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Curriculum Reform in
the European Schools
Towards a 21st Century Vision

Sandra Leaton Gray,

David Scott and Peeter Mehisto
Curriculum Reform in the European Schools
Sandra Leaton Gray • David Scott
Peeter Mehisto

Curriculum Reform
in the European
Schools
Towards a 21st Century Vision
Sandra Leaton Gray David Scott
UCL Institute of Education UCL Institute of Education
London, UK London, UK

Peeter Mehisto
UCL Institute of Education
London, UK

ISBN 978-3-319-71463-9    ISBN 978-3-319-71464-6 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71464-6

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 Foreword

I once had the honour of sitting at a reception table next to Mr. Albert
Van Houtte, one of the founding fathers of the European Schools. By this
time he was already over ninety years old, but crystal clear in his thinking
and somewhat straightforward in his mode of expression. He peered at
me, slowly shaking his head, and commented: ‘Listen, young man. I am
really disappointed. We drafted the basis of the European school system
in a hurry. It took us only a few weeks to sort it out. Now, fifty years later,
you have not managed to change and develop it in any way whatsoever!’
He was right. The basic principles of the European School system had
remained intact for sixty years. In the same time the world around the
European schools had completely changed. The European Union itself
had grown from 6 to 28 member states, the number of languages and
language sections had quadrupled, and the organisation of the schools
had become more and more complex, without even speaking about the
ongoing pressure to reform the curriculum in order to meet the educa-
tional needs of the youngsters of the twenty-first century.
As Secretary-General of the European School system I made it a prior-
ity to launch a wholescale reform of the system. The Board of Governors
of the European schools created a working group to discuss the matter. It
was obvious that an external view was needed. That important task was
given to the Institute of Education, University College London. The
group of experts from the UCL Institute of Education came up with a
v
vi Foreword

rather impressive array of essential and well-justified remarks and recom-

mendations, as you will see from the contents of this book.
Many of these recommendations are not only valid for the European
school system but they have a greater, universal value. What should an
ideal twenty-first century curriculum look like? What are the aims and
objectives of a modern educational programme? How should we imple-
ment the eight EU key competences in the curriculum design? How
should we create a coherent and effective educational setting? What kind
of skills and competences will students need for successful entry to fur-
ther and higher education? What is the role of the mother tongue in a
multilingual and multicultural context? What would be the best way to
promote language teaching? How should we develop assessment and
evaluation standards? This is just a sample of the many questions that
need to be raised.
After the presentation of the UCL Institute of Education report’s con-
cepts, ideas and recommendations, it became clear to us that it was neces-
sary to launch a deep consultation and reflection debate within the
schools and with the stakeholders in order to decide which reform path
to follow. In the light of this, I addressed the following letter to the entire
European school community:

Dear All
For over 60 years, the objective of the European Schools has been to
provide a broad education of high quality, from nursery school to univer-
sity entrance, offering our pupils an opportunity to be educated through
their Mother Tongue, whilst being immersed in a multilingual and multi-
cultural environment, in order to become open-minded European citizens.
We are convinced that this objective is still valid today – but it might be
worthwhile revising and updating our curriculum and some of our prac-
tices, taking into account the demands of the twenty first century that our
students are facing.
This autumn the Reorganisation of Secondary Cycle Studies Working Group
will discuss the secondary school curriculum based on earlier discussions
and proposals, but also taking into account the recommendations made by
the external evaluator, the Institute of Education, University College
London. According to the report of the team of evaluators, current p
­ ractice,
 Foreword
   vii

as well as the new proposals, do not take sufficient account of, for example,
the eight key competences.
One of the key messages of the final evaluation report of the Institute of
Education, University College London is that we should ‘clarify and extend
the current outline curriculum, particularly in relation to the eight key
competences’. Indeed, the European Schools should be at the forefront in
translating these European key competences into learning and teaching
practices.
According to the same report, the most important component of cur-
riculum reform is improving teacher capacity. This can be achieved in two
ways:

1. recruiting teachers who already have the requisite knowledge base, skills
and dispositions, or/and
2. developing pre- and in-service training programmes to compensate for
the lack of knowledge, skills and dispositions required to teach the new
syllabuses.

During the summer I participated in a Curriculum Confrontation Event

entitled What’s worth learning? I learned from the various stakeholders,
that:

• all the 28 European countries have revised/reformed their curricula

during the last decade;
• the world in which our Schools operate has undergone major changes
in the past twenty years: increasing globalisation and challenges for a
sustainable future are only two examples;
• the set of competences a pupil should master has changed to include
cross-curricular, ethical and sustainability elements.
• the concept of learning has evolved. It is important to strengthen the
importance of learning to learn. That ability should be embedded in
basic skills such as literacy, numeracy and ICT, which are necessary for
continuous learning. An individual should therefore be able to acquire,
access, profess and assimilate new knowledge and new skills. Students
should also be able to learn autonomously, be self-disciplined, work
collaboratively, share what they have learned, organise their own learn-
ing, evaluate their own work, seek advice, information and support
when appropriate;
viii Foreword

• the role of teachers and of teaching has also changed: we are moving
towards a school as a learning community; and
• the content of syllabuses and pedagogical practices should take into
consideration the cross-subject issues of our environment, so that stu-
dents are able to deal with real problems and real-world phenomena.

We should also take time to reflect on how to make our schools a better
learning environment and a more supportive and encouraging community,
which enhances the meaningfulness of studying at school. The motivation
and well-being of our staff members as well as the joy in learning of our
students should be promoted. All these pedagogical issues will be discussed
in various forums during this school year.
I invite the entire European School community to take part in the
discussion.
Brussels, 9th September 2015
Kari Kivinen
Secretary-General of the European Schools

The reform process of the European school system is still ongoing. The
UCL recommendations changed profoundly the scope of the reform and
gave a broader vision and new direction to our school system develop-
ment approach. The curriculum design ideas proposed by the UCL
multi-disciplinary expert team were based on new developments in peda-
gogy and on the latest educational research findings. Their report linked
educational research theory with the everyday practice of schooling in a
holistic way.
School providers, school heads, teachers, parents and political policy-
makers all over Europe are confronted with the same questions as we are
in the European schools. How can we reform the school system to provide
students with the right set of competences for the future? How can we
bring new findings of the pedagogical research into practice? How can we
build up a differentiated curriculum, which takes account of the different
types of needs and abilities of children? How can we reform assessment
systems to meet the new challenges of increased accountability?
This book is an intellectually stimulating overview of the latest curricu-
lum design ideas of pedagogical research. It will be of interest to e­ verybody
 Foreword
   ix

who wants to grasp the essence of the ideal twenty-first century educa-
tional setting, according to the leading academics in the field.

Brussels, Belgium Kari Kivinen

 Acknowledgements

A team of researchers from University College London, Institute of

Education, carried out the research for this book during the academic
year 2014–2015, as part of a European Commission funded evaluation
project looking specifically at the upper secondary phase of education in
the European Schools System (cf. Leaton Gray et al. 2015). The team
comprised Sandra Leaton Gray, David Scott, Didac Gutierrez-Peris,
Peeter Mehisto, Norbert Pachler and Michael Reiss.

Reference
Leaton Gray, S., Scott, D., Gutierrez-Peris, D., Mehisto, P., Pachler, N.
and Reiss, M. (2015) External Evaluation of a Proposal for the
Reorganisation of Secondary Studies in the European School System,
London: UCL Institute of Education.

xi
 Contents

1 Becoming Europeans: A History of the European Schools   1

2 Acquainted with All that Is Great and Good:

Designing a Twenty-First Century Curriculum  23

3 Educated Side by Side: The Role of Language

in the European Schools  49

4 A United and Thriving Europe? A Sociology

of the European Schools  75

5 Schooled and Ready: Assessment Reform  99

6 Consolidating the Work of Their Fathers: Moving

on from European Schools to Higher Education 121

xiii
xiv Contents

7 Belonging Together: A Model for Education

in a New European Age 139

References 161

Author Index 175

Subject Index 179
 List of Tables

Table 1.1 Category I European Schools 5

Table 1.2 Pupil population by nationality and by national populations 13
Table 1.3 Pupil population from 2013 to 2016 15
Table 2.1 An option-less curriculum 39
Table 2.2 An option within pathways curriculum 40
Table 2.3 Current arrangement of subjects S1–S5 42
Table 2.4 S6–S7 Current arrangement of studies
(i.e. last two years of secondary education) 43
Table 6.1 University College London Undergraduate Degrees 133
Table 6.2 University of Luxembourg Undergraduate Degrees 134
Table 6.3 University of Barcelona Undergraduate Degrees 135

xv
 1
Becoming Europeans: A History
of the European Schools

Educated side by side, untroubled from infancy by divisive prejudices,

acquainted with all that is great and good in the different cultures, it will
be borne in upon them as they mature that they belong together. Without
ceasing to look to their own lands with love and pride, they will become in
mind Europeans, schooled and ready to complete and consolidate the
work of their fathers before them, to bring into being a united and thriving
Europe. (Jean Monnet 1953)

The European Schools were founded nearly sixty years ago in the
aftermath of World War Two, with the first being established in
Luxembourg, which, together with Brussels and Strasbourg, is one of
the three official capitals of the European Union and the seat of the
European Court of Justice. There are now fourteen schools in seven
countries serving over 25,000 students. Designed for the children of
European Union employees, they have a special legal status within
Europe and use a particular model of curriculum and assessment that in
many ways represents a hybrid of the different European educational
models in existence. In this book we examine the role, function and
status of these European schools.

© The Author(s) 2018 1

S. Leaton Gray et al., Curriculum Reform in the European Schools,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71464-6_1
2 S. Leaton Gray et al.

It is customary to speak of a group of schools as a system and indeed

there is a great deal of sense in this for the reasons we explain below.
However, describing education as a system risks ignoring the core of that
activity, namely, that it is a series of profoundly personal acts of learning.
Thus from the outset, any consideration of this education system also
needs to take into account the tension between the instinctive drive to
learn and the systematic attempt to organize and control it. The root of
this tension lies in the difference between the basic demand for access to
learning opportunities for the satisfaction of needs (emotional, spiritual,
material and intellectual) and the selection and control processes that
education systems undertake.
Education systems change over time and experience alterations to both
their internal and external structures and relations. Whether change
occurs or not depends on the capacity within the system as well as the
condition of the change-catalyst or set of reforms. And these in turn are
structured in particular ways, which determines their ability to act as
change-agents. Certain types of catalyst are more likely to induce change
in a system than others; for example, changes of personnel (caused natu-
rally through retirements and deaths or by people in powerful positions
within the system exercising their authority), new policies, events in
nature, external interventions, new arrays of resources, new arrangements
of roles and functions within a system, new financial settlements and so
forth. In short, some of these change-catalysts are more powerful than
others, or at least have the potential to be more powerful. Even here
though, the capacity of the catalyst to effect change within a system can-
not guarantee or determine whether change actually occurs. We can see
this most clearly in some of the reform processes undertaken in the
European School System, such as the 2009 reforms which focused on
opening up the system and the European Baccalaureate to other students,
governance issues in the system, and cost-sharing amongst the member
states. Any reform or change process does not guarantee or determine the
degree of change within the system, how long lasting the reform is and
any unexpected consequences that occur. Furthermore, some types of
change-catalyst are more likely to be successful in inducing change within
the system than others. This is not only because some interventions in
education systems are more powerful than others but also because their
 Becoming Europeans: A History of the European Schools 3

capacity to induce change fits better the change mechanism within the
system being reformed.
For example, in a system that has a high level of command structure
between the coordinating body and its constituent parts, a policy for
change at the classroom level that is underpinned by a strong system of
rewards and sanctions is likely to be successful in inducing change at this
level. This is in contrast to systems which grant greater degrees of auton-
omy to their teachers, and consequently the same change mechanism
may have less chance of succeeding. Extra-national change-agents work
in the same way and the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development’s system of international assessment (known as the
Programme for International Student Assessment) is an example of this.
What these globalizing bodies, such as the OECD, are attempting to do
is establish a form of global panopticism where the activities of the vari-
ous national and cross-national systems are made visible to a supra-­
national body, with the consequence that all parts of the system are visible
from one single point. However, what this needs is a single surface of
comparison or at least a comparative mechanism that can do this, so that
enough people have confidence in it for it to be considered useful. This
fundamentally applies to a particular education system, such as the
European School System, which is the focus of this book.
What we have been doing here is categorizing the European School
System as a set of institutions and relations between its parts, and even
perhaps as a coordinating body for a number of sub-systems, which have
a particular relation to the central authority and a particular position
within it. However, this doesn’t mean that relations between the central
authority and the schools, and in addition, between the system and other
bodies external to it, remain the same over time. These relations may
change for a number of possible reasons, for example, the invention of
new ideas, natural progression, contradictions as historically accumulat-
ing structural tensions between open activity systems (cf. Engeström
2001) and so forth.
It is fairly easy to understand an education system as a coordinating
body that directs a number of sub-units, so that if the central authority
demands action of a particular type, then these subsidiary bodies will
implement its directives. The cohering element in the notion of a system
4 S. Leaton Gray et al.

being used here is that one body commands a series of other bodies,
though all of them are considered to be elements of a system. However, it
is rare for any actual system to function in this way. Within the system
the extent and type of power that the coordinating body can exercise over
the other elements may be exercised in different ways. Thus, a system’s
coordinating body may have less or more direct relations with different
parts of the system. Indeed, it may be that some of these relations become
so attenuated that it becomes harder to include them in the system.
Furthermore, systems have internal rules, that is, their elements are
arranged in particular ways. Traditional systems have a high degree of
specialization; a clearly defined division of labour; the distribution of offi-
cial tasks within the organization; a hierarchical structure of authority
with clearly defined areas of responsibility; formal rules which regulate
the operation of the organization; a written administration; a clear sepa-
ration between what is official and what is personal; and the recruitment
of personnel on the basis of ability and technical knowledge. All of this is
relevant to the European School System, so long as it is understood that
this system was set up with a particular purpose in mind and a set of
accountability relations to a central authority, the European Union
Commission, which means that its bureaucratic structures are particular
to that system.
However, regardless of how we understand the notion of a system, any
change to it is always a transformation of the status quo, to a greater or
lesser degree. Therefore, we need to understand how those systems and
curricula are and have been structured. What this means is that the same
programme of reform delivered in different systems of education is likely
to have different effects on the different elements of the system and will
have different histories within the system. In the first instance then we are
concerned to plot the history of this almost unique education system.

A History of the European School System

The European School System was formed in October 1953 in
Luxembourg, and was the initiative of members of the European Coal
and Steel Community and the Luxembourg Government. The six different
 Becoming Europeans: A History of the European Schools 5

governments of the Community and their respective ministries of educa-

tion worked together to forge a system that educated pupils with differ-
ent mother tongue languages and different nationalities. In April 1957,
the signing of the Protocol made the Luxembourg school the first official
European school. The first European Baccalaureate was awarded in July
1959 and the qualification was recognised as fulfilling basic entry require-
ments by all the universities of the member states. The success of this
educational experiment encouraged the European Economic Community
(and the European Atomic Energy Commission), both of which were
eventually taken over by the executive institutions of the EEC, to per-
suade the authorities to establish other European schools at their various
centres of government.
At the time of writing there are fourteen European schools in seven
different countries (see Table 1.1).
In addition, there are twelve accredited Category II and III European
schools with more at the planning stage.
The European Schools Network has its own rules in terms of enrol-
ment, funding and management, as well as its own curriculum. The sys-
tem was first created as an instrument to meet the educational needs of
the children of the civil servants working in Luxembourg for the then

Table 1.1 Category I European Schools

School Member state Creation First Baccalaureate
Luxembourg I Luxembourg 1953 1959
Brussels I Belgium 1958 1964
Mol/Geel Belgium 1960 1966
Varese Italy 1960 1965
Karlsruhe Germany 1962 1968
Bergen The Netherlands 1963 1971
Brussels II Belgium 1974 1982
Munich Germany 1977 1984
Culham United Kingdom 1978 1982
Brussels III Belgium 1999 2001
Alicante Spain 2002 2006
Frankfurt Germany 2002 2006
Luxembourg II Luxembourg 2004 2013
Brussels IV Belgium 2007 2017
Source: Office of the Secretary General of the European Schools (2017)
6 S. Leaton Gray et al.

newly formed European Union. The different stakeholders, i.e. parents,

institution officials, civil servants and policy-makers, reached an
­agreement that these children should have the opportunity to be edu-
cated in their mother tongue, as well as having the same standard of
education as their national classmates in their home countries. Two-thirds
of the funding comes from the institutions of the European Union.
The system has remained almost unchanged for nearly six decades,
maintaining an enrolment policy that gives priority to children of
European Union civil servants. Moreover, from the outset the system has
offered its own school certificate, the European Baccalaureate, which is
recognised in law by all the universities in the European Union (cf. Office
of the Secretary General of the European Schools 2017). In 2009 the
system undertook its most significant reforms to date, although the gen-
esis of these reforms goes further back. The reforms focused on three
areas: opening up the system and the European Baccalaureate to other
students, governing arrangements in the system, and cost-sharing
amongst the member states.
‘Opening up’ is the appellation that the Board of Governors has used
in all the official documentation relating to the first element of the 2009
reforms of the European schools. This refers to the development of an
accreditation procedure for the creation of additional European schools.
The accredited national schools are classified as European schools
Category II or III, while traditional European schools are classified as
Category I. The principal difference between these three types of European
schools is that Category II and III schools do not recruit exclusively the
children of civil servants, but have been established to spread European
schooling to the general population in Europe. The system of governance
as well as the system of funding in Category II and III schools also differs
from traditional Category I European schools. The principal difference
between Category II and III schools is that a Category II European school
receives a proportional subsidy from the EU in relation to the number of
children of civil servants attending it. Category II pupils are admitted
through a financial agreement between the schools and a number of
accredited organisations and companies. In contrast, Category III
European schools are in no way dependent on European institutions,
except in so far as the Board of Governors forges an agreement with the
 Becoming Europeans: A History of the European Schools 7

school to certify that the establishment offers European schooling. The

distinction between Category II and Category III schools has become less
important recently. Category III schools are now referred to as accredited
schools.
Category I pupils are in the main children of officials and contract staff
(in post for at least one year) of the EU institutions and of the staff of the
European schools, and of the European Patent Office in the case of the
Munich school. The percentage of pupils belonging to Category I has
been steadily increasing in recent years and this category now accounts
for 79.8% of the pupil population (September 2016). The Brussels and
Luxembourg schools, where there are large numbers of EU officials and a
lack of school places requires a restrictive enrolment policy to be enforced
for Category II and III pupils, have a high percentage of Category I
pupils, over 90% in the four Brussels schools (100% for Berkendael);
whereas the schools located in places where the number of EU officials is
small have a far lower percentage of such pupils. A new school in Brussels
has just been commissioned. Category II pupils account for 4% of the
pupil population, and Category III pupils constitute 16.1% of the total
population. (These figures are as of September 2016.)
The second element of the policy of opening up involves the transfor-
mation of the European Baccalaureate. Category II and Category III
schools were allowed to offer the same final certificate as Category I
European schools. The Baccalaureate is legally recognised in all European
universities. Both the system of accredited schools and the process of
widening access to the European Baccalaureate are underpinned by the
idea that the whole system shares a common pedagogical ethos. We
examine the usefulness and sustainability of the examination arrange-
ments made within the system, and point to the conflicting and at times
contradictory purposes, learning and accreditation, of the European
Baccalaureate in Chap. 5.
This broadening and expanding is based on the idea that the notion of
European schooling is a particular, exportable and replicable type of edu-
cation. This principle is currently operationalised through a centralised
system that gives the Board of Governors control over setting, correcting
and adapting the common criteria of evaluation. Such criteria were estab-
lished in 2005 and have been updated periodically. Jacques Delors, the
8 S. Leaton Gray et al.

former president of the European Commission, once called the European

schools ‘a sociological and pedagogical laboratory’ (Delors 1993). Indeed,
the most common adjectives used in the literature to refer to European
schools are those of pioneering and experimental.
The second element of the 2009 reforms allowed the granting of more
autonomy to Category I schools. This autonomy, referring as it does to
pedagogical, administrative and financial arrangements, was designed to
allow decisions that can reasonably be taken at school level to be made
there, that is, the most immediate level that is consistent with their reso-
lution. This is the principle of subsidiarity and in this context it covers
matters such as in-service training, staff development, the use of informa-
tion and communication technologies, data protection, child protection,
transfers provided by the financial regulations and enrolments of pupils.
The third element of the reforms referred to new arrangements relating to
cost sharing amongst the member states, and in particular, to the costs of
the secondment of teachers.
Different writers who have examined the European Schools, such as
Shore and Finaldi (2005) and Savvides (2006a, b, c), agree that one of the
principal limits of the system is its selective nature. In 2007 the European
Parliament requested an extensive analysis of the academic and profes-
sional careers of the European schools’ graduates and their backgrounds
(European Commission 2007a, b). This showed, amongst other findings
and unsurprisingly, that some of the traditional European Schools
recruited more than 90% of their student population from the same fam-
ily background, i.e. European civil servants. In the case of the European
schools located in Brussels and Luxembourg the demand from Category
I children is higher than the number of places available.
One of the reasons for the exclusive character of the schools is that they
subscribe to a particular mission and function. The regulations of the
system affirm that ‘the setting-up of a European School is […] justified
only when it is vital to ensure the optimum operation of an essential
Community [European Union] activity’ (Board of Governors 2009: 4).
In this sense the criteria for opening new schools are not easily met, and
the final decision always depends on the willingness of the member states
to initiate the process. Throughout the years there have been many cases
where these conditions have been met and yet new schools have not been
 Becoming Europeans: A History of the European Schools 9

opened, particularly in cities other than Brussels and Luxembourg. The

decision to open a new school remains a political decision. The power to
establish new European schools is a formal and exclusive competence that
only the member states and their national governments have. In other
words, the European institutions and the management bodies of the
European schools do not have the capacity to open up and extend the
system: ‘the proposal that a European School be set up on the territory of
a Member State is initiated by the State in question’ (Board of Governors
2009: 4).
The special character of the schools does not reside exclusively in their
European identity, but principally in the fact that they are offering an
education based on schooling elements that do not exist at the national
levels, such as: early multilingual schooling, a unified curriculum across
Europe, a pedagogy based on a pluralistic national perspective, and a
multinational student environment. The System’s intention is to foster
such particularities at the same time as encouraging a sense of European
awareness, promoting knowledge about the institutions, their history and
a developing sense of citizenship at the European level.
The language policy of the schools has occasioned the most scrutiny
(cf. Baetens Beardsmore 1993; Bulmer 1990). European schools are
organised in language sections. Students generally speaking receive their
education in their native language. The study of a first foreign language
(English, French or German), known as L2, is compulsory in each school,
from the first year of primary school. In addition, all students must study
a second foreign language (L3) from the first year of secondary school.
Significantly, the subjects of history, geography and economics (the latter
from the fourth year onwards) are studied in the student’s first foreign
language from the third year of secondary school, instead of in their
mother tongue.
The second area of interest has focused on analysing the history and
general functioning of the schools (cf. Swan 1996; Shore and Finaldi
2005; Smith 1995). In addition, there are a small number of recent stud-
ies that are beginning to offer new lines of investigation, in particular in
relation to the study of the European dimension of the system (cf.
Savvides 2006a, b, c). We examine this European dimension in more
detail in Chap. 4.
10 S. Leaton Gray et al.

The Category 1 European schools are located in those cities where the
European Union has deployed its main administrative bodies. Brussels
and Luxembourg have 6 of the 14 Category I European schools, account-
ing for more than 60% of the total student population. In order to set
up a Category 1 European school, the Board of Governors approved in
2000 the indicative document containing the Critères pour l’ouverture, la
fermeture ou le maintien des Écoles Européennes (Board of Governors
2000). Best known in the system by the name of the rapporteur, the
Gaignage criteria set a number of conditions that justify politically the
creation of a Category 1 European school. The experience since 2000 is
that these criteria are not easily met in cities other than Brussels and
Luxembourg. For the opening of a Category 1 European school the doc-
ument mandates that the Board of Governors must take into account
three elements: a minimum number of language sections; a minimum
number of students per language section; and a minimum number of
Category I students. In addition, the initiative for opening a new
Category 1 European school has to come from the member state where
the school is to be located.

Language
European schools have to deal with a paradoxical situation. On the one
hand the founding principle of the System calls for the establishment of
language sections corresponding to the linguistic background of their stu-
dents. On the other, the Gaignage criteria of 2000 state that there has to
be a minimum number of students from the same language background
before a corresponding section can be created (Board of Governors 2000).
The four European schools in Brussels are examples of schools that have
sought to maintain a level of diversity and coherence with their intakes.
Consequently, the number of SWALS (Students without a Language
Section) has steadily increased since 2007 and for the year 2011–2012 the
number rose to 676, representing approximately 7% of the total popula-
tion of the European schools in Brussels (Board of Governors 2011).
Since then the number of SWALS shows no signs of decreasing.
Not all European schools offer the same types of language section. A
Lithuanian student, for example, will have a restricted choice in Brussels.
 Becoming Europeans: A History of the European Schools 11

The only school with a Lithuanian section is Brussels II. In some European
schools, and for some languages, due to a lack of available students it has
not been possible to create specific language sections. The main issue
regarding language arrangements in the Category 1 European schools is
maintaining a high degree of plurality and diversity of their language sec-
tions, while at the same time fulfilling the indicative criteria set by the
Gaignage Report in 2000.
Language is the factor that best explains the genesis and evolution of
the system. The schools were founded with a particular and specific pur-
pose in mind. Civil servants arriving in Luxembourg in 1953 wanted
their children to retain their own cultural heritage. This was achieved by
creating a system where the different children could learn in their mother
tongue following the same standards as in their country of origin. In that
sense the history of the system shows that the principle that governs
European schools is language pluralism, not assimilation.
Three langues véhiculaires have a special status: French, German and
English. Students have to choose between one of these when they enter
the first year of the primary school, and they will keep their langue véhic-
ulaire (L2) until the Baccalaureate. The L2 will not only be a language
course, it will become the second working language of each student, since
it is compulsory that students attend history and geography classes in the
L2 they choose on entry, plus economics from S4 (the fourth level of
secondary education) if chosen as an option and, since September 2014,
religion or ethics from S3 (the third level of secondary education).
The status of these working languages is a source of academic debate.
Swan (1996), for example, suggested over twenty years ago that other
European countries such as France, Britain and Germany already have
their own network of schools abroad, which offer their children an alter-
native, if often expensive, source of education where their own native
language is the language of instruction. However, some of the smaller
member states do not provide such an alternative. Swan’s argument con-
sists of defending the idea that the languages that are getting most benefit
from the language policy of European schools are precisely the ones that
are not véhiculaires. Indeed, the fact that European schools aim to offer
language sections in all the languages spoken throughout the European
Union, though this can only be realised by a cluster of schools, offers the
chance to the parents coming from all the member states to enrol their
12 S. Leaton Gray et al.

children in their language section, without depending on the setting up

of a Polish school or a Spanish school in Brussels. Yet, the offer in terms
of diversity is much more limited in practice. None of the European
schools include all the language sections for all the official languages of
the European Union.
This has created the need to integrate those students who do not have
their own language section. Students Without a Language Section
(SWALS) have to attend one of the language sections available, while
receiving a separate programme in their mother tongue. At primary and
secondary levels they only receive one class in their native language, the
rest of the courses being taught in the language of the section into which
they have chosen to integrate. SWALS are normally enrolled in one of the
working language sections. This then becomes their L2. They can also be
enrolled in their host country language section, on the condition that no
additional costs are involved. Since 2011 Category III pupils have been
enrolled with their L1 being the language of their section.
Shore and Finaldi (2005) have also argued in favour of the language
policy of the schools. In their study, they suggest that although officially
portrayed as a matter of language development, the most noteworthy
aspect of this language policy is that the teacher will hardly ever share the
same nationality with his or her students. At the heart of this practice
seems to be an explicit attempt to separate nationality from the teaching
of sensitive subjects such as history or geography. SWALS are only ever
taught their L1 by a teacher from their own country. Increasingly, stu-
dents are taught by teachers from a range of nationalities, as more sub-
jects are taught in L2 and because more non-native teachers have been
recruited. Generally however, it should be recalled that the first principle
of the European schools is primacy of mother tongue teaching and the
system is built round the secondment of teachers from national systems
so that in most sections (certainly the non-véhiculaire sections), teachers
of core subjects do share the same nationality as their students. Table 1.2
gives an indication of the nationality of the population of students in
2016.
Swan (1996) also looked at the use of the langues véhiculaires as an
integral part of the curriculum. He suggested that teaching history to
students with other nationalities has the advantage that it provides an
 Becoming Europeans: A History of the European Schools 13

Table 1.2 Pupil population by nationality and by national populations

Population 2015–2016 (National
Nationality population – 1st July 2016) %
Austrian 354 (8,569,633) 1.3
Belgian 2737.25 (11,371,928) 10.3
British 1314.67 (65,111,143) 4.9
Bulgarian 442.83 (7,097,796) 1.7
Croatian 121.17 (4,225,001) 0.5
Cypriot, inc. North 52.17 (1,176,598) 0.2
Cypriot
Czech 431 (10,548,058) 1.6
Danish 531.5 (5,690,750) 2.0
Dutch 920.67 (16,979,729) 3.4
Estonian 264 (1,309,104) 1.0
Finnish 554.42 (5,523,904) 2.1
French 3222.08 (64,668,129) 12.1
German 3358.17 (80,682,351) 12.6
Greek 989.83 (10,919,459) 3.7
Hungarian 515.08 (9,821,318) 1.9
Irish 452.5 (4,713,993) 1.7
Italian 2650.75 (59,801,004) 9.9
Latvian 270.33 (1,955,742) 1.0
Lithuanian 372.17 (2,850,030) 1.4
Luxembourg 241.25 (576,243) 0.9
Maltese 74.75 (419,615) 0.3
Polish 800.92 (38,593,161) 3.0
Portuguese 684 (10,304,434) 2.6
Romanian 488.17 (19,372,734) 1.8
Slovakian 323 (5,429,418) 1.2
Slovenian 210.33 (2,069,362) 0.8
Spanish 2275.58 (46,064,604) 8.5
Swedish 607.17 (9,851,852) 2.3
Others 1431.25 5.4
Total 26,691 100
Source: Office of the Secretary General of the European Schools (2017)
Note: The figures in this table are not ‘round numbers’. A large number of
pupils enrolled in the European Schools have more than one nationality. Pupils
with dual nationality or more are calculated as shares: dual nationality as 0.5 +
0.5, triple nationality as 0.33 + 0.33 + 0.33.
14 S. Leaton Gray et al.

opportunity to question attitudes held by people in schools, at home or

in international schools dominated by the language and culture of that
particular country. Yet, when examining the textbooks used in European
schools this need to develop a European sensitivity is more a matter for
the teacher than the tools available. Textbooks are the same ones that are
used in national systems. In that sense it is up to the teachers to develop
a specific transnational approach when teaching history and geography,
and that it is not just a question of teaching national history in a European
context or incorporating historical narratives from all the European
Union countries into the syllabus. It is also a matter of developing a genu-
ine multilingual, pluricultural and hermeneutic view of history and his-
tory teaching.
Finaldi-Baratieri (2005) points out that the principle of equality of
esteem between different languages is more difficult to achieve in practi-
cal than in theoretical terms. In her view, the policy of langues véhiculai-
res illustrates how European schools can be more nationalistic than the
official discourse would allow. More interestingly, she argues that the
working language policy testifies to, at the micro-level, the force and
power exerted by the European Union’s core member states. Indeed, the
system is imperfect when implementing the policy of equality of esteem
between languages. Behind the plurality offered, the reality is much more
constrained and limited. And yet, despite the imperfect translation into
practice of this theoretical principle as the basis of the multilingual policy
of the schools, the educational offer in terms of language diversity remains
higher than the offer in the rest of the educational systems in Europe.
Despite these problems, the language policy still illustrates something
unique: the political will to expand the system to all European languages.
We examine in Chap. 3 and in much greater detail the organisation of
language learning and the development of intercultural competence in
the European School System.

Admission and Access

Table 1.3 shows the number of pupils for each school and the total num-
bers registered in the system for the period 2013–2016 and the variation
between years. The number of pupils at Brussels 1 is supplemented by
Table 1.3 Pupil population from 2013 to 2016
Diff. Diff.
School Pop. 2013 % 2013 Pop. 2014 % 2014 Pop. 2015 % 2015 Pop. 2016 % 2016 2013–16 Pop. 2013–16%
Alicante 1042 −1.0 1007 −3.4 980 −2.7 1010 3.1 −32 −3.1
Bergen 565 1.6 552 −2.3 537 −2.7 526 −2.0 −39 −6.9
Brussels 1 3083 1.4 3278 6.3 3394 3.5 3344 −1.5 261 8.5
Berkendael 154 154
Brussels 2 3078 −2.1 2958 −3.9 2998 1.4 3056 1.9 −22 −0.7
Brussels 3 2870 −0.8 2906 1.3 2989 2.9 3041 1.7 171 6.0
Brussels 4 1932 26.3 2263 17.1 2498 10.4 2703 8.2 771 39.9
Culham 600 −12 537 −10.5 459 −14.5 390 −15.0 −210 −35.0
Frankfurt 1247 4.7 1424 14.2 1452 2.0 1465 0.9 218 17.5
Karlsruhe 925 1.5 863 −6.7 813 −5.8 837 3.0 −88 −9.5
Luxenbourg1 2786 2.6 2972 6.7 3081 3.7 3260 5.8 474 17.0
Luxenbourg2 2101 6.9 2243 6.8 2348 4.7 2531 7.8 430 20.5
Mol 738 −0.8 723 −2.0 722 −0.1 740 2.5 2 0.3
Munich 2183 5.8 2237 2.5 2261 1.1 2313 2.3 130 6.0
Varese 1397 0.9 1422 1.8 1371 −3.6 1321 −3.6 −76 −5.4
Total 24,547 2.8 25,385 3.4 25,903 2.0 26,691 3.0 2144 8.7
Source: Office of the Secretary General of the European Schools (2017)
Becoming Europeans: A History of the European Schools
15
16 S. Leaton Gray et al.

those pupils located at the Berkendael site, as an extension of the main

campus. This relocation is temporary, pending the opening of Brussels 5.
These figures do not include associate schools.
The total student population of the European schools (October 2016)
was 26,691, and this represents a 3% growth in comparison with the
previous year. 67.7% of the total student population goes to one or other
of the four Brussels schools (46%) (at the time of writing a new school in
Brussels is being opened) and the two Luxembourg schools (21.7%). The
European schools located in Brussels have systematically suffered from a
problem of overcrowding for the past ten years.
When faced with the problem of scarcity of places, the Board of
Governors has been applying in the last six years a restrictive enrolment
policy for Category III students. As indicated in the official enrolment
policy for 2013–2014, the enrolment of such students is ‘restrict[ed] to
the siblings of present students, abiding strictly by the decisions of the
Board of Governors concerning this category of pupils’ (Board of
Governors 2012: 3). This has led to a decrease in the percentage of
Category III children in the European schools in Brussels, providing new
arguments for the debate about the potential homogeneity of students
within the schools. The difficulty with solving the problem of, for exam-
ple, overcrowding in Brussels, is leading to a major issue of legitimacy.
The reforms of 2009 were implemented to ‘open up’ the system to other
children than those in Category I, though accredited schools had been
introduced earlier. While the System has started to open up outside the
Belgian capital, in the Category 1 European schools the issue relating to
the legitimacy of the whole system of admissions has become more acute,
and has only been partly solved by the opening of a new school in Brussels.

Schooling
In 2006 the Board of Governors decided to commission an independent
analysis of four of the smaller Category 1 European schools located across
Europe. The outcome was the report submitted by the Bureau van Dijk
Management Consultants SA in August 2006 (Van Dijk 2006). This
Other documents randomly have
different content
 330 LE SATANISME ET LA MAGIE pour réternité, car tu es la
cause de l'homicide maudit, tu es Fauteur de l'inceste, tu es
l'organisateur des sacrilèges, tu es l'instigateur des plus mauvaises
actions, tu es celui qui enseigne l'hérésie, et tu es l'inventeur de tout
ce qui est obscène. Sors donc, impie, sors, scélérat, sors avec tous
tes mensonges, car Dieu a voulu faire son temple du corps de cet
homme. Mais pourquoi restes-tu plus longtemps ici ? Obéis à Dieu le
père, devant qui toute créature fléchit les genoux. Cède la place à
N.-S. J.-G.,qui a répandu son sang sacré pour l'humanité. Cède la
place à l'Esprit-Saint, qui par son bienheureux apôtre Pierre t'a
vaincu dans le mage Simon, qui a condamné ta fourberie dans
Anania et Saphira, qui t'a frappé dans Ilérode, qui n'a pas voulu
honorer Dieu, qui par son apôtre Paul t'a rendu aveugle dans le
mage Elyma. Sors donc, maintenant, sors, séducteur. Le désert est
ta résidence. Ta demeure est celle d'un serpent; humilie-toi et
prosterne-toi. Tu n'as pas de temps à perdre. Voici, en effet. Dieu le
Maître, il s'avance rapidement, et le feu brûlera ses ennemis s'ils
restent dans sa présence. Si tu as pu tromper un homme, tu ne
pourras te moquer de Dieu. Il te rejettera, celui pour les yeux de qui
rien n'est caché. Il te chassera, celui qui tient tout en son pouvoir. Il
te fera sortir, celui qui a préparé pour toi et pour les tiens la géhenne
éternelle, de la bouche de qui sort un glaive aigu, qui viendra juger
les vivants et les morts et le siècle par le feu. Nous venons
d'atteindre le point culminant de 1 opération mystique ; le reste
s'éteint, s'estompe, s'évanouit en un ronron : Pater noster, Ave,
Credo, Magnificat, cantique de Zacharie, symbole d'Athanase. Et les
psaumes s'égrènent, intercalés de Gloria Patri!.,. Je dois me
contenter de citer seulement un autre rite dit ex Pastorali
Malchliniensi et les exorcismes invoquant les saints Anges, la Vierge
Marie ou les saints. Il y a encore toute une série d'oraisons pour
forcer le démon à restituer l'Eucharistie tombée en son pouvoir. Le
Te Demi clôt ces pénibles exercices et, après avoir béni le délivré, le
triomphateur lui crie : « Voici que tu as été refait sain, ne pèche plus
de peur qu'il ne t'ar 
 L'EXORCISME 331 rive un plus terrible désastre. Va dans ta
maison, chez les tiens et annonce-leur les grandes choses que Dieu
a faites pour toi et toute sa miséricorde... » L'Église, en notre
époque d'incrédulité même chez les catholiques pratiquants, hésite à
terrasser les démons; elle confie volontiers à la douche et à
Thypnose ceux qu'autrefois elle eût flagellés du fouet verbal de ses
abjurations. Néanmoins elle a dû conserver pour la bénédiction des
fonts, le samedi saint, à l'office du matin, les plus magnifiques
formules d'exorcisme. « La créature de l'Eau » y est bénie ; l'esprit
immonde y est chassé, soit qu'il vole, soit qu'il rampe, soit qu'il se
dérobe et le prêtre trace avec son souffle un ^ sur l'onde
régénérée*. Dans les anciens monastères, on affublait l'envoûté de
certaines amulettes aux formules protectrices. D'autres fois, ces
formules, inscrites sur des morceaux de parchemin, étaient avalées
par les possédés; avec la digestion, l'exorcisme s'accomplissait sans
fatigue. De nos jours, m'a raconté M. Huysinans, c'est à la Trappe
que s'est réfugié le traditionnel exorcisme. Le clergé s'en écarte, en
l'admettant toujours. Celui qui lève les sorts * Voici la formule
d'exorcisme du sanctuaire : « Procul ergo hinc, juhente te, Domine,
omnis spiritus immiindus ahcedat. Procul tota nequitia diaboUcœ
fraudis absistat... Nihil hic loci haheat contrariœ virtulis admixtio;
non insidlendo circumvolet, non latendo subrepcU, non inpciendo
corrompat. » Pour exorciser Teau, le prêtre dit : Unde benedicite,
créatiira aqiiœ per deum vivum, per deum verum, per deum
sanction, per deum qui le in principio verbo separavit ab arida, cujns
spirilus super le ferebatur. » La bénédiction des fonds s'exprime
comme suit : « Sanctificelur et fecondelur fons iste oleo salutis,
renascentibus ex eo in vitam œternam. Amen. » Puis, prenant le
vase du saint chrême, le prêtre ajoute : « /nfusio chrismatis domini
nostri J.-C. et spiritus sancti Paracleti fiât in nomine sanctœ Irinitatis,
Amen. » 19..
 332 LE SATANISME ET LA MAGIE est un très vieil homme.
Mais les démons, repoussés par les bons moines, en sont réduits à
taquiner les animaux, et de préférence les porcs. Alors le vieux
leveur de sorts leur lit des oraisons et les fouaille d'eau bénite. Ces
bêtes, le même jour, se redressent joyeuses et guéries. M. Gilbert
Augustin Thierry, qui a étudié avec soin les démonographes,
m'affirme avoir assisté à une messe rouge dite par le curé des
Petites Dalles soit à l'église de Sanetot, soit à l'église de Senneville :
c'est « la messe des martyrs ». Sur l'autel des fleurs rouges, au
prêtre l'étole rouge. L'église est tendue de pourpre. Cette messe
rompt les maléfices des Bergers. L'envoûté doit assister à la
cérémonie sans répondre aux injonctions de son envoûteur, que la
puissance magique de la messe emmène dans le saint lieu; s'il parle,
l'exorcisme demeure impuissant. IV l'exorcisme sert a tout Tant que
les peuples crurent que le Démon était vraiment « la racine de tout
le mal >, ils s'en prirent à lui pour toutes leurs mauvaises fortunes.
L'exorcisme devint d'utilité publique, aussi nécessaire, aussi à la
mode que l'hygiène dans les maisons modernes. Non seulement les
personnes furent exorcisées, mais encore les animaux, et les objets.
Les maisons étaient aussi bien nettoyées par les versets bibliques
que par le balai et les désinfectants. Dans ce but le prêtre lisait des
psaumes, prononçait les évangiles, répandait l'eau bénite, jetait dans
le foyer l'en 
 L'EXORCISME 333 cens consacré. Après tout la méthode
n'était pas si mauvaise et les mystérieuses rumeurs des
appartements hantés étaient toujours pacifiées par ces cérémonies
purificatrices. De plus la religion semait en ces attentives âmes un
goût de probité et de netteté morales, d'autant plus profond que
rintérèt immédiat y était indissolublement lié. Les habitants
confessaient leurs péchés, purgeaient leur conscience, s'engageaient
à satisfaire le prochain offensé, priaient pour le voisin qui injuria.
L'image du crucifié exaltait au pardon et à la justice le sédentaire et
les cierges bénits étaient plus doux à l'œil et au cœur que notre
brutale électricité. En Bretagne, par exemple, la bénédiction de
certaines maisons ne s'accomplit pas toujours sans fracas, surtout si
l'esprit d'un mort s'y est attaché. Le prêtre appelé pour ce dur labeur
est d'ordinaire un solide gars. Ayant revêtu le surplis, il tient à la
main l'étole, se déchausse « afin d'être prêtre jusqua terre ». Les
escaliers et le parquet inondés de sable attestent par les traces
laissées la présence du mort hargneux. Le prêtre suit ces vestiges
jusqu'à la chambre où ils s'arrêtent. Là, il se renferme, combat
tantôt avec des oraisons, tantôt corps à corps. Il n'a triomphé
qu'après avoir passé son étole au cou du mort, qui est jeté dans le
corps d'un animal, d'ordinaire un chien noir. Le bedeau ou le
sacristain se chargent de l'emmener. Ils vont jusqu'en une lande
stérile, une carrière abandonnée, une fondrière dans une prairie. «
C'est ici désormais que tu demeureras, » dit le prêtre, lâchant
l'esprit. Et, circonscrivant l'espace, il se sert d'un cercle de barrique...
Pays de brume pittoresque, tu caches en tes replis,
 33i LE SATANISME ET LA MAGIE selon celte légende,
quelles âmes solitaires et désespérées' ! Les Clavicules nous ont
conservé d'innombrables exorcismes servant à contraindre les
gnomes gardiens de trésors ; mais ces conjurations manquent
absolument de grâce et sans doute d'utilité. Je préfère de beaucoup
les formules désintéressées qui enchantent les menus objets, les
modestes compagnons de la vie intime, apportent dans un intérieur
la magie d'une mystique propreté. En somme, toute bénédiction est
d'abord un exorcisme. L'eau par exemple ne devient bénite qu'après
la purification de sa propre nature et de la nature du sel. Puis cette
onde régénérée doit, tombant en pluie sainte, chasser le Satan
panthéistique qui dort en tout objet animé, ou inanimé. Le pain,
l'agneau, les autres chairs, les brebis, les fruits eux-mêmes si
innocents, tout comestible, le vin, la cervoise, l'huile, les médecines,
le lit du sommeil, le canapé du repos, le feu où sont brûlés les signes
maléfiques, les brasiers près desquels frileux on se réfugie, — tout
est matière à rénovation spirituelle, à récupération édenique. Le
péché originel, dont succomba le premier couple, a corrompu avec
eux toutes choses. Une tare occulte déprécie l'industrie et la nature,
un piège est tendu dans l'univers... En 1S16 l'officialité de Troyes
donna une sentence burlesque contre les chenilles de ce diocèse.
Admonestées ' De nos jours encore les sorciers savent dissoudre des
enflures que les médecins ne peuvent ni expliquer ni guérir. La
douleur est grande, rappelle les affres du tétanos et l'aspect du mal
l'assimilerait à Téléphantiasis. Appelé à temps l'opérateur prend un
verre d'eau, y jette cinq ou sept grains de blé, prononce des
exorcismes. A mesure que les grains gonflent et remontent à fleur
de liquide, le patient est guéri. Pour les dartres vives c'est plus
bizarre encore. Le berger se contente de prendre le nom et l'âge
delà personne. A cent lieues de distance il lève ainsi le mal l
 L'EXORCISME 335 gravement, les chenilles reçoivent Tordre
de se retirer dans l'espace de six jours : faute de quoi Tanathème est
sur elles jeté. Léonard Vair rapporte que d'autres diocèses
constituent un tribunal contre les sauterelles et autre dommageable
HOSTIE MIRACULEUSE DE VINTRAS SERVANT AUX EXORCISMES
DU D' JOHANNÈS vermine : deux procureurs, l'un de la part du
peuple, Tautre du côté des sauterelles. Après les plaidoyers,
sentence d'excommunication est lue contre ces petites bêtes
nuisantes. Mais il n'y a rien là pour dérouter le bon catholique. Saint
Bernard n'a-t-il pas frappé des foudres ecclésiastiques les mouches
qui persécutaient une église du diocèse de Laon ?
 336 LE SATANISME ET LA MAGIE Quelque chose de vrai
demeure en cet excès liturgique la toute-puissance de la prière sur
Tunivers visible et invisible. Les psaumes, accommodés avec les
évangiles, défendent contre les fièvres, et la peste, délivrent même
les animaux, réhabilitent le lait, mettent en déroute les vers, les rats,
les serpents ; et l'Apocalypse sert à soumettre la tempête, à
détourner la foudre, à dissiper les nuages, à réduire la grêle ou la
pluie.
 TABLE DES MATIÈRES Pages. Préface, par J.-K. Huysmans
V PRÉAMBULE Prière pour conjurer Satan 3 Le rôle fatidique de la
femme 7 LIVRE PREMIER SATAN ET SES DISCIPLES Chapitre pr. —
Les trois Satans 27 Chapitre IL — La Sorcière 36 I. La femme, mère,
épouse et fille de Satan .... 36 II. Les sorcières des campagnes 40
III. La somnambule des villes 48 IV. Les prodiges et les crimes des
sorcières .... 53 Chapitre III. — Le Sorcier 57 I. Apothéose du sorcier
57 IL Misère du sorcier 60 III. Le vœu à rebours 6i IV. Puissance du
sorcier .... 66 V. Vie mystérieuse du moderne sorcier 69
 338 TABLE DES MATIÈRES Pages. Chapitre IV. — Le Mage
74 I. L'appartement et l'âme du mage 75 II. Raymond LuUe et Jean
Dee 84 Chapitre V. — Les Évocations fantastiques des Mages. . 88 I.
Le mage et le Christ . 90 II. Le cochon de Jacobus 93 III. Evocation
par Tépée qui a tué 95 IV. La grande opération de la clavicule 97 V.
Hypocrisie du Salan des mauvais mages .... 101 VI. Le vrai mage,
c'est le prophète 106 Chapitre VI. — L'Évocation du Diable 109 I.
L'initiation de Satan 109 IL Les commandements de Satan . 118 lïl.
Le pacte 120 IV. Saint Jude, Judas et Satan 12i V. Le diable apparaît
130 Chapitre VII. — Dialogue entre le Diable et l'Évogateur. . 143
LIVRE II L^ÉGLISE DU DIABLE ET LES RITES MAGIQUES Chapitre
I^r — Le Sabbat 133 I. Le départ 154 II. La foire du sabbat 158 III.
Les animaux et les enfants au sabbat 160 IV. La danse et le banquet
163 V. L'excuse criminelle et scientifique du sabbat. . , 108 Chapitre
II. — La Messe du Sabbat 172 I. La confession et le pacte 173 II.
L'office du désespoir 175 Chapitre III. — Les Messes noires 180 I.
L'office de la vaine observance 183 II. La messe sacrilège de l'abbé
Guibourg 188 III. La messe noire selon Ezéchiel et Vinlras .... 195 IV.
Une messe noire terrassée. . _ 201 V. Cérémonies politiques 206
 TABLE DES MATIÈUES 339 Pages. Chapitre IV. — La ridicule
épouvante des larves .... 210 Chapitre V. — Les Incubes et les
Succubes 233 I. M. de Caudenberg et Marie-Ange 236 II. L'art de
l'incubât et du succubat. ....... 2t0 III. Le vampirisme 245 IV. La
légende delà morte et mortelle fiancée. . . 249 Chapitre VI. —
L'Envoûtement de haine 251 I. L'envoûtement de haine et ses rites
252 IL Le choc en retour 261 III. Les dangers et les préservatifs 264
IV. Envoûtement par la poudre sympathique et par le sang 267 V. La
science moderne et l'envoûtement 269 VI. L'envoûtement à travers
les pays et les siècles. . 272 VII. L'envoûtement moderne 283 VIII.
Les batailles des exorcistes contre les envoûteurs. 287 IX.
L'envoûtement n'est pas un danger pour le juste. 290 Chapitre VII.
— L'Envoûtement d'amour 296 I. Le nouement de l'aiguillette 296 IL
L'incantation d'amour 300 III. Les recettes d'amour . . . 306 IV. Les
vrais remèdes contre les philtres d'amour. . 317 Chapitre VIII. —
L'Exorcisme 319 I 319 II. Le drame de l'exorcisme 323 III. Rituel 327
IV. L'exorcisme sert à tout 332 ÉVHEUX, IMI'HIMKHIE DE CHARLES
II É R I S S E Y
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