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Converging Worlds of Welfare British and German
Social Policy in the 21st Century Creating Sustainable
Growth in Europe First Edition Jochen Clasen Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Jochen Clasen
ISBN(s): 9780199584499, 0199584494
Edition: First Edition
File Details: PDF, 1.25 MB
Year: 2011
Language: english
Converging Worlds of Welfare?
 Creating Sustainable Growth in Europe Series
Creating sustainable growth in europe (csge) was a policy research initiative launched
and funded by the Anglo-German Foundation. It was designed to explore how—if
at all—we can increase economic growth in Europe without tipping the balance
against social justice and the environment. Four linked research programmes took
up this challenge through original empirical research and by pooling and compar-
ing data, experience, and ideas from the UK, Germany, and beyond. The initiative
culminated in a series of publications, conferences, and seminars in late 2009. For
more information see www.agf.org.uk

Series Editors
A. B. Atkinson and Ray Cunningham

Books in the series

Environmental Tax Reform (ETR)
A Policy for Green Growth
Edited by Paul Ekins and Stefan Speck

Converging Worlds of Welfare?

British and German Social Policy in the 21st Century
Edited by Jochen Clasen
Converging Worlds of
Welfare?
British and German Social Policy
in the 21st Century

Edited by Jochen Clasen

1
3
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ISBN 978–0–19–958449–9

1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2
Foreword

In 2004, the Trustees of the Anglo-German Foundation made a brave and

important decision. They decided that the Foundation had largely fulfilled the
objectives for which it was created in 1973 and that it should bring its work to
a conclusion in 2009. This was a brave decision since few institutions have the
courage to draw an end to their activities when they have served their purpose.
It was an important decision, since they decided to spend the Foundation’s
final resources on a five-year major research project. It is the fruits of this
research that are reported in the impressive volumes in this series.
The world has changed greatly since 1973, and so too have the two
countries—Germany and the United Kingdom—who established the Founda-
tion. At that time, the United Kingdom was just on the point of becoming a
member of the European Communities, joining the six founder Member
States. Germany was divided, as was the world, politically and economically.
Today is very different. The European Communities have become the Euro-
pean Union, with twenty-seven Member States, and more countries applying
to join. China, Brazil, and India have become major economic powers. It is
therefore not surprising that the Foundation decided that its founding pur-
pose—in encouraging the exchange of knowledge, ideas, and best practice
between the two countries—had been served. These activities have now
moved to a global plane. As it was put by Ray Cunningham, final Director,
in his history of the Anglo-German Foundation, the two systems should
now be seen, not just together, but ‘rather as two linked entities within a
much larger economic and political whole’ (The Anglo-German Foundation
1973–2009, AGF, London, 2009).
Concern with the changing world context underlay the Trustees’ choice of
subject for the final major research initiative: creating sustainable growth in
europe (csge). As they recognized, the key issue faced by policy makers, and
by individual citizens, is the capacity to adapt to global developments in a way
that preserves the essential qualities of our societies. This will involve institu-
tional change—including, as they themselves have demonstrated, that insti-
tutions should come and go. Change is inevitably disruptive. It will necessitate
major shifts in our future lifestyles, and the burden of adjustment needs to be
shared fairly. In achieving the necessary change, a key role will be played by
Foreword

research. All of the four programmes that formed part of the csge initiative may
be seen as contributing to our understanding of the problem of reconciling the
desire for progress with environmental sustainability and social justice.
Indeed, in highlighting environmental and social sustainability several
years ago, when the csge initiative was launched, the Foundation was ahead
of the public debate. Regrettably, it remains, five years later, just as much the
case that we need to bring together research on environmental sustainability
with the mainstream debate about macroeconomic policy, employment, and
growth. We have not really grasped the macroeconomic nettle. Nor is it
sufficiently recognized that sustainability at a global level can only be
achieved if we address at the same time the longstanding issue of securing
more even global development. We need to remember the words of President
Heinemann, when announcing the creation of the Foundation: ‘all of us,
young or old, face the necessity to halt the ravaging of the resources of nature
and the poisoning of our environment and food, in order to counter the
hunger of millions of people which can lead to world-wide conflict’ (quoted
in the history of the Anglo-German Foundation referred to above).
How can the research of the csge initiative, reported in these volumes,
contribute to the policy debate? Here I will highlight just two themes. The
first is the integration of economic and social policy. Too often these are
treated as unconnected, and today, with government debt dominating policy
discussion throughout the industrialized world, there is a serious risk that the
positive functions of public spending will be ignored—to our long-term cost.
But issues such as pensions have to be seen as an integrated whole. Pensions
are not just relevant to macroeconomic stability, but affect the lives of most of
us. Moreover, in the debate about future consumption levels, pensions form a
key part of any intergenerational compact. As should investment in infrastruc-
ture. There are many other examples where research can facilitate joined-up
policy-making. As the EU moves slowly towards a common immigration
policy, the design of the policy has to take account of the implications for
the labour market, for the macroeconomy, for social cohesion, and of the
environmental impact. When we discuss the introduction of environmental
taxes, we have to consider their distributional burden. Sustainability is a social
as well as an environmental concern.
The second theme is the identification of the key actors. The mission of the
Foundation was to contribute to the policy process and to encourage
exchange between researchers and practitioners. Over the past third of a
century, the policy process has changed. Evidently, the EU is now a leading
world player, and, for all the inherent difficulties in making decisions with so
many Member States, is increasingly providing the locus for policy formation.
Power has also shifted downwards, with increased responsibilities being
assumed by regional or local governments. In this respect, the United

vi
 Foreword

Kingdom today looks more like the Federal Republic of Germany. But policy is
not just made by politicians. Research on the csge initiative has emphasized
the key role of managers, the role of social partners, and the role of families.
We need to understand better the mechanisms by which change is deter-
mined and facilitated.
The csge initiative was steered by an Academic Advisory Board, which
I chaired, and I would like to end by thanking the members of the Board for
their helpful and constructive participation, and Ray Cunningham and his
colleagues at the Foundation, with whom it was a great pleasure to work.

Tony Atkinson
September 2010

vii
Acknowledgements

Most chapters in this book arose from research conducted as part of the
initiative ‘Sustainable Welfare and Sustainable Growth in Europe’ (2006–9),
commissioned by the Anglo-German Foundation. We would like to thank the
Anglo-German Foundation not only for research funding but also for the
always collaborative, helpful, and friendly support received. In particular, we
would like to express our thanks to Ray Cunningham, Ann Pfeiffer, Annette
Birkholz, and Regina Vogel.
We would also like to thank colleagues who provided invaluable input as
members of the programme steering group: Jane Lewis, Kathleen Thelen,
Jrgen Goul-Andersen, Claus Offe, and Maurizio Ferrera; as well as those
who supported particular projects: Karen Andersen, Thomas Bahle, Giuliano
Bonoli, Rosemary Crompton, Linda Hantrais, John Hills, Christina Klenner,
Trudie Knijn, Edeltraud Roller, Friedbert Rüb, Adrian Sinfield, Stefan Svallfors,
and Wim van Oorschot. Helpful comments and contributions were received
from Ute Klammer, Tania Burchardt and Holger Lengfeld, and Patrick
Sachweh.
Finally, for research assistance I would like to thank Jannis Johann and
Evgeniya Plotnikova.
Jochen Clasen
Edinburgh, July 2010

viii
 Contents

List of Figures xi
List of Tables xiii
Notes on Contributors xvi

1. Introduction 1
Jochen Clasen

Part I: Welfare Values

2. Differing notions of social welfare? Britain and
Germany compared 15
Christoph Burkhardt, Rose Martin, Steffen Mau,
and Peter Taylor-Gooby

3. Fairness and social provision: qualitative evidence from

Germany and the UK 33
Peter Taylor-Gooby and Rose Martin

4. Challenges of ethnic diversity: results from a qualitative study 52

Christoph Burkhardt and Steffen Mau

Part II: Welfare Policies

II. A. Supporting Families

5. Family policy: striving for sustainability 75

Mary Daly

6. Increasing returns: the new economy of family policy in

Britain and Germany 91
Ann-Kathrin Jüttner, Sigrid Leitner, and Anneli Rüling

7. Family-friendly working time policy in Germany and the United

Kingdom 110
Lisa Warth

ix
Contents

8. Cross-national perspectives on firm-level family policies: Britain,

Germany, and the US compared 129
Timo Fleckenstein and Martin Seeleib-Kaiser

II. B. Supporting Pensioners

9. Towards German liberalism and British social democracy:

the evolution of two public occupational pension regimes
from 1945 to 2009 157
Traute Meyer and Paul Bridgen

10. The impact of the new public and private pension settlements
in Britain and Germany on citizens’ income in old age 180
Paul Bridgen and Traute Meyer

11. Can personal pensions bridge the savings gap? Regulation and
performance of personal pensions in Great Britain and Germany 218
Michaela Willert

II. C. Employment and Unemployment

12. Higher education and graduate employment: the importance of

occupational specificity in Germany and Britain 245
Kathrin Leuze

13. From unemployment programmes to ‘work first’: is German labour

market policy becoming British? 266
Jochen Clasen

14. Conclusion: parallel paths, great similarities,

remaining differences 282
Jochen Clasen, Steffen Mau, Traute Meyer,
and Martin Seeleib-Kaiser

References 299
Index 335

x
 List of Figures

9.1 Public-sector employment as a share of private-sector employment,

UK 1957–2005 160
9.2 Active members of occupational pension schemes as % of
employees in employment, UK 165
10.1 Projected gross median outcomes on retirement for pre-reform
UK pension system for female biographies by sector of employment,
as % of social inclusion line 186
10.2 Projected gross median outcomes on retirement of pre-reform UK pension
system for male biographies by sector of employment, as % of social
exclusion line 187
10.3 Projected gross median outcomes on retirement for post-reform
UK system for female biographies by sector of employment, as % of
social inclusion line 191
10.4 Projected gross median outcomes on retirement of post-reform
UK pension system for male biographies by sector of employment,
as % of social exclusion line 192
10.5 Projected gross median pensions under pre-reform German pension
system for female biographies by sector, as % of social exclusion line 196
10.6 Projected gross median pensions under pre-reform German pension
system for male biographies by sector, as % of social exclusion line 197
10.7 Projected gross median pensions under post-reform German system for
female biographies by sector, as % of social exclusion threshold 203
10.8 Projected gross median pensions under post-reform German system
for male biography by sector, as % of social exclusion threshold 204
10.9 Comparison of projected gross median pensions on retirement
for female biographies by sector in British and German post-reform
pensions systems, as % of social exclusion line 208
10.10 Comparison of projected gross median pensions on retirement for male
biographies by sector in British and German post-reform pension systems,
as % of social exclusion line 209
11.1 Share of the eligible population with personal pension contracts
(by year after introduction) 226

xi
List of Figures

11.2 Members of additional pensions by type 2001 and 2006 (millions) 230
11.3 Old-age provision by disposable monthly household income in
Germany 2002 to 2005 (% of households) 232
11.4 Pension assets accumulated with different products (in € for
Germany, in £ for UK) 234
11.5 Range of monthly pensions in UK and Germany (in € for Germany,
in £ for UK) 235
11.6 Ratios of high-cost to low-cost products (%) 236
11.7 Range of pension outcomes in the UK (total pensions as % of
social inclusion threshold) 239
11.8 Range of pension outcomes in Germany (total pensions as % of social
inclusion threshold) 240
12.1 Transition to a first occupation matching the field of study 260

xii
 List of Tables

2.1 Welfare values: Welfarism scale 23

2.2 Redistribution and helping those in need 24
2.3 Paying and receiving welfare 25
2.4 Preferences of spending for different areas 26
2.5 Benefits for different groups 27
2.6 Deserving and undeserving poor: The reciprocity issue 28
2.7 Attitudes towards immigrants in Germany and the UK 30
3.1 Attitudes to welfare: % agreeing + strongly agreeing 36
4.1 Summary of findings from focus groups 69
5.1 A framework on family policy 89
7.1 Family-friendly working time policy in the United
Kingdom (1997–2005) 115
7.2 Family-friendly working time policy in Germany (1998–2005) 120
8.1 Occupational family policy measures at British, German, and
US workplaces (%) 131
8.2 Family-friendly extra-statutory workplace practices in Germany 138
8.3 Family-friendly extra-statutory workplace practices in Britain 139
8.4 Composite measure of extra-statutory family-friendly policies 142
8.5 Truth table, Britain 142
8.6 Truth table, Germany 143
8.7 Reasons to engage in corporate family policies 144
9.1 Evolution of British pension legislation 162
9.2 German occupational pensions, 1951–99 170
9.3 Germany—occupational benefit coverage of retirees (from 65) by sector 171
9.4 The role of occupational pensions for overall benefits. West Germany,
average gross occupational benefits as % of gross pension income
by sector, retirees from 65 173
10.1 Working-life details of the illustrative biographies used in pension
simulations 182

xiii
List of Tables

10.2 Projected gross outcomes on retirement of pre-reform UK pension

system for biographies without voluntary occupational provision,
as % of social exclusion line 183
10.3 Comparison of projected gross median outcomes on retirement
of pre-reform UK pension system for biographies with and without
voluntary occupational provision, as % of social exclusion line 185
10.4 Projected gross outcomes for female biographies without voluntary
occupational provision under the pre-reform and post-reform UK
pension system, as % of social exclusion line 189
10.5 Projected gross outcomes for male biographies without voluntary
occupational provision under the pre-reform and post-reform
UK pension system, as % of social exclusion line 189
10.6 Projected median outcomes for female biographies with voluntary
occupational provision under the pre-reform and post-reform
UK pension system, as % of social exclusion line 190
10.7 Projected gross median outcomes for male biographies with voluntary
occupational provision under the pre-reform and post-reform
UK pension system, as % of social exclusion line 190
10.8 Projected gross performance of pre-reform German state system for all
biographies, replacement rates, and as % of social exclusion line 193
10.9 Comparison of projected gross median outcomes on retirement
of pre-reform German pension system for biographies with and
without voluntary occupational provision, replacement rates, and
as % of social exclusion line 195
10.10 Comparison of projected gross performance of pre-reform and
post-reform German state system for all biographies, as % of
social exclusion line 199
10.11 Comparison of projected gross replacement rates under pre-reform
and post-reform German state system for all biographies, as % of social
exclusion line 199
10.12 Projected gross median outcomes for female biographies with
voluntary occupational provision under the pre-reform and post-reform
German pension system, as % of social exclusion line 201
10.13 Projected gross median outcomes for male biographies with
voluntary occupational provision under the pre-reform and post-reform
German pension system, as % of social exclusion line 201
10.14 Projected gross pension for all biographies from the metalworkers’
collective agreement, as % of social exclusion line 202
10.15 Projected gross median pension and range of outcomes for all
biographies by gender in pre-reform Britain and Germany, as %
of social exclusion line 206

xiv
 List of Tables

10.16 Projected gross median pension and range of outcomes for all
biographies by gender in post-reform Britain and Germany, as %
of social exclusion line 206
10.17 Details of the assumptions made in simulations in Britain and Germany 210
10.18 United Kingdom occupational schemes used in the simulations 212
10.19 German occupational schemes used in the simulations 214
11.1 Overview of the considered pension schemes 220
11.2 Overview of assumed supplementary personal pensions 238
12.1 Matching fields of study and occupations 257
12.2 Obtaining an occupation matching the field of study after graduation 262
12.3 Description of German and British data sets 265

xv
 Notes on Contributors

Paul Bridgen is a Senior Lecturer in Social Policy at the University of Southampton.

His main interests are in pension policy and the politics of policy making, mainly from
a comparative perspective. His work has been published in, amongst others, Ageing and
Society, West European Politics, and Social Policy and Administration. Recent book
publications include Private Pensions versus Social Inclusion? Non-state Provision for
Citizens at Risk in Europe (2007, with Traute Meyer and Barbara Riedmüller).
Christoph Burkhardt is Ph.D. fellow at the Bremen International Graduate School
of Social Sciences (BIGSSS). His areas of research are migration, comparative welfare
state research, and social inequality.
Jochen Clasen is Professor of Comparative Social Policy in the School of Social and
Political Science at the University of Edinburgh. He has published on social security
policy, comparative welfare state analysis, labour market policy, and unemployment,
mainly in a European context.
Mary Daly is Professor of Sociology at the School of Sociology, Social Policy and Social
Work at Queen’s University Belfast. Among the fields on which she has published are
poverty, welfare, gender, family, and the labour market. Much of her work is
comparative, in a European and international context, and she is especially interested
in matters to do with how policies in different European countries relate to families.
Timo Fleckenstein is a Lecturer in Social Policy at the London School of Economics
and Political Science. His main research interest is the politics of social policy, with a
focus on labour market and family policies from a comparative perspective. His research
has been published, among others, in the Journal of European Social Policy, Social Policy &
Administration, and the British Journal of Industrial Relations.
Ann-Kathrin Jüttner studied paedagogy, sociology, and gender studies at the
University of Göttingen. She was a research assistant in the project ‘The Gateway of
Family and Education Policy’ at the University of Applied Sciences in Cologne.
Presently she is a doctoral candidate in the research project ‘Language support for
children with migration background at preschool level,’ which is based at the
University of Braunschweig (Göttingen).
Sigrid Leitner is a political scientist. She holds a professorship in Social Policy at the
University of Applied Sciences in Cologne. Her research focuses on comparative social
policy analysis, pension and family policy, and gender effects of social policy.

xvi
 Notes on Contributors

Kathrin Leuze is Assistant Professor for Education Sociology at the Free University of
Berlin and directs a research group conducting the German National Education Panel
Study in the fields of vocational education and training and lifelong learning at the
Social Science Research Center Berlin (WZB).
Rose Martin is a member of the Unemployment and Labour Market Disadvantage
team at the Institute for Employment Studies in Brighton, where she contributes to a
variety of research and evaluation projects. She was previously employed at the School
of Social Policy, Sociology and Social Research, University of Kent, working on a
comparison of British and German attitudes to social justice and the welfare state.
Steffen Mau is Professor of Political Sociology and Comparative Social Research at the
University of Bremen and Vice Dean of the Bremen International Graduate School of
Social Sciences (BIGSSS). His areas of research are comparative welfare state research,
inequality, Europeanization, and transnationalization.
Traute Meyer is a Reader in Social Policy, University of Southampton. Most recently
she has conducted research projects and published in the fields of European welfare
systems, pensions and social inclusion, business interests, and social policy.
Anneli Rüling is a sociologist and political scientist in Berlin. Her research interests
include family policy, international comparative welfare state analysis, and
reconciliation of work and family. She is co-editor of the journal Femina Politica.
Martin Seeleib-Kaiser is Professor of Comparative Social Policy and Politics and
Fellow of Green Templeton College, University of Oxford. His research focuses on the
politics and political economy of social policy. Recent book publications include The
Dual Transformation of the German Welfare State (with P. Bleses), Party Politics and Social
Welfare (with S. v. Dyk and M. Roggenkamp), and Welfare State Transformations (ed.). He
has published, among other journals, in American Sociological Review, the British Journal
of Industrial Relations, Comparative Political Studies, Social Policy and Administration, and
West European Politics.
Peter Taylor-Gooby, FBA, FRSA, AcSS, is Professor of Social Policy at the University of
Kent, Director of the ESRC Social Contexts and Responses to Risk Programme, and Co-
director of the Risk Research Centre at Beijing Normal University. Recent publications
include Reframing Social Citizenship (Oxford University Press), Risk in Social Science,
(with Jens Zinn, Oxford University Press), Ideas and the Welfare State (Palgrave), and New
Risks, New Welfare (Oxford University Press).
Lisa Warth is Associate Expert on Gender at the United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe. She holds a Ph.D. from the London School of Economics and
Political Science, where her research focused on the importance of time in the work/
family interface. The views expressed in her chapter are those of the author and do not
necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations.
Michaela Willert is a sociologist and works as a Senior Research Assistant at the
Political Science Department of the Freie Universität Berlin. She has participated in
several national and international research projects in the area of pensions, with a
special focus on pensions and the consequences of pension reforms, privatization, and
Europeanization for social inclusion.

xvii
This page intentionally left blank
1

Introduction
Jochen Clasen

Before the onset of the current financial and economic crisis, the future of
advanced welfare states seemed already to be in doubt. During the course of
the 1990s it became clear that growing economic internationalization would
provide opportunities and create new jobs, but also pose employment prob-
lems manifest in registered unemployment and other forms of labour market
inactivity. The shift from industrial to post-industrial labour markets and the
growing service-sector dominance implied a lower potential for productivity
gains. Demographic challenges and lower economic growth than in earlier
decades put pressure on welfare state resources (Pierson 1998). However,
simply dismantling traditional welfare state structures and shifting social
protection from collective to individual responsibility seemed politically,
socially, and also economically counterproductive. Welfare states play a vital
role in ensuring that growth is economically and socially sustainable. Econ-
omic and employment growth can be supported by social protection pro-
grammes as these help to ensure social integration and social inclusion in
the face of rapid societal change, while keeping costs at a widely acceptable
level. Social policies not only contain poverty and reduce inequality, but
contribute to a healthier and more educated population and thereby influence
life chances and opportunity structures, support socially disadvantaged
groups, and help maintain social solidarity in the face of rapid societal change.
Industrialized nations have thus been increasingly faced with a serious
challenge: to reconstruct existing welfare state structures in order to adapt to
changing socioeconomic conditions while not undermining the role of, and
popular support for, collective welfare provision. The particular intensity and
manifestation of this challenge, as well as the feasibility of engaging in inno-
vative policy responses, varies across countries partly because of differences in
national contexts, including those in welfare state institutions. In this respect,

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the column is only 10 millimeters below the zero level. This gauge
indicates only a rough vacuum and is used to measure gas pressure
only. When the neon or other rare gas is put in the tube, its pressure
may be measured with such a gauge. To secure a 10-millimeter
pressure, the mercury column should fall 10 millimeters; for a 15-
millimeter fill, the column will fall 15 millimeters; and so on. For very
low pressures of 1 millimeter or below, this type of gauge cannot be
used, because the length of the mercury column is so long; and its
changes in length are so small, that the pressure cannot be read
accurately even with a magnifying glass. In other words, the straight
gauge is a millimeter gauge; that is, it will read pressures from 1 to
760 millimeters but not below 1 millimeter. For reading microns, or
thousandths of millimeters, a micron gauge is needed. The McLeod
gauge, a micron gauge, is described in a later paragraph. The U
Gauge. — The U type of vacuum gauge, shown in Fig. 66, is a
millimeter gauge also, but it is much smaller and more convenient to
install than the straight gauge. The U gauge is a U tube half filled
with mercury and sealed into the manifold system. One arm of the U
tube is evacuated. When the system is pumped out, the pressure on
the manifold side of the gauge is reduced, and the mercury in the
two arms of the U tube tends to come to the same level. The
difference in level between the two arms, in millimeters, is the
pressure on the manifold side. The scale of such a gauge is placed
beside the evacuated arm. The mercury in this arm will fall only Y^
millimeter for
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PUMPING SYSTEMS 157 every millimeter's decrease in

pressure in the manifold. This is true because the other arm rises %
millimeter at the same time, making the difference in level 1
millimeter. Since the U-type gauge moves only half as far as the
straight gauge, for the same decrease in pressure, it is less sensitive
and harder to read, particularly for pressures in the region of 1
millimeter. But because of its simplicity and great usefulness as a
vacuum indicator, almost all pumping systems are fitted with a U
gauge. The U gauge will show very quickly just what the pressure is
inside the manifold, and it will show also how quickly the pumps are
working and if there is a leak in the system. The mercury used in the
straight and U-type gauges does not interfere with the drawing of a
good vacuum, because the mercury is cold, and, as a result,
practically no mercury vapor is formed. For this reason, no special
trap is necessary, as is necessary in the case of the mercury diffusion
pump. Tubing used in gauges should be free from water vapor when
the gauge is installed. The Butyl U Gauge.- -A new type of Mercury U
gauge which is very useful in reading measuring pressures , u 4. i/ -
ir on from 1 to 30 mmpressures from about % millimeter to 30
millimeters uses butyl phthalate instead of mercury. Since butyl
phthalate is about one-fourteenth as heavy as mercury, the pressure
inside the manifold will support a column of it fourteen times as high
as it will support mercury; that is, a change in pressure of 1
millimeter in the manifold will cause a change of 14 millimeters in
the height of the butyl phthalate column. As shown in Fig. 67, this
fact makes the scale of the gauge much wider and easier to read
accurately. Filling to pressures as low as 1 millimeter and filling to
higher pressures to an accuracy of 0.1 millimeter is entirely pos 
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158 NEON SIGNS sible with such a gauge, while with

mercury U gauges such accuracy cannot be attained. The butyl
phthalate used here is the same substance as that used in the butyl
diffusion pump, and it has the same advantages of low vapor
pressure and chemical inactivity. Sca/e • Scale: ' 1 mm. distance' 1
'mm pressure Butyl phtha'/ate -To manifold FIG. 67. FIG. 68. Gauges
for measuring rare-gas pressure with great accuracy. Fig. 67. —
Butyl phthalate U gauge. Fig. 68. — Dubrovin gauge. The complete
butyl gauge is about 2 feet long and fitted with a scale about 8 in. in
length. The Dubrovin Gauge. — Another type of gauge having an
extended scale is the Dubrovin gauge. This operates on the principle
of buoyancy. A closed evacuated cylinder, weighted with lead shot,
floats in a pool of mercury, in a vertical position so that the top of
the cylinder lies opposite a scale. When the pressure OD ib&
mercury pool is lows the
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PUMPING SYSTEMS 159 cylinder will float high and thus

indicate the high vacuum, while, if the pressure is high, the cylinder
will sink lower! By properly proportioning the weights, the scale of
the Dubrovin gauge can be magnified many times over the standard
millimeter scale. The operation of the device is illustrated in Fig. 68.
The McLeod Gauge.— The McLeod gauge is primarily a micron
gauge; that is, it is designed to read very low pressures, as low as
0.1 micron. But the McLeod principle is also used in gauges designed
for reading millimeters of pressure, and two gauges can be built into
one, capable of both readings — high and low vacuums. In Fig. 69-
B, a double McLeod gauge of this type is shown. The McLeod gauge
operates by compressing a sample of the gas from the manifold and
comparing the pressure of this compressed Sample With the FlG- 69-
~~ Two forms of McLeod gauge, .„ , , . described in the text, (a) is a
simple manilOia pressure itsell. millimeter gauge, while (6) is a
double In Fig. 69, the cup C holds a supply of pure, clean mercury,
while the rubber hose H connects the mercury reservoir with the
gauge itself. The gauge is connected to the manifold at the point A.
It is operated by lifting the mercury flask above the bottom of the
gauge. The mercury from the flask flows through the hose and up
the tube T to point B. When it reaches this point, it divides into two
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160 NEON SIGNS paths. The left-hand passage (which

contains gas at the manifold pressure) is cut off from the rest of the
system by the mercury. As the mercury continues to rise in the tube
D, the gas caught inside it is compressed. At the same time, the
mercury in the right-hand tube rises. When the mercury in this
column has risen to the mark M, the level in the closed chamber D
comes to rest opposite a number of the scale which shows the
pressure of the gas inside the manifold. The McLeod gauge does not
read continuously; that is, each time a reading is desired, the
mercury flask must be lifted, and the reading taken after the
mercury has risen to the proper height. The pressure reading
indicates the pressure at the time when the mercury passed the
point B, that is, when the sample in the chamber D was caught and
the compression began. Reading pressures with this type of gauge is
slow, therefore, and not adapted to rough work. In addition, the
McLeod gauge cannot be used for measuring the pressure of the gas
fill except by a cut-and-try method, which is slow and often very
wasteful of the rare gas. But for measuring very low pressures and
for determining whether or not the pumping system can attain the
required vacuum before filling the tube, a McLeod gauge should be
used, since it is the only practical gauge for measuring vacuums of
the order of 0.1 micron to 10 microns. The range over which the
gauge will indicate is determined by the dimensions of the chamber
D. If a large sample of gas is caught and compressed into a very fine
tube, the gauge can be made to read very low pressures. In the
double gauge for reading both high and low pressures, shown in Fig.
69-B, it will be seen that the micron part of the gauge has a very
small bore compared with that of the millimeter section of the tube.
McLeod gauges have to be very carefully made, and they must be
calibrated; that is, the scale must be marked on them at the factory.
It is very difficult for the glass blower
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PUMPING SYSTEMS 161 to make his own McLeod gauge,

and they are usually bought in complete form from a supply house.
A McLeod gauge is by no means absolutely necessary for the neon
pumping plant, but for a complete system, capable of the best work,
such a gauge is a very valuable instrument. It is not useful in
measuring millimeter pressures, since the simpler U gauge of the
mercury or butyl type is a continuously reading gauge of nearly the
10 .Mechanical pump p/us butyl ph+hotlot+e pump —Mechanical
pump on/y. 0123456789 Time of Exhotust in Minutes FIG. 70. —
Comparison of pumping speeds, showing additional speed obtainable
from butyl phthalate pump. same accuracy. But for measuring
pressures below 1 millimeter and as low as 0.1 micron, there is no
alternative to the McLeod gauge except complicated ionization
gauges not suited to neon work. And although it is not absolutely
necessary to measure pressures as low as this in pumping and filling
tubes, there is no other way of being sure that the pump will draw a
satisfactory high vacuum except by measuring it. In the newer types
of McLeod gauge, the clumsy mercury flask and rubber hose have
been replaced by a glass plunger, consisting of one glass tube which
slides inside another tube, which contains the supply of mercury.
Pressing on the sliding tube forces the mercury up into the gauge.
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162 NEON SIGNS Trouble Shooting. — If the system is not

vacuum-tight, it may be very difficult to locate the leak. A large leak
may be detected by blowing into the system through the rubber
blowing hose, but leaks large enough to be detected in this manner
are usually visible to the eye. The smaller leaks, which prevent the
system from attaining a good vacuum but which admit air very
slowly, are much harder to find. One of the most useful tools for
detecting them is the high-tension sparker, which has been referred
to previously. This device is a special transformer, mounted in a
cylindrical case and equipped with a small knob (rheostat) FIG. 71.
— A high tension spark coil for testing the vacuum system. The knob
at the end is used to control the intensity of the spark, which
appears at the metal tip of the device. at one end and a metallic
electrode at the other. This tester, shown in Fig. 71, is attached to
the 110- volt lighting circuit, and the knob at the end turned until
the electrode at the other end glows with a spark discharge. The
device is really a Ford spark coil built for 110- volt operation and
with not quite so powerful a spark. Use of the Spark Coil. — When
the sparker is held against the glass tubing of the pumping system,
the spark discharge will jump to the glass and partially cover the
outer wall of the glass. A poor vacuum will be indicated by a
darkpurple streak or red glow. If there is even a small pressure of
gas inside the tube, a light-blue glow will form inside the tube. As
the pressure decreases, this glow will become thinner and will cling
closer to the inside of the glass wall. When the pressure is below 5
microns, the glow will disappear entirely.
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PUMPING SYSTEMS 163 The sparker can thus be used as a

rough indicator of the pressure inside the system, and it can indicate
a very high vacuum by the absence of any glow inside the tube. But
it is also highly useful for locating leaks. A pale-red glow which
gradually turns into a dark-purple streak inside the tube indicates a
leak. The spark from the sparker will enter the tubing through the
leak, and in doing so it will become very white in color as it passes
through the glass. The leak will be clearly indicated by the bright
spot. The sparker must be used cautiously, since the spark is
capable of puncturing the glass, especially near a bend, splice, or
thin part of the glass. The tip at the end of the sparker should not
be pointed, or else the spark will be very intense, and the tendency
to puncture the glass will be much greater. A special type of spark
coil has been developed which will not puncture the glass. Sealing
the Work to the Pumps. — When the glass blowing has been
completed as outlined in the preceding chapter, the electrodes are in
place, and the tubulation attached, the tube is ready for the pumps.
The procedure of sealing the tube to the pumping systems is as
follows : See that the stopcocks leading to the gas containers are
closed and that the main stopcock leading to the pumps is closed.
Then open the air-hose stopcock, admitting air to the manifold
system. Break off a short section of the tubulation glass on the
manifold. Take the tube to be pumped and lay it on the pumping
bench so that the tubulations on the tube and on the manifold are
close together. If they do not fit neatly, the tubulation on either tube
or manifold may be heated and bent until a good fit is obtained.
Then splice the two pieces of tubulation glass together, using the
blowtube to blow out the splice to the proper shape and thickness.
When the splice is cool, blow on the air hose to test for any large
leaks. If the tube and manifold appear to be airtight, close the
stopcock at the air hose and open the stopcock leading to the
pumps. This starts the pumping. Both mechanical and diffusion
pumps should be operating at full capacity.
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164 NEON SIGNS At the first instant the pump stopcock is

opened, the sound of the mechanical pump will change to a deeper
beat ; but as the air is drawn out, the deeper sound will gradually
disappear. As it does so, the mercury in the U-tube gauge will begin
to come to an even level. When the mercury has come down the
scale tube a short distance, close the stopcock leading to the pumps.
If the system is airtight, the mercury will remain motionless at the
level that it showed when the stopcock was closed. If there is a leak,
the mercury will begin to climb in the scale tube. The leak should be
located with the sparker. When it is found, the pump stopcock
should be closed, the air hose opened, and the leak repaired. When
the system is shown to be completely airtight, the tube is ready for
pumping. But before pumping is started, preparations for
bombardment are necessary. These preparations, together with the
detailed procedure of the bombardment process, are described in
the following chapter. TABLE XI. — DEGREE OF VACUUM BY COLOR,
USING A SPARK-COIL TESTER Coil held against Degree of vacuum
Color Electrode Remarks Glass wire 200 millimeters .... Purple V
Color visible only at edge of electrode shell 150 millimeters ....
Purple I/ Faint glow in tube 50 millimeters .... Purple V Fair glow in
tube 15 millimeters .... Blue-purple V Dark glow 4 millimeters ....
Red-purple V 2 millimeters .... Lavender . V 1 millimeter Light
lavender V 250 microns Dark blue V 100 microns Light blue V 10
microns "Very light blue V 5 microns Blue disappears V No glow in
tube; • blue haze near glass wall.
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PUMPING SYSTEMS 165 Pumping Hints. — Trouble with the

pumping system may arise from a variety of sources. The following
list of hints has been compiled to aid in running down the more
common causes of trouble : 1. Keep stopcocks' surfaces greased
with a thin coat of grease and keep the grease out of the stopcock
bore. 2. Keep grease, oil, and water out of the manifold system. 3.
Keep the oil in the mechanical pump up to the proper level. 4. Use
only the purest and cleanest mercury in the diffusion pump, if of the
mercury type. If of the butyl phthalate type, use pure solution. 5.
Keep the pumps under vacuum at all times; that is, do not open the
main-pump stopcock when the rubber-hose stopcock of the manifold
is open to the air. 6. Keep the gas-container stopcocks closed at all
times-, except when actually filling. Keep the piece of glass tubing
between the two stopcocks evacuated. Never open the stopcock
nearest the gas container until the manifold is well pumped out. 7.
Never turn on the heat under the mercury diffusion pump unless the
water is circulating through the cooling system and unless the
mechanical pump is running. 8. Keep flame away from the
stopcocks. They will crack easily. 9. Keep the sparker away from
bends and splices except when testing for leaks. 10. Take down and
clean the entire manifold once every four months. 11. Keep away
from a mercury diffusion pump while it is operating. If it should
break, the mercury vapor, which is highly poisonous, may get into
the nose or mouth before it condenses. 12. Do not open air-hose
stopcock until all other stopcocks are closed. Do not accidentally
open the pump stopcock while blowing on the hose; the suction may
injure your lungs.
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166 NEON SIGNS 13. When using a flame on the system,

never heat the glass to the melting point when the system is under
vacuum except when sealing off a tube. The glass will suck in if
melted. 14. Keep electric motor bearings well lubricated. 15. If chain
drive is used between motor and pump, keep fingers away from the
chain. Time Required for Pumping. — The average time required for
pumping average lengths of tubing, with and without diffusion
pumps, is shown in the table on page 147. From this table it can be
seen how valuable is a diffusion pump (even though a good
mechanical pump is available) in speeding up production. The table
will be found useful in figuring costs of labor arid pumping. The
actual conditions in a particular plant may not require the time
shown; in this case, a table similar to it should be made up, showing
the actual time required which is found necessary to complete a
tube of a given size. This time can then be used as the basis of cost
computation.
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CHAPTER IX BOMBARDING The Importance of Proper

Bombarding. — The commonest single cause of early failure of neon
tubing is improper bombarding. Nevertheless, bombarding is not a
difficult operation; if the proper equipment is available, it can be
made almost foolproof. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that a
little extra time and care taken in properly bombarding a tube will
pay big dividends in longer tube life, even though the difference may
not be visible when the tube leaves the shop. The immediate
purpose of bombarding is very simple: It is to heat all parts (glass
and metal) of the tube to a high temperature so that the absorbed
gases and other impurities will be thrown off. Trouble arises when all
parts of the tube are not brought up to this required degree of heat.
When parts of the tube remain below the critical temperature, the
gases and impurities in those parts are not eliminated, and, in
addition, these cooler parts will collect the impurities which have
been thrown off from hotter parts of the tube. When the tube has
been pumped, filled, and sealed, these impurities may lie dormant
for many hours of operation. The tube may appear to be perfect
when it is installed. But if the impurities are in the tube, they will
surely be released, as soon as the operating temperature of the tube
rises. The tube then loses color and must be repumped. Bombarding
Equipment. — Success in bombarding is allied to success in glass
blowing. Both depend upon the skill and judgment of the operator.
And, likewise, neither can be carried out by even the most skillful
operator unless he has the proper equipment. Bombarding
equipment is 167
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168 NEON SIGNS relatively simple, but it must be of sturdy

design, and it must be suited to the job. The commonest
bombarding method, used almost exclusively in the neon trade,
makes use of a bombarding transformer which provides a high
voltage and higher current than that of the ordinary neon
transformer. This transformer is connected to the tube while it is on
the pumps and is used to produce a heavy glow discharge in the
tube. It is thus the center of the bombarding setup. It must be
supplied with current from the 110- or 220-volt power circuit; it must
be supplied with an off-on switch and with some means of regulating
the voltage it supplies. Lead wires for conveniently connecting the
secondary terminals to the tube must be provided, and the entire
installation must be insulated for the protection of the operator. In
addition to electrical equipment, containers of special gases may be
used. The Bombarding Transformer. — The bombarding transformer
is in many respects similar to the transformer used in lighting the
tube (see pages 66 to 70). That is, the bombarding transformer has
a definitely limited secondary current, even on short circuit. But the
short-circuit current on the bombarding transformer is often ten
times as high as the short-circuit current of the usual tube
transformer. Tube-lighting transformers are made to deliver either 30
or 60 milliamperes on short circuit; the bombarding transformer
usually delivers from 60 to 700 milliamperes on short circuit. The
open-circuit voltage of the bombarding transformer is usually from
10,000 to 15,000 volts. The transformer, while similar in operation to
the tube-lighting variety, is much larger, since it must supply much
more current. Furthermore, the bombarding transformer is a
dangerous piece of apparatus, much more so than the tube
transformer, because it has a higher secondary current. The extra
current is used for heating purposes when the tube is being
bombarded. To heat the tube properly it is
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BOMBARDING 169 necessary to run through it many times

the normal operating current, and for this reason the bombarding
transformer must be able to supply a heavy secondary current. If
the operator comes into contact with the terminals of the
bombarding transformer or one terminal and ground, I FIG. 72.-
Bombarding transformer, showing magnetic switch mounted on
casing, and push-button control (at end of BX cable). the full 700
milliamperes of current may pass through him; and this amount of
current is definitely dangerous to life. In order to guard against this
possibility, thorough insulation of the entire secondary circuit is
necessary. The bombarding transformer is rated in kilovolt-amperes
(abbreviation kva.). The rating is found by multiplying the primary
voltage by the primary current and dividing
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170 NEON SIGNS by 1,000. For proper bombarding, a

transformer rated at at least 5 kilovolt-amperes is required. If a
smaller transformer is used, the number of feet of tubing which can
be handled at the proper bombarding temperature is severely
limited. Under such conditions, even average lengths of tubing will
not come up to the proper temperature, and the bombarding is not
100 per cent effective. Since bombarding transformers are relatively
high-power devices, it is not economical to use them on 110- volt
circuits. Usually, they are designed for 220 volts on the primary
winding, since this reduces the primary current to one-half and the
line losses to one-fourth. In almost every business or every industrial
district, 220- volt circuits are available, and there is no reason why
220 volts should not be used for this purpose in almost every neon
plant. In the rare case where only 110 volts can be obtained, the
bombarding transformer can be purchased for 110- volt operation.
Bombarding Control. — In order to control the bombarding current
so the proper current will flow regardless of the length of the tube
and of the pressure of the air in the tube, some sort of voltage
control is necessary. There are three devices which can be used for
this purpose, as indicated in Fig. 73. One is the rheostat, a variable
resistance which is connected in series with the primary of the
transformer. This type of control wastes power but is simple and
easy to use. Another type of control is the variable reactor, or
autotransformer. This device is a choke coil with an iron core. The
coil is tapped at regular intervals, and these taps are connected to a
set of switch points, as shown in Fig. 73-B. The lever which makes
contact with these taps is used to control the part of the coil in
shunt with the primary of the transformer and hence to control the
power fed to it. This type of device uses practically no power and is
used to the exclusion of the rheostat, at least in the more modern
neon-plant installations. The switch handle of the bom 
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