MD.
SHAHED BULBUL PAPON
TEACHER, BIOLOGY
EDEXCEL & CAMBRIDGE CERTIFIED TEACHER
8.1 Structure and Function of Neurones
Types of Neurones:
1. Sensory Neurones: Transmit impulses from sensory receptors to the central
nervous system (CNS).
2. Relay Neurones: Found in the CNS, they relay signals between sensory and
motor neurones.
3. Motor Neurones: Transmit impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or
glands).
Key Structures:
Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurones.
Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus and organelles for neurone function.
Axon: Conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body.
Schwann Cells: Produce the myelin sheath, which insulates the axon.
Myelin Sheath: Increases conduction speed via saltatory conduction.
Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath where action potentials occur.
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MD. SHAHED BULBUL PAPON
TEACHER, BIOLOGY
EDEXCEL & CAMBRIDGE CERTIFIED TEACHER
8.2 Nervous System and Effector Response
Stimulus: Any change in the environment detected by receptors.
Receptor: Detects stimuli and sends an impulse via sensory neurones.
CNS: Processes information and sends impulses to effectors.
Effector: Muscle or gland that responds (e.g., muscle contraction or hormone
secretion).
8.3 Structure and Function of a Spinal Reflex Arc
Reflex Arc Components:
1. Stimulus
2. Receptor
3. Sensory Neurone
4. Relay Neurone (in spinal cord)
5. Motor Neurone
6. Effector (e.g., muscle contraction)
Spinal Cord Regions:
o Grey Matter: Contains neurone cell bodies and synapses.
o White Matter: Contains myelinated axons for fast signal transmission.
8.4 Action Potential Conduction
1. Resting Potential (-70mV): Maintained by sodium-potassium pump.
2. Depolarisation (+40mV): Sodium ion channels open, allowing Na+ in.
3. Repolarisation: Potassium channels open, allowing K+ out.
4. Hyperpolarisation: Overshoot before returning to resting potential.
5. Refractory Period: Ensures unidirectional impulse transmission.
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MD. SHAHED BULBUL PAPON
TEACHER, BIOLOGY
EDEXCEL & CAMBRIDGE CERTIFIED TEACHER
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MD. SHAHED BULBUL PAPON
TEACHER, BIOLOGY
EDEXCEL & CAMBRIDGE CERTIFIED TEACHER
8.5 Role of Myelination in Saltatory Conduction
Myelin Sheath: Insulates the axon, preventing ion movement across the
membrane except at the Nodes of Ranvier.
Saltatory Conduction: The action potential jumps from one Node of Ranvier
to the next instead of traveling continuously along the axon.
Nodes of Ranvier: Small, unmyelinated gaps where ion exchange occurs,
allowing rapid depolarisation.
Mechanism of Saltatory Conduction:
1. Resting Potential: The neurone maintains a negative charge inside
the axon due to the sodium-potassium pump actively transporting 3
Na+ out and 2 K+ in.
2. Depolarisation at a Node of Ranvier: When a threshold is reached,
voltage-gated sodium ion channels open, allowing Na+ to rush in,
making the inside of the neurone positive.
3. Local Current Flow: The influx of Na+ at one node creates a local
electrical circuit that depolarises the next node, causing the action
potential to jump from node to node.
4. Repolarisation: After depolarisation, voltage-gated potassium ion
channels open, allowing K+ to leave, restoring the negative charge
inside the axon.
5. Refractory Period: Ensures that the action potential moves in one
direction and does not travel backward.
Benefits: Increases speed of conduction (up to 100 m/s), reduces energy
usage by minimising ion exchange, and ensures efficient transmission of
nerve impulses.
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MD. SHAHED BULBUL PAPON
TEACHER, BIOLOGY
EDEXCEL & CAMBRIDGE CERTIFIED TEACHER
8.6 Synapses and Pupil Reflex
(i) Synapse Structure and Function
Presynaptic Neurone: Releases neurotransmitters (e.g., acetylcholine) from
vesicles.
Synaptic Cleft: Gap between neurones.
Postsynaptic Neurone: Contains receptors that bind neurotransmitters,
triggering an action potential.
(ii) Pupil Reflex
Dilation: Radial muscles contract (dim light, sympathetic response).
Constriction: Circular muscles contract (bright light, parasympathetic
response).
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MD. SHAHED BULBUL PAPON
TEACHER, BIOLOGY
EDEXCEL & CAMBRIDGE CERTIFIED TEACHER
When the light is bright, the pupil has to constrict in order to let minimal light in to
stop any damage occurring. The radial muscle, in turn, contract.
During situations where the light is dim, the circular muscles contract to allow the
pupil to dilate, letting in the most light possible.
Accommodation
Accommodation is where the lens changes shape in order to focus on objects both
near and far. The ciliary muscles and suspensory ligaments work
antagonistically to change the shape of the lens, altering the way light refracts
onto the retina, where the image is focused.
Near object focusing:
Ciliary muscles contract
Suspensory ligaments relax
Lens becomes more curved and thicker
Far object focusing:
Ciliary muscles relax
Suspensory ligaments contract
Lens becomes thinner and less curved
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MD. SHAHED BULBUL PAPON
TEACHER, BIOLOGY
EDEXCEL & CAMBRIDGE CERTIFIED TEACHER
8.7 Effects of Drugs on Nerve Impulse Transmission
Mechanism: Drugs alter nerve impulse transmission by affecting
neurotransmitter release, receptor binding, ion channel function, or enzyme
activity.
Types of Drug Effects:
1. Excitatory Effects: Enhance neurotransmitter release or receptor
binding, increasing impulse transmission.
2. Inhibitory Effects: Block neurotransmitter release or receptor function,
reducing impulse transmission.
Examples of Drugs and Their Mechanisms:
Nicotine:
o Mimics acetylcholine and binds to nicotinic receptors.
o Causes prolonged depolarisation of the postsynaptic neurone, leading
to increased nerve impulses.
o Can lead to addiction due to overstimulation of the reward pathway in
the brain.
Lidocaine:
o Blocks voltage-gated sodium ion channels.
o Prevents depolarisation, stopping nerve impulses and acting as a local
anesthetic.
Cobra Venom (Alpha Toxin):
o Blocks acetylcholine receptors at neuromuscular junctions.
o Prevents muscle contraction, leading to paralysis.
L-DOPA (for Parkinson’s Disease):
o Increases dopamine production in the brain.
o Helps restore motor control in Parkinson’s patients by compensating
for dopamine deficiency.
MDMA (Ecstasy):
o Increases serotonin release and prevents reuptake.
o Leads to heightened mood, euphoria, and altered perception.
o Overuse depletes serotonin, leading to depression and cognitive
impairment.
8.8 Detection of Stimuli in Rod Cells
Rods: Detect dim light, found in retina.
Rhodopsin: Light-sensitive pigment that splits into opsin and retinal.
Hyperpolarisation: Stops Na+ influx, triggering an action potential in the
optic nerve.
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MD. SHAHED BULBUL PAPON
TEACHER, BIOLOGY
EDEXCEL & CAMBRIDGE CERTIFIED TEACHER
8.9 Habituation
Definition: Decrease in response to a repeated stimulus.
Mechanism: Reduction in neurotransmitter release at synapses.
Example: Ignoring background noise over time.
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