableness as shall qualify it for admission into society.
Approacher (apr<7u-tjai). arch. [f. as prec. + -Eiif.J One who
approaches or comes near. 1586 BRIGHT Mtlanch. vi. 28 Such
[fishes] are . . approchers nigh the sand. 1607 SHAKS. Timon \\. iii.
216 Thou gau'st thine eares, (like Tapsters, that bad welcom) To
Knaues, and all approachers. 170$ Swi FT Batt. Jiks. (1711) 264 He
furiously rush'd on against this new Approacher. Approaching (aprJ»-
tfin\ vbl. sb. [f. as prec^ + -ING1.] The action of coming or drawing
near ; spec, in Mil. and Hort. = APPROACH sb. 9, 10. ^-1386
CHAUCKR Pers. T. P8oo Avoutrie, in Latine, is for to saye, approching
of another marines bedde. 1596 SHAKS. Merck. I/', n. ix. 88 One
that comes before To sigmfie th' approaching of his Lord. 1598 [See
API-ROACH T. 9.] a 1674 CLARENDON Hist, AWu 17031 II. vn. 178
The Officers of Horse . . were all for a Storm, and the Foot <
Officers for Approaching. Approa'ching, ppl. a. [f. as prec. + -ING*.]
1. Drawing near, in space, time, or circumstance. c 1450 Court of
Love vii, Whan I was young, at eighteen yere of age . . Approaching
on ful sad and ripe corage. 1598 BARRET Theor. ll'arres Pref. 5
These approaching times. 1610 SHAKS. Temp. v. i. 80 The
approching tide Will shortly fill the reasonable shore. 1855
MACAI'I.AY Hist. Eng. III. 537 Preparations for the approaching
campaign. t 2. Lying near, in proximity, neighbouring. Obs. 1533
BELLENDENB Lh>y iv. 317 Ane plebeane sail nocht have his hous
approcheand to ane patriciane. 1598 FLOKIO, Approssiwantet
approching, neighbouring. 3. Coming near in quality or character.
1874 BLACK Pr. Thnle 35 Not'that he fell in love with her at first
sight, or anything even approaching to that. Approachless (aprvTu -
tjks\ a. poet. ff. A-PUOACH sb. + -LESS.] Unapproachable ;
inaccessible. 1647 R. Si Ai'Vi.ioN Juvenal 243 Yet all the propbcsie
did well befit The approachlesse oracle. 1652 HENI.OWES Theoph,
vin. x. no Archessence ! Thou, self-full ! self-Infinite ! Residing in
approachlesse Light. [In mod. Diets.] Approachment (apiw*-t|menO.
[a. Fr. apProchement) n, of action f. approcher : see APPROACH v.
and -MKNT.] T 1. The action of approaching ; approach. Obs. 1544
Laic K*p, Scotl. in Arb. Garner I. 125 Upon the- approachment of the
men to their entries. i6o7Toi'SEi.L Eourfooted Beasts 372 Turning
about and looking upon his pursuers, as ifc were to dare their
approchment. 1646 SIR 'I'. BROWNE Pseud. Ep. (J.) Ice . . will not
concrete, but in the approvement [cf. APPROACH sb. 4] of the air. 2.
.l^iproach in character, affinity. 1830 LlNDLEY Xat. Svst. Bot. 193
Beyond this resemblance in th'Wruit . . I find nothing to confirm thu
approachmeiiL t Approbate, ///. a. Obs. [ad. \,.approbat-its, pa.
pple. of approba-re to assent to as good, f. ap= ad- to +proba-re to
try the goodness of, i.prob-its good.] Approved formally or expressly
; particularly by some competent authority. (Used after formation of
vb. APPROBATE as its pa. pple.) (1430 I A rx;. Bochas vin. xii.
11554* 1830, That he in his estate By the Pope afore be approbate.
I547BooRDE Dyetary .\vi. (1870) 272 Galen, with other auncyer.t
and approbat doc tours. 1577 Hm.ixsHED Chron. III. 024/2
Decrees.. which by long custome hath beene receiued and
approbate. Approbate (arpitftet), v. [f. prec.] 1. To approve expressly
or formally ; to express approbation of, sanction authoritatively. Obs.
in Kngland since i;th c, but preserved in U.S., and often used as
simply = approve. 1470 HARDING Chron. cvi, As Flores saieth, and
hath it approbate. 1528 ROY Satire (Arb.) 91 Obedience and wilfull
poverte Which allmyghty god doth approbate. 1557 BARCLAY
yngitrtha. (Paynelli 42 Whether they wold approbate and alowe the
sayd composicion. idzjjCocKKRAM, Apfrul'afe, to allow, to like. 1833
GEN. P. 'I HOMI-SON idioms of America in E.rerc.( 1842) III. 470
There are many Americanisms which in the course of time will work
their way into the language of England . . The verbs 'approbate,'
'consider' (in the sense of 'believe *>, and even 'guess,' are making
their way gradually in their peculiar senses, 1840 in /Vw. Atiier. Phil.
Soc. V. 52 A letter approbating the anair. 2. Sc. Law. To approve or
assent to as valid. Chiefly in phr. To approbate and reprobate: to
take advantage of those portions of a deed which are in one's
favour, while repudiating the itit. Ahotra/isf. 1836 filackw. Mag.
XXXIX. 662 You cannot approbate and reprobate the same
instrument. 1836-7 SIK W. HAMILTON Metap/i. xv. (1870*280, I
approbate the one, I reprobate the other. 1880 Law Ref>.y AppealV.
325 He is in substance . .approbating and reprobating, a course
which Is not allowed either in Scotch or English Law. Approbated,
//A a- U- prec. + -ED.] = APPROVED. 1547 BOORDE Introd. Knowl.
(1870) 167 The ministracion of the vii sacraments and other
approbated thynges. Approbation (a-pr^b^-Jan). [a. Fr. approbation,
ad. L. approbation-cm, n. of action f. approbare : see prec.] f 1. The
action of proving true ; confirmation, attestation, proof. Obs. 1393
GOWKK (>;//; II. 86 With calcination Of verray approbation Do that
there be fixation. 1533 MORE Debell. talent Wks. 1006/1 And in
approbacion of hys other saying, conclude and say thus much
ferther. 1611 SHAKS. Cynib. \. iv. 134 Would I had put my Estate . .
on th' approbation of what I haue spoke, a 1718 PttlM Life Wks.
1726 I. 152 So great an Approbation of their Impostures.
APPROPERATE. 2. The action of formally or authoritatively declaring
good or true ; sanction. the London Brewers Approbation. 1839
KEIGHTLEY Hist. Eng. II. 57 Received the royal approbation. 3. The
action of expressing oneself pleased or satisfied with anything ; or
the mere feeling of such satisfaction ; approval expressed or
entertained. I548UDALL, etc. Erastn. Par. Korn.il. 29iR.)God . . whose
approbation is perfite blisse and saluacion. 165* NKEDHAM tr.
SeMen's Mare Cl. Ded., So rare a Jewel as this, which hath drawn . .
the Approbation of All. 1708 LD. SUNDEHLAND in Ellis Orig. Lett. n.
401 IV. 252 They hope what steps they have made will meet with
your approbation. 1711 BUDGELL Sped. No. 77 P 5 Those Nods of
Approbation which I never bestow unmerited. 1806 MKTCALFE in
Wcllcstey Di$p. 810 Something more than cold approbation is
required to foster great minds — the approbation should be hearty.
1827 HARE Guesses Ser. ii. (1873) 549 Approbation speaks of the
thing or action . . Praise is always personal. f4. Probation, trial. Obs.
1603 SHAKS. Meas. for M. i. ii. 183 This day, my sister should the
Cloyster enter, And there receiue her approbation. 1654 GODIMKO in
Burton's Diary Introd. (1828) I. 169 The ejecting of scandalous
ministers . . [and] the bringing in of them that have passed an
approbation. Approbative (arpn?Uitiv\ a. arch. [a. Fr. approoatiff
~ivc, ad. L. approbat Jv-tts^ f. approbat- : see APPROBATE and -
IVK,] Characterized by approving ; expressing approbation or
approval. 1611 COTGH., Approbatif, approbative, approving. 1643
\>v.\.yi\i\\.^Serpent-Safoe Wks. 1844 III. 391 There isavast
difference between . . an approbative consent . . and an active
consent. 1678 GALE Crt. Gentiles III. 17 His[God's] approbative wil
whereby he declares what he approves and what he disapproves.
1786 TOOKE Pnrley 117981 I. in Get rid of that farrago of useless
distinctions into . . Effective, Approbative, Discretive. 1828 WEBSTER
cites MILNER. A*pproba:tiveiiess. [f prec. + -NESS.] The quality of
being approbative ; tendency to approve ; in Phrcnol. love of
approbation. 1860 O. & L. FOWLER Self-Instrne. Phrenol. iv. § 12.
108 Approbativeness, Regard for character, appearances, etc., love
of praise. 1860 All Y. Round No. 51. 21 A morbid habit of reserve,
which my approbativeness often burst through. . Approbator oe-
pitftxritai). \0bs. rare-1, [a. L. approbator, n. of agent f. approbare :
see APPROBATE and -OK. Cf. mod.Fr. approbatcur] One who formally
approves or sanctions ; an approver. 1667 EVELYN Ment. III. 162
And so others may not think it dishonour to . . accept them for
judges and approbators. Approbatory (rc'pitfb^tarvata ?\\a.
fad.med. 'L.approbatori-its (cf. \*. probatdri-tts\ i.approbdtoro)i : see
prec. and -OKY.] Of or belonging to one who approves ; of the
nature of or tending to approbation or sanction. (Orig. in phr. letter
approbatory = L. epistola probatoria^} 1548 HALL Chron. Hen. /",
an. 8 |R.) Letters approbatory and confirmr.cions of the peres of his
realme. 1655 GCRNAU. Chr. in Ann. i. 181 God hath delivered in a
sense this world to Satan, but not . . by any approbatory act given
him a Patent to vouch him his Vice- Roy. 1837 CARLVLE Fr. Rev. III.
vi. i. 214 Robespierre, at first approbatory, knew not at last what to
think. Approbrious, obs. var. OPPROBRIOUS. t ApprOClrvity, Obs.
rare-1, [f. L. ap- = ad- to +prdfllvitas PROCLIVITY.] Proclivity,
inclination, tendency towards. 1546 LANGI.EY Pol. Verg. De Invent,
u. i. 353, Procreation of i;*sue, and approcliuitie to norishe the
same. t Appro mpt, z'.1 Obs. rare~*. [a. AFr. aprompte-rt aprotnte-
r^ for OFr. cnpromte-r (mod. enipruntc-r] : see A- pref. 10.] To
borrow. 1548 HALL Chron. 336 Repayment and redelyuery of the
Summes of Money apprompted and layde out. t ApprO'mpt, v* Obs.
rare~l. [f. L. ap-^ ad- to + prompt-its ready, PROMPT. See K-pref. \
i.] To make ready ; to prompt, stimulate. 1605 UACON Adi'. Learn.
\\. xiii. § 9 Neither may these places serve only to apprompt our
invention. Approof ^apr/7'f). arch. Also 5 apprefife, apref.
[a.OFr.iyirwv, -ettve, proof, trial, f. aprove-r :— L. approba-re : see
APPROBATE and APPHOVK. Cf. the simple proof, a. OFr. prove,
prcttve.] 1. The act of proving ; trial, experience, proof. 1436 Pol.
Poems (18591 II- T^7 Thys good kynge, be wytt of such appreffe,
Kepte hys marchauntes . . fro myscheffe. 1601 SHAKS. All's li'ell n. v.
3 A Souldier . . and of verie valiant approofe. 1881 SWINBURNE
Mary Stuart iv. i, Known By proof more potent than approof of law In
all points guilty. 2. Sanction, approval, Approbation. 1439 K. E. Wills
(1882) 119 In witnessyng and very a-pref whereof. . I have put the
scale of my Amies, 1603 SHAKS. Mcas.for M. 11. iv. 174 One and the
selfesame tongue, Either of condemnation, or approofe. 1652
GAUI.E Magastroin. \ \\ Whether any sound orthodox Christian ever
did write in the approof of judiciary and predicting a.strologie?
.11850 ROSSETTI Dante fy Circle i. (18741 in She bowed her mild
approof And salutation to all men of worth. Approper, variant of
APFHOPKK v. Obs. t Appro'perate, v. Obs~» [f. L. approperatppl.
stem of appr-y adpropera-re to hasten, hurry.]
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APPROPINQUATE. 1623 COCKER AM, Appre>perati\ to

make haste. 1755 JOHNSON, AppropcratCi to hasten, to set forward.
Appropinquate (sejws^nkwxH), v. arch. [f. L. appropinquat- ppl.
stem of appropinqud-re to draw nigh to, i.ap- = ad- \.&+propinqua-
ret f. propinqit-us neighbouring, f. prope nigh, near.] 1. hitr. To come
near to ; to approach. 1623 in COCKERAM, 1642 BRIDGE Wound.
Consc. Cnred\. 34 Neither herein . . doe we appropinquate to the
Popish doctrine. i657To.MLiNSON Kenan's Disp. 145 Liquid and
humid |herbs] . . appropinquating to heat, are brought to their
pristine state. 1873 LVTTON A". Chillingly iv. v. (18751 238 That
party to which Mivers professed — not to belong — but to apf 2
trans. To bring near or close. Obs. rare. 1646 J. HALL Hone Vac, 115
TIs great art . . to appropinquate things remote. Appropinquation
(ce'pr^pirjkwt^'Jan). [ad.L. appropinqitatidn-an, f. appropinquate :
see prec.] 1. The action of coming near, approach. 1628 DONNE
Sertn. xlvni, 476 He gave him a rapture, .and in that an
appropinquation, an approximation to Himselfe, 1636 EVELYN Mem.
App. I. 423 At the appropinquation of the King . . the Vice-
Chancellor spoke a speech. 1670 WAI.LIS in Phil. Trans. V. 2074 The
Earth and Moon's Appropinquation and Elongation. 1842 DE
MORGAN Calculus 412 The appropinquation of the straight lines. 2.
The action of bringing into contiguity, rare. 1864 T. TROLLOPF.
Lindisf. Chase II. 149 The ants too . . evidently communicate
intelligence . . by the appropinquation of noses. t Appropi'nque, v.
Obs. rare-1, [f. L. appropinqu-drc : see prec Cf. advokc, advocate^
To draw near to, approach. 1663 BUTLER Hud. i. in. 500 The knotted
bloud . . With mortal Crisis cloth portend My days to appropinque an
end. Appropinquity (flejfftfpi'gkwiti). rare. [f. as prec. after
propinquity^ Nearness. 1646 J. GREGORY Notes $ Ods.xxxi. (1665)
133 An Appropinquity of Vision, that all things are open and naked
unto his sight. 1848 THACKERAY Van. Fair xiv, Six weeks—
appropinquity — opportunity — had victimised him completely. t
Appropo'rtionate, v. Obs. rare-1, [f. L. ap---=ad- to +
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