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Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series

Nikolaos Dervilis Editor

Special Topics in
Structural Dynamics,
Volume 5
Proceedings of the 36th IMAC, A Conference and Exposition
on Structural Dynamics 2018
Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series

Series Editor
Kristin B. Zimmerman, Ph.D.
Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc.,
Bethel, CT, USA
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8922
Nikolaos Dervilis
Editor

Special Topics in Structural Dynamics,

Volume 5
Proceedings of the 36th IMAC, A Conference and Exposition
on Structural Dynamics 2018

123
Editor
Nikolaos Dervilis
University of Sheffield
Sheffield, UK

ISSN 2191-5644 ISSN 2191-5652 (electronic)

Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series
ISBN 978-3-319-75389-8 ISBN 978-3-319-75390-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75390-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018939152

© The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2019

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Preface

Special Topics in Structural Dynamics represents one of nine volumes of technical papers presented at the 36th IMAC,
A Conference and Exposition on Structural Dynamics, organized by the Society for Experimental Mechanics, and
held in Orlando, Florida, February 12–15, 2018. The full proceedings also include volumes on Nonlinear Dynamics;
Dynamics of Civil Structures; Model Validation and Uncertainty Quantification; Dynamics of Coupled Structures; Structural
Health Monitoring, Photogrammetry and DIC; Rotating Machinery, Vibro-Acoustics and Laser Vibrometry; Sensors and
Instrumentation, Aircraft/Aerospace and Energy Harvesting; and Topics in Modal Analysis and Testing.
Each collection presents early findings from experimental and computational investigations on an important area within
structural dynamics. Special Topics in Structural Dynamics represents papers on enabling technologies for general dynamics
and both modal analysis measurements and system identification, and damage detection.
The organizers would like to thank the authors, presenters, session organizers, and session chairs for their participation in
this track.

University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK N. Dervilis

v
Contents

1 Harmonic Forcing of a Two-Segment Timoshenko Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Arnaldo J. Mazzei, Jr. and Richard A. Scott
2 Fastener Fatigue Analysis Using Time Domain Methods for Multiaxial Random Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Michael Ross, Brian Stevens, Moheimin Khan, Adam Brink, and James Freymiller
3 Multi–input Multi–output Active Vibration Control for High Frequency Random Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Aabhas Singh, Matt Allen, and Washington J. DeLima
4 A Method for Canceling Force Transducer Mass and Inertia Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Garrett K. Lopp, Benjamin R. Pacini, and Randall L. Mayes
5 Efficient Estimation of Clamped Step-Thickness Plates FRFs in Industrial Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Yum Ji Chan, Chung-Yu Tai, and Yuan-You Li
6 Modeling, Experimental Verification and Optimization of Seat Structure Per ECE R14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Yunus Ozcelik, Semih Cakil, and Atıl Erdik
7 ODS & Modal Testing Using a Transmissibility Chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Brian Schwarz, Patrick McHargue, and Mark Richardson
8 Correlating Spectral Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Shawn Richardson, Jason Tyler, Brian Schwarz, and Mark Richardson
9 A Differential Evolution Markov Chain Monte Carlo Algorithm for Bayesian Model Updating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
M. Sherri, I. Boulkaibet, T. Marwala, and M. I. Friswell
10 Skin Performance in the Rollover Crashworthiness Analysis of Cutaway Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
MohammadReza Seyedi, Grzegorz Dolzyk, Sungmoon Jung, and Jerzy Wekezer
11 Across the Picket Fence: Influence of Sampling Frequency in Automatic Impact Modal Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Daniel J. Alarcón, Sarah Schneider, Robert Kamenzky, and Peter Blaschke
12 Estimation of Railway Track Longitudinal Profile Using Vehicle-Based Inertial Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Paraic Quirke, Eugene J. Obrien, Cathal Bowe, and Daniel Cantero
13 Experimental Modal Analysis of Structures with Conventional Versus Contact-Free Suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
S. Schneider, T. T. Mallareddy, D. J. Alarcón, R. Kamenzky, and P. Blaschke
14 Active Learning Approaches to Structural Health Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
L. Bull, G. Manson, K. Worden, and N. Dervilis
15 Multimodal Damping of a Nonlinear Structure with a Passive Piezoelectric Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
B. Lossouarn, J.-F. Deü, and G. Kerschen
16 Probability Distribution of von Mises Stress in the Presence of Pre-load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Daniel J. Segalman, Garth M. Reese, and Richard V. Field, Jr.

vii
viii Contents

17 Damage Detection Integrating ISHM and LWSHM Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Lucas Altamirando de Andrade da Rocha, Roberto Mendes Finzi Neto, and Valder Steffen, Jr.
18 Structural Health Monitoring of Additively Manufactured Parts Using Fiber Bragg Gratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Carlisle Fauver, David Petrushenko, Elon Gordon, Michelle Lockhart, Scott Ouellette, and Alexandria Marchi
19 Multipoint Control for Single Axis Vibration Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Alan Williams, Vivian Cai, Michael Maestas, John Heit, and Stuart Taylor
20 Driving a Motion Platform with a Vibration Control Software for Multi-axis Environmental Testing:
Challenges and Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Umberto Musella, Ludovico Zanellati, Marco Grottoli, Francesco Celiberti, Bart Peeters, Francesco Marulo,
and Patrick Guillaume
21 The Yellow Frame: Experimental Studies and Remote Monitoring of the Structural Health
Monitoring Benchmark Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
A. Mendler, C. E. Ventura, and S. Allahdadian
22 Developing a Passive Vibration Absorber to Generate Traveling Waves in a Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Seyedmostafa Motaharibidgoli, V. V. N. S. Malladi, and Pablo A. Tarazaga
23 Experimental Assessment of the Effect of Different Tires on Comfort of Construction Truck Operators . . . . 249
S. Cinquemani, M. Cutini, G. Abbati, G. Meloro, and E. Sabbioni
24 Tool Wear Inspection of Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride Inserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Chandula Wickramarachchi, T. E. McLeay, S. Ayvar-Soberanis, W. Leahy, and E. J. Cross
25 A New Approach to Dynamic Analysis of a Multi-Span Beam Structure with Multiple Moving
Oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Bingen Yang, Hao Gao, and Shibing Liu
Chapter 1
Harmonic Forcing of a Two-Segment Timoshenko Beam

Arnaldo J. Mazzei, Jr. and Richard A. Scott

Abstract This work treats the lateral harmonic forcing, with spatial dependencies, of a two-segment beam. The segments
are compact so Timoshenko theory is employed. Initially the external transverse load is assumed to be spatially constant.
The goal is the determination of frequency response functions. A novel approach is used, in which material and geometric
discontinuities are modeled by continuously varying functions. Here logistic functions are used so potential problems
with slope discontinuities are avoided. The approach results in a single set of ordinary differential equations with variable
®
coefficients, which is solved numerically, for specific parameter values, using MAPLE . Accuracy of the approach is assessed
using analytic and assumed mode Rayleigh-Ritz type solutions. Free-fixed and fixed-fixed boundary conditions are treated
and good agreement is found. Finally, a spatially varying load is examined. Analytic solutions may not be readily available
for these cases thus the new method is used in the investigation.

Keywords Layered cells beam · Layered structures resonances · Timoshenko non-homogeneous beam

Nomenclature

Ai , Beam segment cross section area

Ei , Beam segment material Young’s modulus
Gi , Beam segment material shear modulus
ki , Beam segment material shear coefficient
M, Bending moment
q, External force per unit length acting on the beam
f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , Non-dimensional functions for material/geometrical properties
Ii , Beam segment cross section area moment of inertia
L, Beam length
P, Compressive axial force acting on beam
t, Time
V, Shear force
w, Beam displacement in the y direction
Y, Non-dimensional beam displacement in the vertical direction
xyz, Inertial reference system (coordinates x, y, z)
x, Beam axial coordinate
, Shear strain
, Rotational angle of the beam cross section
, Non-dimensional frequency (/0 )
, Non-dimensional spatial coordinate
i , Beam segment mass density

A. J. Mazzei, Jr. ()

Department of Mechanical Engineering, C. S. Mott Engineering and Science Center, Kettering University, Flint, MI, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
R. A. Scott
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

© The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2019 1

N. Dervilis (ed.), Special Topics in Structural Dynamics, Volume 5, Conference Proceedings of the Society
for Experimental Mechanics Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75390-4_1
2 A. J. Mazzei, Jr. and R. A. Scott

, Non-dimensional time
¤i , Beam segment material Poisson’s ratio
, Frequency
0 , Reference frequency

1.1 Introduction

This work augments a previous study conducted by the authors on vibrations of segmented Euler-Bernoulli beams [1]. Here
Timoshenko beam theory is used for the modeling, expanding the study to cover a broader range of cases. The systems treated
involve two-segment, non-homogeneous beams, subject to harmonic forcing. The goal is the determination of frequency
response functions (FRFs). A couple of numerical approaches are used. The main method is developed wherein material
and geometric discontinuities are modeled by continuously varying functions (here logistic functions). It results in a set of
®
coupled ordinary differential equations with variable coefficients, which is solved numerically using MAPLE 1 (for specific
parameters). For comparison purposes, two extra approaches are discussed. An analytic solution is derived using differential
®
equations for each segment. The constants involved in the solutions of these equations are determined, via MAPLE , using
boundary and interface continuity conditions. Then the response, at a given location, is obtained as a function of the forcing
frequency (FRF). Lastly, an assumed-modes solution is developed by means of Rayleigh-Ritz expansions. Different sets of
boundary conditions, such as free-fixed and fixed-fixed, are treated. For the case of constant spatial external forcing, very
good agreement is found between the numerical and analytical methods. The assumed modes approach led to good results
when compared to the other two. Subsequently, a case with variable spatial forcing is solved using the continuous variation
method.
Exact frequencies of homogeneous Timoshenko beams, with varying cross-sections, were discussed in Ref. [2].
Frequencies were calculated via a dynamic stiffness matrix approach and compared to known results.
Vibrations of Timoshenko beams with varying cross sections, subjected to both axial and tangential loads, were
investigated in Ref. [3]. Natural frequencies were obtained using the Frobenius method for several cases, including the
effect of non-uniformity, end masses and axial and tangential forces.
Non-uniform beam frequencies were also studied in Ref. [4], using Timoshenko (TB) and Euler-Bernoulli (EB)
approaches. Efficacy of part by part modelling, i.e., utilizing a compatible approach, either TB or EB, for specific segments
of the beam, and new approaches for Rayleigh–Ritz approximations were discussed. Computational solutions, for beams
with rectangular cross-section, were validated by current literature results and FEM analyses.

1.2 Modeling

The two-segmented beam is shown in Fig. 1.1 and is comprised of two cells of different properties.
The modeling approach utilized here is described in Ref. [5] and is based on previous works on axially loaded beams by
Bishop and Price [6] and Esmailzadeh and Ohadi [3]. The equations of motion for a shaft in bending under axial load can be
derived via a Newton-Euler approach applied to a differential element of the beam at its deformed configuration, as seen in
Fig. 1.2.
The figure shows the shear forces, bending moments and axial forces acting on the element. The axial forces are assumed
to act perpendicular to the shear forces following a model given in Ref. [3] (see also follower force models given in Refs.
[7–9]). On the right side of the element the axial force is offset by the shear deformation, whereas the direction of the shear
force is not affected by the shear strain  .

X
E1, k1, A1, ρ1, L1 E2, k2, A2, ρ2, L2

Fig. 1.1 Layered beam

1
www.maplesoft.com/products/Maple/.
1 Harmonic Forcing of a Two-Segment Timoshenko Beam 3

Fig. 1.2 Beam differential element

Assuming small angles and constant axial load P, the equations of motion can be written as:
2 w.x;t/
.x/A.x/dx @ @t2
 @V
@x
dx C P @
@x
dx  q .x; t/ dx D 0
(1.1)
2
.x/I.x/dx @ .x;t/
@t2
C @M
@x
dx  Vdx  P dx D 0

Using a linearized curvature model, Eq. (1.1) can be re-written as:

2 w.x;t/
h  i
.x/A.x/ @ @t2
D q .x; t/ C @
@x
kA.x/G.x/ @w.x;t/
@x
  .x; t/  P @.x;t/
@x

2
h  i   (1.2)
.x/I.x/ @ .x;t/
@t2
D @
@x
E.x/I.x/ @.x;t/
@x
C .P C kA.x/G.x// @w.x;t/
@x
  .x; t/

In Eq. (1.2) the shear force is given by: V D kA(x)G(x) , where k is the “shear coefficient” (see Ref. [10]), which relates
the maximum shear stress to the average value in the cross section of the beam.
. versions.of Eq. (1.2), for the case of zero axial loading, are developed next. By taking  D 0 t,  D
.Non-dimensional
 x w , E(x) D E f (), kG(x) D k G f (), I(x) D I f (), (x) D  f (), A(x) D A f (), and
0 ,  D L, Y D L 1 1 1 1 5 1 2 1 3 1 4
substituting, one obtains:
2 Y.; /
  
/
f3 ./ f4 ./ @ @ 2
D Q .; / C ˛1 @@ f4 ./ f5 ./ @Y.;
@
  .; /
2 .; /
    (1.3)
f3 ./ f2 ./ @ @ 2
D 1 @@ f1 ./ f2 ./ @.;/
@
C .˛1  1 f 4 ./ f 5 .// @Y.;/
@
  .; /

q
q.x;t/ k1 G1 A1 L2 A1 L2
where Q .; / D 1 20 A1 L
, ˛1 D E1 I1
, 1 D I1
and 0 is a reference frequency, 0 D E1 I1
1 A1 L4
.
Assuming harmonic forcing, Q(, ) D q1 () exp (i), one can take Y(, ) D Z() exp (i) and  (, ) D () exp (i),
then:
  
f3 ./ f4 ./  2 Z ./ C ˛1 dd f4 ./ f5 ./ dZ./
d
 ./ C q1 ./ D 0
    (1.4)
f3 ./ f2 ./  2 ./ C 1 dd f1 ./ f2 ./ d d./ C .˛1 1 f4 ./ f5 .// dZ./
d
 ./ D 0
4 A. J. Mazzei, Jr. and R. A. Scott

1.3 Continuous Variation Model

In the continuous variation approach transitions from one material to another are modeled using logistic functions:

1 1 1
H.x/  C tanh ."x/ D (1.5)
2 2 1 C e2"x

where a larger " corresponds to a sharper transition at x D 0.

Since analytic solutions may not be workable for Eq. (1.4), the method is as follows. Given the cells layout (material)
®
and cross section variation, i.e., f1 (), f3 (), f2 (),f4 () and f5 (), a MAPLE routine is developed for obtaining numerical
®
approximations to the frequency response function (FRF) of the system. It consists of using MAPLE ‘s two-point boundary
value solver to solve a forced motion problem. A forcing function q1 () is assumed and the frequency  is varied. By
observing the mid-span deflection of the beam, resonant frequencies can be found on noting where change in signs occur.
Higher modes can be obtained by extending the search range. Monitoring amplitudes results in the FRF for the system.

1.4 Numerical Results

Consider the beam shown in Fig. 1.1. Here the segment cross-sections are assumed to have the same geometry and joined
at the center of the beam. The cross-section is taken to be a S 24 X 121 (ASTM A6 – American Standard Beam)2 and the
following materials are used: Aluminum (E1 D 71 GPa, 1 D 2710 Kg / m3 , ¤1 D 0.33, G1 D 26.69 GPa, k1 D 0.89) and
Silicon Carbide (E2 D 210 GPa, 2 D 3100 Kg / m3 , ¤2 D 0.16, G2 D 90.52 GPa, k2 D 0.87). These values are taken from
Refs. [10, 11].

1.4.1 Continuously Varying Functions

For the continuous variation model and a uniform beam, the non-dimensional logistic functions and cross-section functions
can be written, for example, as (see Fig. 1.3):

E2 E1
1   
f1 ./ D 1 C E1 2
C 12 tanh 500   12 ; f2 ./ D 1

2 1 1   
f3 ./ D 1 C 1 2
C 12 tanh 500   12 ; f4 ./ D 1 (1.6)

k2 G2 k1 G1
1   
f5 ./ D 1 C k1 G1 2
C 12 tanh 500   12

Assuming a value of 1 for the external forcing and using the approach given in Ref. [1], the resultant deflections for
fixed-free boundary conditions are plotted bellow, for two distinct values of the frequency  (see Fig. 1.4).
Using the figure, the first resonance frequency is taken to occur at  D 2.50. The second resonance, observed in the same
manner, occurs at  D 5.20.
Amplitudes for the response at the center of the beam can be monitored from Eq. (1.4). This leads to the numerical FRF
shown in Fig. 1.5.
Note that a similar problem is discussed in Ref. [1] using an Euler-Bernoulli model. For comparison purposes, the
numerical FRFs are overlapped in Fig. 1.6. A good agreement is seen. Differences are expected to increase as the length
of the beam is reduced.
For fixed-fixed boundary conditions the numerical FRF is shown in Fig. 1.7. First resonance is observed at  D 5.00.

2
www.efunda.com/math/areas/RolledSteelBeamsS.cfm.
1 Harmonic Forcing of a Two-Segment Timoshenko Beam 5

5 Shear modulus times

shear coefficient
increases 3.34 times

Material properties relative variation

4
Young’s modulus
increases 3 times
3

2 Density increases
1.15times

Geometry Constant
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x

Fig. 1.3 Relative properties variation for two-cell Timoshenko beam

1.5 Accuracy Assessment

1.5.1 Analytical Approach

Analytical solutions to Eq. (1.4) can be sought using Timoshenko beam theory.
Note that for each segment of the beam, these equations can be written as:
 
d2 Z./ d ./
f3 ./ f4 ./  2 Z ./ C ˛1 f4 ./ f5 ./ d 2
 d
C q1 ./ D 0
    (1.7)
d2 ./
f3 ./ f2 ./  2 ./ C 1 f1 ./ f2 ./ d 2
C .˛1 1 f4 ./ f5 .// dZ./
d
 ./ D 0

where the functions fi () are constant in each segment.

Solutions to this system of ODEs with constant coefficients, involve solutions to the homogeneous equations and particular
integrals. Depending on the forcing function q1 (), tracking particular solutions can pose a problem. In this section attention
is directed to obtaining solutions for the case of constant spatial forcing. (Variable spatial forcing is discussed later via the
continuous variation model.)
®
Here this is done using MAPLE . The solutions consist of exponential functions containing unknown coefficients, which
must be determined based on the set of boundary conditions for the problem. In addition, solutions must match at the interface
between the elements. Interface continuity requires matching of displacement, slope, moment and shear force.
These conditions provide a set of algebraic equations for the unknown coefficients. The FRFs can then be obtained by
monitoring solutions, for different values of the forcing frequency , at a specific point of the beam (here this is taken at the
center).

1.5.2 Analytical Results

Consider the free-fixed case. The boundary conditions are as ˇ follows (i subscriptˇ refers to the segment number).
1 ./ ˇ 1 ./ ˇ
The moment and shear free end at  D 0 gives: d d ˇ D 0 and dZd ˇ D 1 ./. The conditions at the fixed
xD0 D0
end give: Z2 () D 0 and 2 () D 0. Interface continuity conditions are: Z1 () D Z2 (),  D 0.5 (displacement continuity),
6 A. J. Mazzei, Jr. and R. A. Scott

0
10

8
−1

6
Z Z
−2
4

−3 2
ξ ξ
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

0
1.6 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

ξ
1.4
−1
1.2

1 −2
f
0.8 f
0.6 −3

0.4

−4
0.2 ξ
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

v = 2.40 v = 2.50
Fig. 1.4 Beam deflections for distinct values of  – Free-Fixed: first resonance

dZ 1 ./ dZ 2 ./ d 1 ./ 2 ./ dZ 1 ./

d 
D d 
; D 0:5 (slope continuity), d
D f1 f2 d d ;  D 0:5 (moment continuity) and d
 1 D
dZ 2 ./
f4 f 5 d
 2 ;  D 0:5 (shear continuity). q1 ()is set to 1.
The FRF for this case is shown in Fig. 1.8.
Next, consider the fixed-fixed case. Compared to the previous example, the only change in boundary conditions are at
 D 0. The new set is: Z1 () D 0 and 1 () D 0. The FRF for this case is shown in Fig. 1.9.
Accuracy of the results given by the continuous variation model can be assessed by comparison (overlapping) of the
FRFs. For the free-fixed case, the overlap is given in Fig. 1.10. It is seen that excellent agreement is obtained, the first two
resonances are captured and the amplitude values correspond very well.
For the fixed-fixed case the overlapped is given in Fig. 1.11. Excellent agreement is also observed here.
These results lend confidence to the continuous variation model.
Note that the analytical method is complicated and, in the case of variable spatial forcing, solutions may be intractable.
For this reason, an assumed modes method is discussed in the next section.
1 Harmonic Forcing of a Two-Segment Timoshenko Beam 7

0.5

0.4

Maximum Amplitude at ξ=0.5

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Non-dimensional Frequency

Fig. 1.5 Numerical FRF segmented beam – free/fixed

0.5

0.4
Timoshenko Beam
Maximum Amplitude at ξ=0.5

0.3

0.2
Euler-Bernoulli
Beam

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Non-dimensional Frequency

Fig. 1.6 Numerical FRFs comparison for EB/TB beams – free/fixed

1.5.3 Assumed Modes Method

For the assumed modes approach, the solution to Eq. (1.1) is assumed to have the form of a Rayleigh-Ritz expansion:

X
n X
n
w .x; t/ D Ui .t/ i .x/ ;  .x; t/ D Vi .t/ i .x/ (1.8)
iD1 iD1

where the generalized coordinates Ui and Vi , in the linear combination of shape functions i and i, are functions of time.
8 A. J. Mazzei, Jr. and R. A. Scott

0.5

0.4

Maximum Amplitude at ξ=0.5

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Non-dimensional Frequency

Fig. 1.7 Numerical FRF segmented beam – fixed/fixed

0.5

0.4
Maximum Amplitude at ξ=0.5

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Non-dimensional Frequency

Fig. 1.8 Analytical FRF segmented beam – free/fixed

The shape functions must be chosen so they form a linearly independent set that possess derivatives up to the order
appearing in the strain energy expression for the problem. They also must satisfy the prescribed boundary conditions.
The expressions for the kinetic (KE), strain energy (PE) and the external work done by the transverse load are:

Z2 " 2 # ZL " 2 #
L
 2   2 
@ @w @ @w
PE D E1 I1 C k1 A1 G1  dx C E2 I2 C k2 A2 G2  dx (1.9)
@x @x @x @x
0 L
2
1 Harmonic Forcing of a Two-Segment Timoshenko Beam 9

0.5

0.4

Maximum Amplitude at ξ=0.5

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Non-dimensional Frequency

Fig. 1.9 Analytical FRF segmented beam – fixed/fixed

0.5

0.4
Maximum Amplitude at Ζ=0.5

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Non-dimensional Frequency

Fig. 1.10 FRFs comparison: analytical (ı) and numerical () – free/fixed

Z2 "  2 # ZL "  2 #
L
 2  2
@w @ @w @
KE D 1 A1 C 1 I 1 dx C 2 A2 C 2 I 2 dx (1.10)
@t @x @t @x
0 L
2

L L
Z2 ZL Z2 ZL
WD Œq1 w dx C Œq2 w dx C Œq1  dx C Œq2  dx (1.11)
0 L 0 L
2 2
10 A. J. Mazzei, Jr. and R. A. Scott

0.5

0.4

Maximum Amplitude at Ζ=0.5

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Non-dimensional Frequency

Fig. 1.11 FRFs comparison: analytical (ı) and numerical () – fixed/fixed

Substituting Eq. (1.8) into these expressions, and using Lagrange’s equations, leads to a set of n differential equations for
the generalized coordinates (see Refs. [12] and for [13] details).
The discrete non-dimensional mass and stiffness matrices, for the differential equations set, can be obtained from (see
Ref. [14]):
1 1
R2 R1 R2 R1
M I i;j D i j dx C Ar r i j dx; M II i;j D i j dx C Ir r i j dx;
0 1 0 1
2 2
1 1
R2 0 0
R1 0 0
R2 0
R1 0
K I
i;j D i j dx C kr Gr Ar i j dx; K II
i;j D i j dx  kr Gr Ar i j dx; (1.12)
0 1 0 1
2 2
1 1 1
R2 0 0
R1 0 0
R2 R1 R2 0
R1 0
K III i;j D i j dx C Er Ir i j dx C i j dx C kr Gr Ar i j dx; K IV i;j D  j i dx  kr Gr Ar j i dx
0 1 0 1 0 1
2 2 2

If the external transverse loads are taken to be sinusoidal with frequency , the following expressions for calculating the
generalized external forces can be used:
21 3 21 3
Z2 Z1 Z2 Z1
6 7 6 7
Pi D 4 p1 i dx C p2
I
i dx5 sin ./ ; Pi II D 4 p1 i dx C p2 i dx5 sin ./ (1.13)
0 1 0 1
2 2

where pi is the amplitude of the force acting on the i-segment.

The resulting system of equations can be written as:
 ˚    ˚ I 
MI Œ0 R KI K II fUi g
˚Ui C D ˚ PIIi (1.14)
Œ0 M II VR i K IV K III fVi g P i

The natural frequencies can be evaluated via an eigenvalue problem and the system response to external forcing estimated
®
through modal analysis. The procedure is tackled using MAPLE .
1 Harmonic Forcing of a Two-Segment Timoshenko Beam 11

The procedure requires a choice of shape functions. Here these are taken to be beam characteristic orthogonal polynomials,
with each polynomial satisfying the prescribed boundary conditions of the problem. They are generated by the Gram-Schmidt
process [15] as demonstrated by Bhat [16].
For the free-fixed case, the first polynomial is taken to follow the static deflection of a homogeneous beam, under constant
distributed load (q) and with these boundary conditions. Then, from Timoshenko theory:

d.x/ q dw.x/ V q
EI D M D  x2 ;  .x/ D D x (1.15)
dx 2 dx kGA kGA
Employing the prescribed conditions gives, in non-dimensional form:
   
qL   qL3 1 4 3 qL3  3 
1 .x/ D c1 1  2 C   C ; 1 .x/ D d1  1 (1.16)
2kGA 6EI 4 4 6EI

The constants c1 and d1 are chosen such that:

Z1 Z1
2
. k / dx D 1; . k /2 dx D 1 (1.17)
0 0

The remainder polynomials are generated by the Gram-Schmidt approach. In addition, the set is also normalized. They
are divided by normalization parameters that are taken to be the inverse of the magnitude of their maximum values in the
interval  D 0...1.
For example, an approximation with two polynomials gives:

1 ./ D 0:1339 4  1:1012


2
 0:5356 C 1:5029 
4 2
2 ./ D .  0:2865/ 0:1339  1:1012  0:5356 C 1:5029
(1.18)
3
1 ./ D 1:2472  1:2472
 
2 ./ D .  0:3500/ 1:2472 3  1:2472

which leads to the following discrete differential equations of motion for the generalized coordinates ˛ i :
2 32 R 3 2 32 3 2 3
0:4535 0:0130 0 0 U1 3:068 1:3837 1:4335 1:0084 U1 0:5954
6 0:0130 0:2434 0 0 76U R 7 6 1:3837 9:8932 1:2194 1:1612 7 6 U2 7 6 0:1476 7
6 76 27 C 6 76 7 D 6 7 sin . /
4 0 0 0:6678 0:0212 5 4 VR 1 5 4  1:4335 1:2194 6:2609 4:1049 5 4 V1 5 4  0:7500 5
0 0 0:0212 0:2844 VR 2  1:0084 1:1612 4:1049 12:6211 V2  0:1071
(1.19)

The first natural frequencies are calculated as  D 2.03 and  D 2.95 (more polynomials are required for convergence).
Following the procedure with 18 polynomials and using a non-dimensional time  D 100, monitoring the amplitudes at
 D 0.5 leads to the results shown in Fig. 1.12. The eigensolution gives the following first two frequencies:  D 1.93 and
 D 2.75. A comparison (overlap) between the forced motion (continuous variation) and assumed modes approach is given
in Fig. 1.13.
Note that the first resonance seen in the figures is  D 2.75 (assumed modes) or  D 2.50 (forced motion). The results
differ by 10%.
For the fixed-fixed case, the polynomials are chosen as described above, using the static deflection equation under constant
distributed loading and Timoshenko theory. This gives:
 
qL  2  qL3  4  qL3  
1 .x/ D c1  C  C  C 2 3   2 ; 1 .x/ D d1 2 3 C 3 2   (1.20)
2kGA 24EI 12EI
12 A. J. Mazzei, Jr. and R. A. Scott

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
ν

Fig. 1.12 Numerical FRF with 18 polynomials – free/fixed

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
ν

Fig. 1.13 Comparison of numerical FRFs – free/fixed

Using the approach with 18 polynomials, a non-dimensional time  D 100 and monitoring the amplitudes at  D 0.5,
leads to the results shown in Fig. 1.14 . The first two natural frequencies are  D 4.24 and  D 6.51. A comparison (overlap)
between the forced motion and assumed modes approach is given in Fig. 1.15.
The difference between the approaches for the first resonance is about 15% ( D 4.24 – assumed modes and  D 5.00 –
forced motion).
1 Harmonic Forcing of a Two-Segment Timoshenko Beam 13

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
ν

Fig. 1.14 Numerical FRF with 18 polynomials – fixed/fixed

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
ν

Fig. 1.15 Comparison of numerical FRFs – fixed/fixed

1.5.4 Spatially Varying External Forcing

One of the objectives of developing the continuous variation model is the ability to obtain solutions for analytically intractable
problems. Consider next an example which includes spatial force variations. The results can be found using the model and,
as demonstrated above, can give very accurate estimates for the FRFs.
2
Take, for example, variable forces equal in both segments and given by the exponential function: q1 ./ D e .The FRFs
given by the approach, for both sets of boundary conditions, are seen in Fig. 1.16.
14 A. J. Mazzei, Jr. and R. A. Scott

0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4
Maximum Amplitude at ξ=0.5

Maximum Amplitude at ξ=0.5

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 2 4 6 8 10
Non-dimensional Frequency Non-dimensional Frequency

Free/Fixed Fixed/Fixed

Fig. 1.16 FRF for varying spatial functions

1.6 Conclusions

A numerical approach was developed in which discontinuities were modeled by continuously varying functions (here chosen
to be logistic functions). This led to a single set of ordinary differential equations with variable coefficients, which was solved
®
for specific parameter values, using MAPLE .
Accuracy was assessed by comparison with results obtained from an analytical approach. This model was obtained by
determining solutions for each segment and then using interface continuity conditions and boundary conditions to obtain
solutions. This is an arduous process and another approach to assessment was offered in the form of a Rayleigh-Ritz method.
Two sets of boundary conditions were investigated, namely, free-fixed and fixed-fixed. For spatially constant external
forcing, the continuous variation approach compared very well with the analytic solutions. The Rayleigh-Ritz solutions
compared well to the continuous variation ones; maximum differences were in the order of 15%.
Subsequently, the continuous variation approach was used to produce solutions for a case with external spatially varying
force, which could be intractable analytically.

References

1. Mazzei, A.J., Scott, R.A.: Harmonic forcing of a two-segment Euler-Bernoulli beam. In: Dervilis, N. (ed.) Special Topics in Structural
Dynamics, Volume 6: Proceedings of the 35th IMAC, a Conference and Exposition on Structural Dynamics 2017, pp. 1–15. Springer
International Publishing, Cham (2017)
2. Eisenberger, M.: Dynamic stiffness matrix for variable cross-section Timoshenko beams. Commun. Numer. Methods Eng. 11(6), 507–513
(1995)
3. Mazanoglu, K.: Natural frequency analyses of segmented Timoshenko–Euler beams using the Rayleigh–Ritz method. J. Vib. Control. 23(13),
2135–2154 (2015)
4. Mazzei, A.J., Scott, R.A.: Resonances of compact tapered inhomogeneous axially loaded shafts. In: Allemang, R., De Clerck, J., Niezrecki,
C., Wicks, A. (eds.) Special Topics in Structural Dynamics, Volume 6, pp. 535–542. Springer, New York (2013)
5. Bishop, R.E.D., Price, W.G.: The vibration characteristics of a beam with an axial force. J. Sound Vib. 59(2), 237–244 (1978)
6. Esmailzadeh, E., Ohadi, A.R.: Vibration and stability analysis of non-uniform Timoshenko beams under axial and distributed tangential loads.
J. Sound Vib. 236(3), 443–456 (2000)
7. Saito, H., Otomi, K.: Vibration and stability of elastically supported beams carrying an attached mass under axial and tangential loads. J. Sound
Vib. 62(2), 257–266 (1979)
8. Irie, T., Yamada, G., Takahashi, I.: Vibration and stability of a non-uniform Timoshenko beam subjected to a follower force. J. Sound Vib.
70(4), 503–512 (1980)
1 Harmonic Forcing of a Two-Segment Timoshenko Beam 15

9. Kounadis, A.N., Katsikadelis, J.T.: Coupling effects on a cantilever subjected to a follower force. J. Sound Vib. 62(1), 131–139 (1979)
10. Cowper, G.R.: The shear coefficient in Timoshenko’s beam theory. J. Appl. Mech. 33(2), 335–340 (1966)
11. Chiu, T.C., Erdogan, F.: One-dimensional wave propagation in a functionally graded elastic medium. J. Sound Vib. 222(3), 453–487 (1999)
12. Craig, R.R., Kurdila, A., Craig, R.R.: Fundamentals of Structural Dynamics. Wiley, Hoboken (2006)
13. Kelly, S.G.: Advanced Vibration Analysis. CRC/Taylor & Francis, Boca Raton (2007)
14. Eslami, M.R.: Finite Elements Methods in Mechanics. Springer, Cham (2014)
15. Chihara, T.S.: Introduction to Orthogonal Polynomials. Gordon and Breach, London (1978)
16. Bhat, R.B.: Transverse vibrations of a rotating uniform cantilever beam with tip mass as predicted by using beam characteristic orthogonal
polynomials in the Rayleigh-Ritz method. J. Sound Vib. 105(2), 199–210 (1986)
Chapter 2
Fastener Fatigue Analysis Using Time Domain Methods
for Multiaxial Random Vibration

Michael Ross, Brian Stevens, Moheimin Khan, Adam Brink, and James Freymiller

Abstract The success or failure of a structure can hinge on the proper selection of its fasteners. A predominant failure of a
fastener during random vibration is that of fatigue. This generally occurs after the loss of the bolt pre-tension. Time domain
methods for fatigue assessment of fasteners are used for typical environments in the Aeronautics industry. Also explored
is if the multiaxial loading of random events creates proportional or non-proportional loading in the fasteners. This work
finds that if the applied loads at a fastener jointed interface from a random vibration environment are such that the preload is
greatly reduced, then it is essential to analyze fasteners with a multiaxial fatigue method.

Keywords Fasteners · Fatigue · Multiaxial · Non-proportional · Random vibration

2.1 Introduction

One of the more important structural aspects of any system is the fasteners and the joints included within it. Similar to other
metallic components, fasteners often fail due to fatigue. In fact, fatigue has been cited as one of the major causes of in-
service failure throughout engineering history [1], and it has been estimated that fatigue contributes to approximately 90% of
all mechanical service failures [2]. Additionally, testing a system to fail in fatigue is untenable due to the time and economic
expense, especially with accounting for variability. For these reasons, it quickly becomes necessary to model system fatigue
failure numerically during the design process.
Fatigue crack initiation and growth occurs due to the application of fluctuating stresses, which are often significantly
lower than the stress required for single passage failure, provided that the part experiences a sufficient number of cycles.
Typical random vibration events for components mounted to an aircraft can generate an ample number of stress cycles in the
component fasteners, and so fatigue becomes an important design consideration.
The cyclic-stress amplitude in a fastener is dependent on the preload. “Specifically, increased preload results in decreased
cyclic stress-amplitude, particularly at loads below the clamping force imposed by the fastener” [3]. However, preload must
only be increased to a point that does not overload the fastener system and exceed the strength capacity of the clamped
materials or the fastener. The clamped materials may include an insert where increasing the preload could result in shear
failure of the material threads around the insert.
The shear stress in a fastener is also dependent on the preload. If the preload is sufficient, then joint friction will prevent
shear forces on the fastener. However, if the applied tensile forces are such that the joint is close to separation, then the
fastener will resist shear loading. The studies in this work are such that the applied forces from the random vibration events
have significantly reduced the preload, thus introducing the possibility of shear as a contributor to failure. The reduction in
preload causes the frictional forces at the joint to decrease to a point where the fastener experiences a shear load.
Due to the combined tensile and shear loading on the fastener, a multiaxial stress state is then found in the fastener with
reduced preload. It is shown that this creates a non-proportional loading. A non-proportional loading state is defined as a
stress state where the principle stress tensor is time variant [4]. Modeling fatigue of the fastener with standard stress states
that are essentially uniaxial, fail to predict the potential non-proportional fatigue failure.
This paper begins with addressing some typical modeling methods for fasteners in Sect. 2.2.1. Then, basic stress states are
found for the fastener with standard machine design methods, such as those found in Shigley and Mischke [5] or Norton [6].

M. Ross () · B. Stevens · M. Khan · A. Brink

Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
J. Freymiller
ATA Engineering Inc., Sandia Park, NM, USA

© The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2019 17

N. Dervilis (ed.), Special Topics in Structural Dynamics, Volume 5, Conference Proceedings of the Society
for Experimental Mechanics Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75390-4_2
18 M. Ross et al.

Typical fatigue predictions for fasteners are then found with these stress states, see Sect. 2.2.3. Multiaxial fatigue methods are
then presented in Sect. 2.2.4. Credibility of the modeling method chosen and fastener fatigue is provided in Sect. 2.3. Finally,
a test article is subjected to a random vibration environment in Sect. 2.4, where it is found that multiaxial non-proportional
methods are best suited for fatigue predictions of fasteners in these numerical analyses.

2.2 Fasteners

The fasteners in question in this report were investigated for single passage failure and fatigue. This section provides the
background on the calculations used for this work.
The typical joints analyzed are shown in Fig. 2.1. Each joint is comprised of a bolt that clamps two plates. The bolt is
threaded into either a nut or a threaded insert. In the case of an insert, Plate 2 is threaded to accept the insert, see Fig. 2.1. In
the case of a nut, Plate 2 simply has a through hole and acts the same as Plate 1. This work uses the case of an insert.

2.2.1 Modeling Approach

There are several methods for modeling fastener joints numerically. The predominant methods used are illustrated in Fig. 2.2
with the joining materials being separated for visualization purposes. These techniques range from representing the joint
mechanics with a beam or spring and post processing stress states in the bolt and threads, to modeling the joint as a full
3D model including the threads. Typical system level models can have on the order of 10 million degrees of freedom with
hundreds of fasteners that need to be analyzed. Therefore, including a complete model of the fastener and trying to employ
high fidelity modeling on all aspects in the finite element model, such as friction at the threads, would be computational
intractable. Therefore, the first three methods in Fig. 2.2: a beam, a spring, and a solid (no threads), have been explored for
modeling the fastener. A valid method that was not explored in this work, would be to use a global-local modeling approach.
Where the simplified model of the fastener-joint would provide input into a higher fidelity fastener-joint model, such as the
Full 3D in Fig. 2.2.
Advantages of the spring and beam methods is that the analyst can obtain a realistic, fast, computational force/stress state.
This is used to calculate items such as insert tear out during a post-processing procedure. An advantage of a beam over a
spring is if the system has bolts that are long and could experience bending, then that bending is captured by the analysis.
The spring can still model rotational motion from a rotational spring constant, but it may not capture a true long fastener
bending effect.
Fasteners can fail in many ways, ranging from tensile failure of the bolt to insert pull out from the parent material. The
following fastener analyses are explored in this work:
• bolt tension failure,
• bolt shear failure,
• bolt combined failure,
• bolt thread shear,
• insert thread shear,

Fig. 2.1 Three types of joints that are common

2 Fastener Fatigue Analysis Using Time Domain Methods for Multiaxial Random Vibration 19

Fig. 2.2 Typical methods for modeling a fastener joint. The joining materials are separated for visualization purposes

• nut thread shear, and

• casing thread shear (insert pulling out of parent material).
In regards to all of these failure mechanisms, the axial and transverse loads on the fastener will be needed for the analyses,
as discussed in Sect. 2.2.2. Ultimately, it was found that a beam or spring model of the joint is sufficient to run these analyses
as discussed in Sect. 2.3.1.
Using a spring model for the joint enables the analyst to determine the applied axial and transverse loads in the bolt.
Because the environments are transient analyses, these values change with time. The axial load in the bolt modeled as a
spring is found from

Faxial .t/ D kb  uaxial .t/; (2.1)

where kb is the axial stiffness of the bolt, discussed in Sect. 2.2.2, and uaxial .t/ is the relative axial displacement of the spring
derived in the finite element analyses. However, the stiffness used in these calculations needs to be the same used in the
finite element analyses. If the bolt is not aligned with the general coordinates of the system, then a cylindrical or spherical
coordinate system can be used to assure that the correct axial displacement is found.
The applied shearing loads on the bolt can be found from the spring displacements in the transverse directions using a
similar approach as the axial method. This provides two orthogonal loads, where the resultant would provide the complete
shear load on the bolt. The shear force loads, Fshear1 and Fshear2 , can be found from

Fsheari .t/ D kshear  usheari .t/; (2.2)

where subscript i is the two transverse directions (shear directions) on the bolt, and kshear is the stiffness of the bolt in shear.
The shear stiffness needs to be the same as used in the finite element analysis. The resultant shear force can be found from
q
2 2
Fshear .t/ D Fshear1 .t/ C Fshear2 .t/: (2.3)

A conservative approach in full system modeling is to remove any friction modeling at the lap joint; thus, the fastener resists
all the shear. Consequently, the shear force in the fastener is generally a larger value in the model than reality if the joint
does not separate (lose the preload). Typically, dowel pins and the frictional interface of the joint are used to resist shearing.
However, that is not always the design solution, and fasteners will undergo shear loading.
The use of a spring model for the bolt fastener does break down in accuracy if the fastener is placed in significant bending.
This can happen for long fasteners. If this is the case, it is recommended to use a beam modeling approach. In fact, a beam
can provide the same information as the spring, plus better bending information. A beam provides the axial load and shearing
loads in SIERRA SD [7] in terms of an element force variable, eforce. Once again, the shearing force needs to be the resultant
of the two shear forces from the element force in the beam.
20 M. Ross et al.

2.2.2 Typical Fastener Stress Analyses

The fasteners in these analyses experience the following three environments: random vibration, shock, and quasi-static
acceleration. When looking at the single passage failure, the greatest stress state found throughout time is used. To find
the stress state the following fastener analyses are explored and discussed in the sections below: bolt tension stress, bolt
shear stress, bolt thread shear, insert thread shear, nut thread shear, casing thread shear (insert pulling out of parent material).
The stress states for fastener analyses are post processed, given the axial force and shearing forces in the bolt. These forces
are found from the finite element simulation as a function of time and dependent on the bolt modeling technique. As noted
in Sect. 2.2.1, it is recommended to obtain these values from either a spring model of the bolt or a beam model of the bolt.
These stress values will be a function of time and can be used for determining fatigue properties as discussed in Sect. 2.2.3.

2.2.2.1 Fastener Axial Stress

The axial stress of a fastener is more complicated than a simple rod in tension. An analyst needs to consider the preload, the
flanges that the bolt is connecting take a portion of the load, the axial stress is better defined by the average of the minor and
pitch bolt diameters, and the issue that the flanges may separate putting all the load on the bolt.
To begin the analysis, the preload tension in the fastener, Fi , needs to be determined. This can be found as [8]:

T
Fi D ; (2.4)
Kt dbolt

where T is the torque, Kt is torque coefficient, and dbolt is the bolt diameter. The torque coefficient, Kt , also known as the
nut factor, is a factor applied to account for the effects of friction. Typically, the torque coefficient for UNS Standard threads
with coefficients of friction at 0.15 is 0.22 [6].
When the bolt is preloaded, the bolt is under tension and the flanges are compressed. In a preload state, the bolt carries
only a portion of the applied load. The other portion of the applied loading is offset by the release of the compressive energy
introduced to the flanges during the initial preload. Essentially, a portion of the work is performed by the joint and a portion
by the bolt.
This is the ideal situation; therefore, the initial preload is introduced so that the compression in the flanges is preferably
never completely relieved and hence the flange faces never separate. However, there is a potential for this separation. If the
flanges completely separate, then the bolt must carry the entire load. The separation load can be determined by:

Fi kb
Po D ; where C D ; (2.5)
1C kb C km

kb is the bolt stiffness Eq. (2.6), and km is the material stiffness of the material surrounding the bolt Eq. (2.8). The bolt stiffness
is simply found from [6]:

At Eb
kb D ; (2.6)
L
where At is tensile stress area, Eb is the bolt modulus of elasticity, and L is the length of the bolt under load, see Fig. 2.3. The
tensile stress area is found in tables or from the equation:
 2
dp C dr
At D ; (2.7)
4 2

where dp is the pitch diameter and dr is the minor diameter.

Several methods exist for estimating the stiffness of the joint material’s load effected region. This report uses the method
reported in Chambers [8] for bolts depicted in Fig. 2.3. The material stiffness is defined as:

Em db
km D    (2.8)
2L C 0:5db
ln 5
2L C 2:5db
2 Fastener Fatigue Analysis Using Time Domain Methods for Multiaxial Random Vibration 21

l1

LP1
l2
L

ln
LP2

Li

Fig. 2.3 Fastener and joint configuration for joints connected with inserts. (Figure from [8])

where
Li
L D l1 C l2 C .ln C /; (2.9)
2

L
Em D ; (2.10)
l1 l2 ln  Li =2
C C
E1 E2 En

where db is the nominal bolt diameter, Ei are the material modulus of elasticities corresponding to material 1, 2, and n, and
dimensions (l1 , l2 , ln , etc.) are shown in Fig. 2.3.
The tension load in the bolt, Ft .t/, can be determined with the use of the preload, the required load for separation, and the
axial load in the bolt.

if Faxial .t/ < Po ; then

Ft .t/ D Fi C CFaxial .t/;
(2.11)
else
Ft .t/ D Faxial .t/;

where Faxial .t/ is the applied axial load in the bolt found from the finite element analysis.
The tensile stress in the bolt can be found given the axial load, Eq. (2.11), and the tensile stress area of the bolt, Eq. (2.7).

Ft .t/
t .t/ D : (2.12)
At

Margin of Safety for Ultimate Axial Stress

A margin of safety can be found for single passage failure of the bolt in axial stress from
allow
MStensile .t/ D  1; (2.13)
FS.t .t//

where allow is either the yield or ultimate stress of the material, and FS is the factor of safety. The lowest margin is reported
and corresponds to the highest tensile stress in the bolt found during the transient analyses.
22 M. Ross et al.

2.2.2.2 Parent Material Thread Shear/Insert Pull-Out

If the parent material is significantly weaker than the insert material, then another possible mechanism of failure is the shear
failure of the parent material’s internal threads. The shear area of the parent material is calculated from the properties of the
casing’s internal thread where it mates with the insert’s external thread. The area for the shear stress of the internal threads
of the parent material is found from:
 
1
Apar D nn Le Ds C 0:57735.Ds  En / ; (2.14)
2nn

where nn is the number of threads per inch, Le is the length of thread engagement, Ds is the minimum major diameter of the
external threads, and En is the maximum pitch diameter of the mating external threads [9].
The shear stress calculation in the parent material near at the threads at the insert is based on the axial load in the bolt, see
Eq. (2.11), and the thread shear area, see Eq. (2.14).

Ft .t/
par .t/ D : (2.15)
Apar

Margin of Safety for Ultimate Parent Material Thread Shear Stress

A margin of safety can be found for single passage failure of the parent material threads near the insert using:
uts
MSpar .t/ D  1; (2.16)
FS.par .t//

where uts is the ultimate shear strength that can be defined as uts D 0:577allow . The lowest margin is reported and
corresponds to the highest thread shear stress in the parent material found during the transient analyses.

2.2.2.3 Bolt Thread Shear

Another possible mechanism for failure is if the bolt threads shear. The area used to calculate the thread shear stress in the
bolt is found from the following:
 
1
Athd D ne Le Kn C 0:57735.Es  Kn / ; (2.17)
2ne

where ne is the number of threads per inch, Le is the length of thread engagement, Kn is the maximum minor diameter of the
internal threads and Es is the minimum pitch diameter of the mating internal threads [9].
The shear stress calculation in the bolt threads is based on the axial load in the bolt, see Eq. (2.11), and the thread shear
area, see Eq. (2.17).

Ft .t/
thd .t/ D : (2.18)
Athd

Margin of Safety for Bolt Thread Shear

A margin of safety can be found for single passage failure of the bolt threads in shear from
uts
MSthd .t/ D  1; (2.19)
FS.thd .t//

where uts is the ultimate shear yield strength that can be defined as uts D 0:577allow . The lowest margin is reported and
corresponds to the highest thread shear stress in the bolt found during the transient analyses.
2 Fastener Fatigue Analysis Using Time Domain Methods for Multiaxial Random Vibration 23

2.2.2.4 Insert/Nut Internal Thread Shear

A bolt can also fail by stripping the nut or insert threads. Typically, a nut or insert is chosen such that it has a higher
material strength than the surrounding material, and will not be the weakest section of the joint. The area used to calculate
the insert/nut internal thread shear is found from the following:
 
1
Aint D ni Le Ds C 0:57735.Ds  En / ; (2.20)
2ne

where ni is the number of threads per inch, Le is the length of thread engagement, Ds is the minimum major diameter of the
external threads, and En is the maximum pitch diameter of the mating external threads [9].
The shear stress calculation in the insert/nut internal threads is based on the axial load in the bolt, see Eq. (2.11), and the
insert/nut internal thread shear area, see Eq. (2.20).

Ft .t/
int .t/ D : (2.21)
Aint

Margin of Safety for Insert/Nut Thread Shear

A margin of safety can be found for single passage failure of the insert/nut internal threads in shear from
uts
MSint .t/ D  1; (2.22)
FS.int .t//

where uts is the ultimate shear yield strength that can be defined as uts D 0:577allow . The lowest margin is reported and
corresponds to the highest shear stress in the insert/nut internal threads found during the transient analyses.

2.2.2.5 Insert External Thread Shear

The area used to calculate the insert external thread shear stress is found from the following:
 
1
Aext D ne Le Kn C 0:57735.Es  Kn / ; (2.23)
2ne

where ne is the number of threads per inch, Le is the length of thread engagement, Kn is the maximum minor diameter of the
internal threads and Es is the minimum pitch diameter of the mating internal threads [9].
The shear stress calculation in the insert external threads is based on the axial load in the bolt, see Eq. (2.11), and the
insert external shear area, see Eq. (2.23).

Ft .t/
ext .t/ D : (2.24)
Aext

Margin of Safety for Insert External Thread Shear

A margin of safety can be found for single passage failure of the insert internal or nut threads in shear from
uts
MSext .t/ D  1; (2.25)
FS.ext .t//

where uts is the ultimate shear yield strength that can be defined as uts D 0:577allow . The lowest margin is reported and
corresponds to the highest shear stress in the external threads of the insert found during the transient analyses.
24 M. Ross et al.

2.2.2.6 Bolt Shear Stress

The next area of concern is if the bolts will shear. It is assumed that the torsional stress caused by the preload torque has
relaxed over time. This is typical, especially if there is any vibration present (transportation, etc.) [6]. Thus, the only shear
load is from the applied loads, Eq. (2.3). The shear area, Ashear , is calculated using the nominal diameter of the bolt. The
shear stress is then found from:

Fshear .t/
shear .t/ D : (2.26)
Ashear

Margin of Safety for Shear Stress in the Fastener

A margin of safety can be found for single passage failure of the shear stress in the fastener from
uts
MSshear .t/ D  1; (2.27)
FS.shear .t//

where uts is the ultimate shear strength that can be defined as uts D 0:577allow . The lowest margin is reported and
corresponds to the highest shear stress in the fastener found during the transient analyses.

2.2.2.7 Tear-Out Analysis

Another possible mechanism of failure is shear tear out of the flange materials. This is possible when the bolt is positioned
near the free edge of one or more of the abutment components and is loaded in shear. The bolt fails the flange material by
shearing (or tearing) the material between the hole and the free edge of the flange. The available shear tear area is defined
as [8]

D
Atear D 2t.e  /; (2.28)
2
where t is the thickness of the sheet, e is the perpendicular distance from the hole centerline to the free edge of the sheet, and
D is the nominal fastener diameter (see Fig. 2.4).
The shear stress in this scenario is due to the resultant shear force on the bolt, Eq. (2.3), and the available shear tear area,
Eq. (2.28).

Fshear .t/
tear .t/ D : (2.29)
Atear

Fig. 2.4 Shear tear out of sheet b a b

edge. (Figure from [8])
a e
b b

D
2 Fastener Fatigue Analysis Using Time Domain Methods for Multiaxial Random Vibration 25

Margin of Safety for Tear-out of the Material

A margin of safety can be found for single passage failure of the tear-out of the material from
uts
MStear .t/ D  1; (2.30)
FS.tear .t//

where uts is the ultimate shear strength that can be defined as uts D 0:577allow .

2.2.3 Typical Fastener Fatigue Approach

Fatigue is caused by a fluctuation of the applied stress with a sufficiently large number of cycles. Once the stress state as
a function of time is known, fatigue calculations can be performed in a typical high-cycle fatigue methodology with some
modifications to accommodate for fasteners in multiaxial stress states. High cycle fatigue is used, because the system under
study for this analysis experienced a large number of cycles (> 105 cycles) and remained in the elastic regime of the bolt
material.
The method for fatigue begins with cycle counting the stress state that is a function of time,  .t/ or .t/. In the time
domain with uniaxial loading, rainflow counting techniques are well established [10] and used in this work. For each cycle,
the rainflow algorithm provides a peak stress and an amplitude. This information provides a stress ratio for each cycle,
defined as
min
RD ; (2.31)
max

where min is the minimum stress and max is the maximum stress in the particular cycle. This is an important factor for bolts
that are preloaded. Thus, the cycle counting from the rainflow algorithm provides a number of cycles, the stress state at each
cycle, and the stress ratio.
Next, a stress or strain to cycle (S/N) curve is needed for the bolt material. This can be obtained from either experiments or
literature. The work here uses the S/N curve data from MMPDS-11 (formally MIL-HDBK-5). In the data, it is important to
know if it accounts for different stress ratios or the applicable range of the stress ratio. If the S/N curve does not accommodate
the high stress ratio typically found with preloaded bolts, this work uses a Goodman modification [6] to generate an equivalent
stress, eff , with an R D 1 (fully reversed stress data).

max
eff D a Π; (2.32)
max  m

where max is the maximum stress from the rainflow particular cycle, a is the alternating stress at that cycle, and m is the
mean stress at that cycle.
The S/N curve data for the material will then provide a fatigue life in cycles for that particular equivalent stress level or
max stress with R. This number of life cycles for a particular stress is commonly noted as Ni . The simulation and rainflow
counting provide a cycle count for the same stress level, ni . Cumulative damage is done with the popular Palmgren-Miner
rule [11] to obtain a damage metric,

Xk
ni
DD ; (2.33)
iD1
Ni

where k is the number of stress events. In this work, a D  0:5 is indicative of fatigue failure, following customer
requirements derived from Steinberg [12].
For each of the stress states, noted in Sect. 2.2.2, a damage metric, D, can be found. However, the S/N curves are typically
based on a uniaxial tensile test. The stress states that are not in tension, such as thread shear, need a method to create an
equivalent tensile stress state from the current stress state for comparisons to typical S/N curves.
Following work by Anes et al. [13], a stress scale factor, ssf , is used. The ssf relates a pure shear stress state to a tension
S/N results based on various multiaxial fatigue criterions [13]. By multiplying various shear stress states with the ssf and
equivalent tension stress state is found that can be compared to typical uniaxial tension S/N data. The ssf for various criterions
26 M. Ross et al.

Table 2.1 Stress scale factors Model Stress scale factor, ssf
for selected multiaxial fatigue
criteria as noted in Anes et al. von Mises 1.733
[13]. These are for going from Crossland 4.386
shear stress to tensile stress; Matake 1.486
hence, the values are greater than Dang Van 2.174
one Papadopoulos 4.386
Carpinteri-Spagnoli 1.531

is provided in Table 2.1. These are for going from a shear stress to a tension stress, and as expected the ssf will be greater
than one. The values in Table 2.1 are material specific, and for the bolts in this study the fatigue limit ratio was 1:53, and the
ultimate stress was 125 ksi.
One simple check that is also performed is if the preload is overcome and the joint separates. An increase in preload
creates a decrease in cyclic stress amplitudes. A separation of the joint can lead to fretting and fatigue of the joint.
Finally, surface conditions are an important factor in the analysis of the fastener member. If the S/N curve data does not
match the surface conditions of the fastener under study, then a surface factor is applied. As an example, a threaded fastener
with rolled threads will use a fatigue stress concentration of 2.2 for SAE grades 0–2 [14].

2.2.4 Multiaxial Fatigue Models

The fastener analyses previously mentioned in Sect. 2.2.2 follow machine design methods such as Shigley and Mitchell [5]
or Norton [6]. However, in fatigue it has been found that a multiaxial stress state can reduce the fatigue life [4, 13]. This
section provides a simple method to determine if the fastener is experiencing non-proportional loading and then provides
three common methods for multiaxial fatigue models: von Mises, Findley, and McDiarmid [4]. In each of these models, an
equivalent stress amplitude is found throughout time that can be related to a tensile test. These methods use the stress tensor
throughout time in the fastener to obtain this equivalent stress. Once the equivalent stress is found, then fatigue can proceed
as discussed in Sect. 2.2.3.
The previously described fatigue methods assume that the stresses can be a simple scaling of a ‘unit’ uniaxial load case.
Clearly, in a random vibration simulation in the three cartesian directions, the external loading is not uniaxial; however, local
stress variations may in fact be dominated by uniaxial behavior. Therefore, a simple method is used to determine if the stress
state can be considered uniaxial. Further, the method also distinguishes between what is commonly termed proportional
and non-proportional loading. Proportional loading results in additional strain hardening. Non-proportional loading theories
assume that combinations of shear and direct loading will increase fatigue crack propagation or growth. These are defined
by Socie and Marquis as
Proportional loading, which is defined as any state of time varying stress where the orientation of the principal stress axes remained fixed
with respect to the axes of the component. Thus, nonproportional loading is defined as any state of time varying stress where the orientation
of the principal stress axes changes with respect to the axes of the component. [4]

2.2.4.1 Biaxiality Ratio for Loading Condition

Given the current stress state in the fastener as a function of time, a ratio between the third and first principal stress is
believed to be indicative of the loading condition. This ratio is termed biaxiality ratio. If the biaxiality ratio is zero, then
uniaxial fatigue methods would be appropriate. If it is constant throughout time, then multiaxial proportional fatigue methods
would be appropriate. Finally, if it is variable, then multiaxial non-proportional methods should be used.

2.2.4.2 Von Mises Equivalent Stress

A simple and very popular multiaxial fatigue model is the von Mises yield criterion. It is a method that is appropriate for
proportional loading, but not non-proportional loading [4]. For bolts subjected to the combination of simultaneous tension
and shear, the von Mises Stress can be found in the bolt. This calculation requires the tensile stress, Eq. (2.12), and the shear
stress, Eq. (2.26) in the bolt.
2 Fastener Fatigue Analysis Using Time Domain Methods for Multiaxial Random Vibration 27

q
2
vm .t/ D t2 .t/ C 3shear .t/: (2.34)

This is the equivalent stress that can then be processed for fatigue.

2.2.4.3 Findley Equivalent Stress

The Findley method is a critical plane method, where fatigue crack initiation and growth are dependent on both alternating
shear stress and normal stress acting on a particular plane [4]. The Findley method believes failure will occur on the plane
with the maximum sum of the two
 

C kn D f; (2.35)
2 max

where k describes the influence of the normal stress and f is the fatigue life. The constant k is found from the ratio of fatigue
strengths between axial loading and torsional loading from fully reversed tests [4],

a;RD1 2
D : (2.36)
RD1 1C p k
1Ck2

An equivalent stress for the Findley method is found at each time step by
 

findley .t/ D C n : (2.37)
2k max

This equivalent stress can then be processed for fatigue with comparisons to axial tests.

2.2.4.4 McDiarmid Equivalent Stress

The McDiarmid method is also based on the critical plane approach. The criterion is based on the shear stress amplitude,
max
2
, on the plane of maximum range of shear stress and the normal stress, n;max , on the same plane. The criterion takes the
form
max n;max
C D 1; (2.38)
2tA;B 2u

where tA;B is the shear fatigue strength for case A or case B crack growth, and u is the ultimate tensile strength. This equation
is typically combined with the Basquin’s equation for fatigue predictions,
 
max u n;max 0
C D f .2Nf /b ; (2.39)
2 tA;B 2

where f0 is the fatigue strength coefficient. The left hand side of Eq. (2.39) is the equivalent stress used in this work for the
McDiarmid method. For this particular multiaxial method, the Basquin equation for fatigue calculations is used in this work.

2.3 Credibility

2.3.1 Fastener Modeling Credibility

This section explores the use of two different modeling techniques for a simple lap joint problem shown in Fig. 2.5. The lap
joint consists of two mating aluminum surfaces with a steel alloy 1=4  in bolt into an insert in the bottom mating surface.
28 M. Ross et al.

Fig. 2.5 Simple lap joint with a bolt and insert used for exploring different modeling techniques

Fig. 2.6 One method for

modeling the bolt is to use solid
elements and apply a thermal
strain to a portion of the bolt. The
insert is shown in the grey and
green portion

Three models are explored in this section to determine an efficient and accurate method of modeling the joints going
forward: solid element of the fastener, a spring element for the fastener, and a beam element for the fastener. The first
method is to model the bolt with solid elements, see Fig. 2.6. In the code used for these analyses, SIERRA SD, the bolt can
be preloaded with a thermal strain in a section of the bolt.
The propensity for fatigue failure and fretting is greatest when the joint begins to separate. At the point just before joint
separation, the contact patch between the mating surfaces would be very minimal. As this is the worst case scenario, the
models in this study use a contact patch represented by a spring that is rigidly tied to the nodes at the matching interfaces
bolt holes.
The second method of modeling the bolt is with the spring element rigidly tied to the holes of the two mating surfaces,
as depicted in Fig. 2.7. This is a simpler method and more efficient method; however, the bolt preload cannot be applied in
the finite element model with the code being used. The bolt preload is post-processed as discussed in Sect. 2.2.2. A beam
element can also be used, and has shown similar results.
Finally, the third method of modeling the bolt in the lap joint with an insert is to use a beam, see Fig. 2.8. The bottom of
the beam is rigidly tied to the insert location and the top of the beam is rigidly tied to the contact surface where the head of
the bolt or washer would be.
2 Fastener Fatigue Analysis Using Time Domain Methods for Multiaxial Random Vibration 29

Fig. 2.7 Another method for modeling the bolt is to use springs that are rigidly tied to the fastener holes of the two mating surfaces

Fig. 2.8 Another method for modeling the bolt is to use a beam that is rigidly tied to the insert and at the top of the joint where the washer would
be at the bolt head

2.3.1.1 Modal Comparison

As with any dynamics analysis, this study begins by looking at the modes of the simple models. The realistic modes are
depicted in Fig. 2.9 for the model of the solid and the spring. Table 2.2 provides the difference of the modes between the
different methods. As can be seen, there is not a significant amount of difference between these methods. The slight variation
noted in the modes is more than likely eclipsed by the variability of the joint system.

2.3.1.2 Axial Load in Bolt

The majority of the calculations for fastener analyses are dependent on the axial force in the bolt, see Sect. 2.2.2. To assess
the differences in the modeling techniques, a tensile traction that is ramped up from to 555 psi in 0:05 s. is applied to the top
30 M. Ross et al.

Fig. 2.9 Modal comparisons of the modeling techniques for the lap joint with an insert. (a) Spring mode 1. (b) Spring mode 2. (c) Spring mode
3. (d) Solid mode 1. (e) Solid mode 2. (f) Solid mode 3

Table 2.2 Modal comparisons of the modeling techniques for the lap joint with an insert
Mode Beam frequency (Hz) Spring frequency (Hz) Solid frequency (Hz) Difference spring vs. solid
1 2944.0 2942.1 2896.0 1.6%
2 6420.3 6414.4 6445.7 0.5%
3 9163.2 9176.0 9097.9 0.9%

of lap joint. With a top area of the lap joint that is roughly 9 in.2 , this should apply an axial force around 5; 000 lb to the bolt,
if the lap joint stiffness is not included, see Sect. 2.2.2.
Figure 2.10 illustrates the axial force in the bolt using the three different modeling techniques. For the solid model, the
preload was determined based on the thermal strain applied. The thermal strain was applied for a particular band of elements
to get a preload around 3; 000 lb. The spring and beam models can be calculated with and without a joint stiffness parameter,
C. This is defined in Sect. 2.2.2 and Eq. (2.5). The joint stiffness parameter accounts for the fact that the bolt only carries a
portion of the tensile load until separation (loss of preload). When the bolt is preloaded, the bolt is under tension and the
abutments (flanges) are compressed. In a preload, the bolt carries only a portion of the load. The other portion of the loading
is offset by the release of the compressive energy introduced to the flanges during the initial torquing (preload). Essentially,
a portion of the work is performed by the joint and a portion by the bolt. As can be seen in Fig. 2.10, the three methods
essentially provide the same axial force with the spring and the beam techniques being slightly more conservative.

2.3.1.3 Stress State of Mating Lap Joint Aluminum Materials

The final area explored in this simple study is the stress state around the mating lap joint materials. The largest discrepancy
is noted on the top mating surface. This is due to the different boundary conditions used for representing the top of the bolt
and its effects. Though there are different boundary conditions, if an element around two radius from the hole/boundary
condition is explored, then the methods are almost identical, as seen in Fig. 2.11.
2 Fastener Fatigue Analysis Using Time Domain Methods for Multiaxial Random Vibration 31

Fig. 2.10 Axial force in bolt comparisons of the modeling techniques for the lap joint with an insert. (a) Solid model. (b) Spring model. (c) Beam
model
32 M. Ross et al.

Fig. 2.11 Von Mises stress comparisons of the modeling techniques for the top mating surface of the lap joint with an insert. (a) Solid model. (b)
Spring model. (c) Beam model
2 Fastener Fatigue Analysis Using Time Domain Methods for Multiaxial Random Vibration 33

2.3.2 Fastener Fatigue Credibility

If the modeling of the fastener and the algorithms/coding of the stresses in the fastener are found acceptable, then the final
piece of the puzzle for credibility would be assuring that the algorithms/coding of the fatigue methods is correct. To check
the majority of the fatigue codes (cycle counting, damage accumulation, and S/N curve derivation) a fastener under axial
loading is modeled and compared to work by Wentzel and Huang [15]. Good agreement is shown with Wentzel and Huang’s
axial fatigue experiment for an ISO-metric M14 bolt as seen in Fig. 2.12. The beam, spring, and solid methods of modeling
the bolts as noted in Fig. 2.2 show basically the same result.

2.4 Results

In an effort to explore the effects of different fatigue methods for fasteners, a simple test article was simulated for a random
vibration environment. The test article is shown in Fig. 2.13. The test article is bolted to a fixture that would be bolted to a
shaker table. An applied acceleration is applied to the base of the fixture replicating the shaker table. The random vibration
environment was a typical transportation environment and simulated in all three cartesian directions at the same time. The
random vibration environment was scaled until a damage metric, D, of 0.18 was found for one of the fasteners in tension.
There are 36 bolts attaching the test article to the fixture. The test article and the fixture are aluminum. The fasteners
analyzed are 5=16  24 UNJF-3A, alloy steel (AISI 4340) with properties shown in Table 2.3. The insert is of the same
material with an external thread of 1=2  13 UNC.
The simulations were run in a transient manner that was compared with frequency domain random vibration simulation to
assure the time duration was sufficient to capture the system’s response in a random process. The damage metric, D, for each
method was then appropriately scaled to the duration of the environment. The damage metric for each fatigue calculation is
shown in Table 2.4 with the maximum D found from the 36 bolts.
Table 2.4 shows that the fastener would fail in fatigue under the Findley and McDiarmid methods, but not the other
analyses. The biaxiality, an indication of loading condition (see Sect. 2.2.4), is shown in Fig. 2.14 for the bolt that had the
largest fatigue damage. The biaxiality shows that the bolt is in a multiaxial non-proportional loading condition. Figure 2.15
provides the stress state for the tensile stress and the equivalent Findley stress; clearly indicating a larger stress state with
Findley.

2.5 Conclusion

If the applied loads at a fastener jointed interface from a random vibration environment are such that the preload is greatly
reduced, then it is essential to analyze fasteners with a multiaxial fatigue methods, such as Findley or McDiarmid. The
current practice of using uniaxial stress states for fasteners could greatly under predict the fatigue failure of the fastener.
This work provided typical uniaxial stress state derivations for a fastener. It then provided a time domain method for
analyzing these uniaxial stress states for fatigue. Multiaxial fatigue methods were then explored for fasteners given the stress
tensor in the fastener as a function of time. These derivations were then explored on a test article under random vibration
environments to show the relevance of using multiaxial fatigue methods. Future work would include experimentally testing
these numerical results.
34 M. Ross et al.

Fig. 2.12 Comparison between simulations and from Wentzel and Huang’s experiment [15] for a M14 bolt

Fig. 2.13 Test article used to explore different fatigue methods for fasteners

Table 2.3 Material properties Property Value

for the 5=16  24 UNJF-3A
Fasteners used in this analysis Fatigue strength axial 60.0 ksi
Fatigue strength shear 40.8 ksi
Fatigue strength coefficient 178.8 ksi
Torque preload 115 lbf-in
Ultimate stress 125 ksi
2 Fastener Fatigue Analysis Using Time Domain Methods for Multiaxial Random Vibration 35

Table 2.4 The maximum fatigue Fatigue analysis Damage metric, D

methods damage metric, D,
found from the 36 bolts for the Tensile stress 0:18
random vibration environment Shear stress in bolt 1:2  1010
Insert pull-out 4:82  106
Bolt thread shear 1:37  108
Insert internal thread shear 1:0  1020
Insert external thread shear 1:0  1020
Multiaxial methods
von Mises 0:23
Findley 7:82
McDiarmid 3:07

Fig. 2.14 Biaxiality as a function of time for the bolt with the most fatigue damage. The non-constant nature of the biaxiality shows the need for
analyzing fatigue with non-proportional appropriate methods, such as Findley or McDiarmid

Fig. 2.15 Stress comparisons of the tensile stress in the fastener and the equivalent Findley stress. (a) Tensile. (b) Findley

Acknowledgements Sandia National Laboratories is a multimission laboratory managed and operated by National Technology and Engineering
Solutions of Sandia LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of Honeywell International Inc. for the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear
Security Administration under contract DE-NA0003525. Sandia Report SAND2017–11320C.
36 M. Ross et al.

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1. Wirsching, P.H., Paez, T.L., Ortiz, K.: Random Vibrations: Theory and Practice. Dover Books, New York (1995)
2. Campbell, F.C. (eds.): Elements of Metallurgy and Engineering Alloys. ASM International, Materials Park (2008)
3. Hudgins, A., James, B.: Fatigue of threaded fasteners. Adv. Mater. Process. 172, 18–22 (2014)
4. Socie, D.F., Marquis, G.B.: Multiaxial Fatigue. Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., Warrendale (2000)
5. Shigley, J.E., Mitchell, L.D.: Mechanical Engineering Design, 4th edn. McGraw-Hill, New York (1983)
6. Norton, R.L.: Machine Design: An Integrated Approach. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River (1998)
7. Sierra Structural Dynamics Development Team: Sierra structural dynamics – user’s notes. Technical report SAND2017-3553, Sandia National
Laboratories (2017)
8. Chambers, J.A.: Preloaded joint analysis methodology for space flight systems. Technical report 106943, NASA (1995)
9. Oberg, F.J.E.: Machinery’s Handbook. Industrial Press, New York (2008)
10. Downing, S.D., Socie, D.F.: Simple rainflow counting algorithms. Int. J. Fatigue 4, 31–40 (1982)
11. Miner, M.A.: Cumulative damage in fatigue. J. Appl. Mech. 12, A159–A164 (1945)
12. Steinberg, D.S.: Vibration Analysis for Electronic Equipment, 3rd edn. Wiley, New York (2000)
13. Anes, V., Reis, L., Li, B., Fonte, M., de Freitas, M.: New approach for analysis of complex multiaxial loading paths. Int. J. Fatigue 62, 21–33
(2014)
14. Lindeburg, M.R.: Mechanical Engineering Reference Manuals for the PE Exam, 11th edn. Professional Publications, Belmont (2001)
15. Wentzel, H., Huang, X.: Experimental characterization of the bending fatigue strength of threaded fasteners. Int. J. Fatigue 72, 102–108 (2015)
Chapter 3
Multi–input Multi–output Active Vibration Control for High
Frequency Random Vibration

Aabhas Singh, Matt Allen, and Washington J. DeLima

Abstract Electromagnetic shakers and closed loop control systems are commonly used in qualification tests for environ-
mental vibration conditions. However, at high frequencies shakers have resonances and anti-resonances. Resonances can
be beneficial in that the shaker needs to exert less force to achieve the desired environment, but they can make it more
challenging for the control system to match the desired environment. Anti-resonances are more problematic because they
represent frequencies where the voltage input to the shaker causes little motion (at some locations on the slip table or adapter
plate). Hence, these can cause the system to require driver voltage levels above the controller capacity and cause the test to
abort. Furthermore, an anti-resonance is in essence a motion that is unobserved at the point(s) of interest, and hence they may
lead to damage if internal components experience much higher vibration levels than the control accelerometer. This paper
proposes and characterizes a hybrid shaker system that would use a piezoelectric actuator in addition to the electromagnetic
shaker to create a MIMO control system. It is hoped that the additional control effort introduced by the piezoelectric actuator
could be used to expand the frequency range over which the desired environment can be achieved.

Keywords Modal Test · Model calibration

3.1 Introduction

Electromagnetic shakers are commonly used to replicate the motion of a test part under environmental vibration conditions.
To do so, modern shakers must be capable of large displacements and high force levels and as a result, are large and have low
frequency resonances, often hindering high frequency vibration tests. At higher frequencies above the first resonance of the
shaker, uncontrollable modes of the shaker armature are excited, which can make it difficult or impossible to replicate the
desired environment and which could result in damage to the shaker armature. These high-frequency modes can be highly
variable between shakers, as shown recently by DeLima and Ambrose [1], who measured the driver voltage necessary to
®
achieve a desired environment for four shakers (UD-T2000 ) as a function of the forcing frequency, a result that is repeated
in Fig. 3.1. As expected, at resonance there is a dip in the driver voltage, since the force required to excite the structure is
minimized. However, at higher frequencies the behavior of the four shakers becomes erratic, deviating significantly from
each other. In addition, at higher frequencies, the driver voltages peak, indicating anti-resonances or frequencies in which
the test part moves little in response to the input force, so one must increase the voltage significantly to obtain the desired
motion and the necessary voltage may be outside the capability of the shaker.
This paper evaluates the potential to add piezoelectric actuators to a traditional electromagnetic shaker, so that a multi-
input multi-output control scheme can be used to extend random test vibrations to higher frequencies without the potential of
damaging the shaker structure. Past work to surpass these limitations of the shaker researched the sole use of piezo actuators
to force test articles to a desired environment. This proved successful at high frequencies given that piezo actuators can

Honeywell Federal Manufacturing & Technologies, LLC manages and operates the Department of Energy’s Kansas City National Security Campus
under contract DE-NA-0002839.
A. Singh () · M. Allen
University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, USA
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
W. J. DeLima
Honeywell, Kansas City, MO, USA
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2019 37

N. Dervilis (ed.), Special Topics in Structural Dynamics, Volume 5, Conference Proceedings of the Society
for Experimental Mechanics Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75390-4_3
38 A. Singh et al.

Fig. 3.1 Experimental setup for the shaker test [1]

support large-weight articles and render large forces [2]. However, the stroke length limitations of piezo actuators limit
the displacement imposed on the test article. This work seeks to use MIMO control so that a traditional shaker and a
piezo actuator can be used simultaneously, each working in the frequency range in which it is most effective, in hopes
of reproducing the complete environment in a single test.
Prior to designing the control scheme, extensive modeling is required to understand the effects of coupling between the
piezoelectric actuator and electrodynamic shaker motion. Piezoelectric actuators are somewhat fragile (made from brittle
ceramic) so care must be taken to assure that the piezo actuator is not stressed beyond its limits. As a result, this work will
validate three models for the piezo/shaker with varying degrees of fidelity to gauge their effectiveness to provide the desired
forces and survive the vibration environment: (1) a two degree of freedom model for the shaker, (2) a two degree of freedom
model for the piezo actuator, and (3) a three degree of freedom model for the assembly.
The following sections discuss the tests that were used to characterize each of the components and the model calibrations
done to equate to the test data.

3.2 Experimental Chacterization & Modeling of Shaker

The electrodynamic shaker and piezoelectric actuator system under investigation consists of a Brüel Kjær LDS V830–
335 Metric Shaker coupled with the CEDRAT PPA40XL Actuator. Prior to creating the models, both components were
characterized through modal analysis, and then the two models were assembled to evaluate the effectiveness of the coupled
model. The modal test of the shaker was performed using 25 input points that followed the bolt pattern on the plate and two
output points (accelerometers) as depicted in Fig. 3.2.
As with the experimental analysis done by DeLima et al. [1], the frequency bandwidth was limited to approximately 4 kHz.
Frequency Response Functions (FRFs) were measured for four DOF at two points on the plate: a triaxial accelerometer at
point 19, and a uniaxial accelerometer (Z direction) at point 20. The mode shapes of the shaker and the plate are obtained
using the FRFs with modal parameter identification using the Algorithm for Mode Isolation (AMI) [3], resulting in eight
modes listed in Table 3.1.
The mode of primary interest is the first axial mode of the shaker, which was found to be at 2145.7 Hz and whose mode
shape is shown below. Note that measurements were only taken on the shaker adapter plate, so it is impossible to characterize
3 Multi–input Multi–output Active Vibration Control for High Frequency Random Vibration 39

0.4
4 2

0.3
12
0.2 19
11
13

0.1

18
x v
0 14 10 1
5

-0.1 20

z
x
15 17
-0.2
16

-0.3

-0.4
6 8
v
7
-0.5
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

Fig. 3.2 Experimental setup for the shaker test

Table 3.1 Modes and the identified resonant frequencies and damping ratios
Mode Resonant frequency (Hz) Damping ratio (%) Mode shape description
1 1373 0.604 Y-axis rocking of top plate
2 2145.7 0.216 1st drum mode of top plate/assumed axial mode of shaker
3 2161.4 0.429 X-axis rocking of top plate with minor bending
4 2181 0.665 Y-axis rocking of top plate with minor bending
5 2627.5 1.30 1st torsion (“potato chip”) of top plate, two radial node lines
6 3290.5 1.09 1st drum mode of top plate, about center of mass
7 3845.5 0.782 2nd torsion of top plate, three radial node lines
8 4160 0.602 1st drum mode of top plate with edge distortion

them separately with complete certainty. After the second mode, all of the modes involve zero motion of the center of the
shaker plate until the 3290.5 Hz mode, suggesting that the 2DOF model of the shaker could be effective up until near that
frequency (Fig. 3.3).

3.2.1 2DOF Electrodynamic Shaker Model

The model for the electrodynamic shaker is based on the work by Waimer et al. [4]. The simplest model is a 2DOF lumped
parameter model as shown in Fig. 3.4. A two-mass system is the lowest order system that could exhibit the anti-resonances
seen in the experiments by DeLima and Ambrose. Unlike Waimer, this model does not incorporate rotational shaker modes,
given that the shaker is expected to be run at low frequencies, mitigating the non-axial modes.
A few parameters of the shaker are known from test and/or the manufacturer’s specifications, and are noted in Table 3.2.
It is assumed that the system is lightly damped, with 0.2% modal damping for its axial mode. The natural frequency of
the armature was measured and found to be approximately 2146 Hz. However, we do not have enough information to know
how to divide the armature mass between the top plate and the internals of the shaker armature. Hence, in order to create
this first model, the mass was simply divided such that 89% of the mass was placed on the top plate and 11% on the bottom
40 A. Singh et al.

Fig. 3.3 Mode shape of mode 2 at 2145.7 Hz

Fig. 3.4 2DOF model of the

shaker armature x2
mt

Shaker
k1

x1
mb

in an effort to equate to experimental data. Then the stiffness was tuned such that the fundamental resonance frequency of
the model matched the experimental resonance as shown in Table 3.3. Hence, the 2DOF system can be represented with the
following parameters:
In the interest of brevity, no measurements are shown to confirm this model, but it will be confirmed in conjunction with
the piezo model in Sect. 3.4.
3 Multi–input Multi–output Active Vibration Control for High Frequency Random Vibration 41

Table 3.2 Notable LDS shaker LDS V830–335 shaker parameters

parameters
Armature diameter 335 mm
Experimental armature resonance 2.146 kHz
Armature mass 12.83 kg
Usable frequency range 0–3 khz

Table 3.3 Shaker model Upper shaker mass 11.41 kg

parameters
Lower shaker mass 1.42 kg
Armature stiffness 3e8 N/m
Percent damping 0.05%

Table 3.4 Modes and the Mode Resonant frequency (Hz) Percent damping
identified resonant frequencies
and damping ratios. 1 2562.5 0.302
2 2592 0.170
3 2727.1 1.117
4 2743.6 0.437

Fig. 3.5 2.59 kHz mode of the piezo

3.3 Experimental Chacterization & Modeling of Piezoelectric Actuator

A modal test of the piezo actuator was also performed, with one of the primary goals being to see what resonances it might
have that could be excited in a test and hence could damage the piezo. As a first step, the CEDRAT piezo actuator was
characterized in free-free conditions by laying the actuator on a foam pad. A modal hammer test was performed with 14
input points and a tri-axial accelerometer output at the top of the piezo, from which four modes were identified within the
frequency range of interest; their properties are shown in Table 3.4.
All four modes in this range correspond to bending of one of the four springs on the piezo, as seen with mode 2 below.
The identified shapes suggest that these modes may be negligible if the motion is primarily axial, although this frequency
range should be monitored to make sure that these lightly damped modes aren’t excited. No other modes were observed in
the frequency range of interest (Fig. 3.5).
42 A. Singh et al.

Fig. 3.6 Experimental setup used to test the piezo actuator on the shaker. Two other setups were also used that are not shown: (1) Bare piezo
actuator mounted on foam, (2) Piezo actuator with a steel mass mounted to one end, mounted on foam

Fig. 3.7 2DOF Piezo/blocked model

In addition to modal tests done to understand the dynamics of the actuator in isolation, the piezo actuator was run at low
input voltage with free – free conditions to model its ability to generate force. Free – blocked conditions were then added
to validate the model predicted simulations. Lastly, the piezo actuator was bolted to the shaker using a fixture and each
component was then excited separately to correlate to the coupled model as depicted in Fig. 3.6.

3.3.1 2DOF Piezo Actuator Model

The simplest model of the piezoelectric actuator is a 2DOF model, as discussed in the CEDRAT Catalog [5] and shown in
Fig. 3.7 below.
The parameters given in the Cedrat catalog were found to not reproduce our measurements precisely, so the parameters
were tuned to match the experimental characterization of the piezo and validated using additional free – blocked case studies,
as described below. Given a 2DOF system depicting the top of the piezo and the bottom of the piezo with a mass attached
(mblock ), the system transfer functions can be presented by the following equations of motion:
3 Multi–input Multi–output Active Vibration Control for High Frequency Random Vibration 43

Table 3.5 CEDRAT piezo Parameters Catalog values Model values

model parameters
Mass (m) 0.0319 kg 0.0319 kg
Force factor (N) 39.14 N/V 39.14 N/V
Resistance (rm ) 136.11 136.11
Stiffness (km ) 155.08 N/m 217.11 N/m
Quality factor (Q) 20 20
Resonance (wr ) 13600 Hz 13600 Hz

MRs C CPs C Ks D F (3.1)

 
m 0 rm rm
MD ; CD
0 m C mblock  rm rm
  
km km Fpiezo x1
KD ; FD ; sD
 km km  Fpiezo x2

Given the input force of the piezo actuator, the transfer functions can be represented for each DOF by the following
equations (Table 3.5)

a !2N
H1 .!/ D D (3.2)
V 2km C i2rm !  m! 2

a ! 2 N
H2 .!/ D D (3.3)
V 2km C i2rm !  m! 2

To gauge the effectiveness of the model, using the above equations and the parameters in Table 3.1, the piezo electric
model was evaluated against three case studies: (1) no blocked mass, (2) 0.34 kg block, and (3) 1.95 kg block. The values
per the catalog were used in modeling the piezo actuator, with the exception of the axial stiffness of the piezo. Initially the
curves showed a uniform offset, so the model stiffness was increased from the catalog value by 40% to bring the curves into
agreement (Fig. 3.8).
After these adjustments to the model parameters, the model now accurately reflects the acceleration transfer function up
to about 2 kHz for all cases. At about 4–5 kHz the blocks exhibit a resonances that weren’t included in the model, and so
model can’t be checked beyond that point. The measurements are all below the first elastic resonance of the piezo, which is
nominally at 13.6 kHz for the no block case, and so these measurements do not allow validating the stiffness rigorously. We
presume that the model is sufficiently accurate to move forward.

3.4 Coupled Model

The coupled component model features the conjunction of both models depicted in Sects. 3.2 and 3.3. The dynamics at the
junction between the actuator and shaker are neglected to result in a 3DOF model given by: (1) Top of the piezo actuator, (2)
junction between piezo and upper shaker armature, and (3) lower shaker armature as shown in Fig. 3.9. Non-axial motion is
not captured in this model.
The 3DOF model maintains the parameters of the previous models and imposes the forcing of either the piezo, the shaker,
or both on the model. The motion of the model hybrid system is governed by the following equation:

MRs C CsPP C Ks D F (3.4)

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
On such journeys, parents may not see their sons for hours at a time. The
homogeneous character of the group, and the sense of security which faith
gives, especially at such times, present no occasion for anxiety concerning
the dear ones.

The saying of Luke that Joseph and Mary "went a day's journey" before
they discovered that Jesus was not in the company must, it seems to me,
include also the time consumed in their return journey to Jerusalem to seek
their son. Perhaps they discovered his absence about noontime when the
company halted by a spring of water to partake of the zad (food for the
way). At such a time families gather together to break bread. And what I
feel certain of also is that the boy Jesus must have been with his parents
when they first set out on their homeward journey early in the morning
from Jerusalem, and that he detached himself from his kinsfolk and
returned to the holy city shortly after the company had left that place. No
Syrian family ever would start out on a journey before every one of its
members had been accounted for. The evangelist's omission of these details
is easily understood. His purpose was not to give a photographic account of
all that happened on the way. It was rather to reveal the lofty spiritual ideals
which led the boy Jesus to return to the temple, where he was found by his
anxious parents "sitting in the midst of the doctors, both hearing them, and
asking them questions."

In this brief but significant record of all the filial graces which Jesus
must have possessed one only is mentioned in the second chapter of the
Gospel of Luke, where it is stated that he went down to Nazareth with his
parents "and was subject unto them."

This seemingly casual remark is full of significance. With us in Syria,

ta'at-el-walideen (obedience to parents) has always been youth's crowning
virtue. Individual initiative must not overstep the boundary line of this
grace. Only in this way the patriarchal organization of the family can be
kept intact. In my boyhood days in that romantic country, whenever my
father took me with him on a "visit of homage" to one of the lords of the
land, the most fitting thing such a dignitary could do to me was to place his
hand upon my head and say with characteristic condescension, "Bright boy,
and no doubt obedient to your parents."
 As regards the grace of filial obedience, I am not aware of a definite
break between the East and the West. But there is a vital difference. To an
Oriental who has just come to this country, the American youth seem to be
indifferent to filial obedience. The strong passion for freedom, the
individualistic sense which is a pronounced characteristic of the aggressive
Anglo-Saxon, and the economic stress which ever tends to scatter the
family group, and which the East has never experienced so painfully as the
West has, all convey the impression that parental love and filial obedience
are fast disappearing from American society. But to those of us sons of the
East who have intimate knowledge of the American family, its cohesion
does not seem to be so alarmingly weak. The mad rush for "business
success" is indeed a menace to the American home, but love and obedience
are still vital forces in that home. The terms "father," "mother," "brother,"
and "sister," have by no means lost their spiritual charms in American
society. The deep affection in which the members of the better American
family hold one another and the exquisite regard they have for one another
command profound respect.

But the vital difference between the East and the West is that to
Easterners filial obedience is more than a social grace and an evidence of
natural affection. It is a religious duty of far-reaching significance. God
commands it. "Thou shalt honor thy father and thy mother" is a divine
command. The "displeasure" of a parent is as much to be feared as the
wrath of God. This sense permeates Syrian society from the highest to the
lowest of its ranks.

The explanation of the origin of sin in the third chapter of Genesis

touches the very heart of this matter. The writer ascribes the "fall of man,"
not to any act which was in itself really harmful, but to disobedience. Adam
was commanded by his divine parent not to eat of the "tree of knowledge of
good and evil"; but he did eat, and consequently became a stranger to the
blessings of his original home.

This idea of filial obedience has been at once the strength and weakness
of Orientals. In the absence of the restraining interests of a larger social life
this patriarchal rule has preserved the cohesion of the domestic and clannish
group, and thus safeguarded for the people their primitive virtues. On the
other hand, it has served to extinguish the spirit of progress, and has thus
made Oriental life a monotonous repetition of antiquated modes of thought.

And it was indeed a great blessing to the world when Jesus broke away
from mere formal obedience to parents, in the Oriental sense of the word,
and declared, "Whosoever shall do the will of my Father in heaven, the
same is my brother, and sister, and mother."

[1] See above, p. 14.

CHAPTER VI

FEAST AND SACRAMENT

Of Jesus' public ministry and his characteristics as an Oriental teacher, I

shall speak in later chapters. Here I will give space only to a portrayal of the
closing scenes in his personal career. The events of the "upper room" on
Mount Zion, and of Gethsemane, are faithful photographs of striking
characteristics of Syrian life.

The Last Supper was no isolated event in Syrian history. Its fraternal
atmosphere, intimate associations, and sentimental intercourse are such as
characterize every such gathering of Syrian friends, especially in the
shadow of an approaching danger. From the simple "table manners" up to
that touch of sadness and idealism which the Master gave that meal,—
bestowing upon it the sacrificial character that has been its propelling force
through the ages,—I find nothing which is not in perfect harmony with
what takes place on such occasions in my native land. The sacredness of the
Last Supper is one of the emphatic examples of how Jesus' life and words
sanctified the commonest things of life. He was no inventor of new things,
but a discoverer of the spiritual significance of things known to men to be
ordinary.

The informal formalities of Oriental life are brimful of sentiment. The

Oriental's chief concern in matters of conduct is not the correctness of the
technique, but the cordiality of the deed. To the Anglo-Saxon the Oriental
appears to be perhaps too cordial, decidedly sentimental, and over-
responsive to the social stimulus. To the Oriental, on the other hand, the
Anglo-Saxon seems in danger of becoming an unemotional intellectualist.

Be that as it may, the Oriental is never afraid to "let himself go" and to
give free course to his feelings. The Bible in general and such portions of it
as the story of the Last Supper in particular illustrate this phase of Oriental
life.

In Syria, as a general rule, the men eat their fraternal feasts alone, as in
the case of the Master and his disciples at the Last Supper, when, so far as
the record goes, none of the women followers of Christ were present. They
sit on the floor in something like a circle, and eat out of one or a few large,
deep dishes. The food is lifted into the mouth, not with a fork or spoon,—
except in the case of liquid food,—but with small "shreds" of thin bread.
Even liquid food is sometimes "dipped up" with pieces of bread formed like
the bowl of a spoon. Here may be readily understood Jesus' saying, "He that
dippeth his hand with me in the dish, the same shall betray me."[1]

In his famous painting, The Last Supper, Leonardo da Vinci presents an

Oriental event in an Occidental form. The high table, the chairs, the
individual plates and drinking-glasses are European rather than Syrian
appointments. From a historical standpoint, the picture is misleading. But
Da Vinci's great production was not intended to be a historical, but a
character, study. Such a task could not have been accomplished if the artist
had presented the Master and his disciples as they really sat in the "upper
room"—in a circle. He seats them on one side of the table, divides them
into four groups of three each—two groups on each side of the Master. As
we view the great painting, we feel the thrill of horror which agitated the
loyal disciples when Jesus declared, "Verily, I say unto you, that one of you
shall betray me."[2] The gestures, the sudden change of position, and the
facial expression reveal the innermost soul of each disciple. This is the
central purpose of the picture. The artist gave the event a European rather
than an Oriental setting, in order to make it more intelligible to the people
for whom it was intended.

But the appointments of the Great Supper were genuinely Oriental. The
Master and his disciples sat on the floor and ate out of one or a few large,
deep dishes. In Mark's account of that event[3] we read: "And when it was
evening he cometh with the twelve. And as they sat and were eating, Jesus
said, Verily I say unto you, One of you shall betray me, even he that eateth
with me." The fact that they were all eating with him is shown in the
statement, "They began to be sorrowful, and to say unto him, Is it I? And he
said unto them, It is one of the twelve, he that dippeth with me in the dish."

The last sentence, "He that dippeth with me in the dish," has been
construed to mean that it was Judas only (who was sitting near to Jesus)
who was dipping in the dish out of which the Master was eating. This is
altogether possible, but by no means certain. The fact is that according to
Syrian customs on such occasions each of the few large dishes contains a
different kind of food. Each one of the guests is privileged to reach to any
one of the dishes and dip his bread in it. From this it may be safely inferred
that several or all of the disciples dipped in turn in the dish which was
nearest to Jesus. The fact that the other disciples did not know whom their
Master meant by his saying that one of them should betray him, even after
he had said, "He that dippeth with me in the dish," shows plainly that Judas
was eating in the same fashion as all the other disciples were.

Therefore the saying, "He that dippeth with me," etc., was that of
disappointed love. It may be thus paraphrased: "I have loved you all alike. I
have chosen you as my dearest friends. We have often broken bread and
sorrowed and rejoiced together, yet one of you, my dear disciples, one who
is now eating with me as the rest are, intends to betray me!"

And that forlorn but glorious company who met in the upper room on
Mount Zion on that historic night had certainly one cup out of which they
drank. At our feasts we always drank the wine out of one and the same cup.
We did not stay up nights thinking about microbes. To us the one cup meant
fellowship and fraternal communion. The one who gives drink (sacky) fills
the cup and passes it to the most honored member of the company first. He
drinks the contents and returns the cup to the sacky, who fills it again and
hands it to another member of the group, and so on, until all have been
served once. Then the guests drink again by way of nezel. It is not easy to
translate this word into English. The English word "treating" falls very short
of expressing the affectionate regard which the nezel signifies. The one
guest upon receiving the cup wishes for the whole company "health,
happiness, and length of days." Then he singles out one of the group and
begs him to accept the next cup that is poured as a pledge of his affectionate
regard. The pourer complies with the request by handing the next cup to the
person thus designated, who drinks it with the most effusive and
affectionate reciprocation of his friend's sentiments. It is also customary for
a gracious host to request as a happy ending to the feast that the contents of
one cup be drunk by the whole company as a seal of their friendship with
one another. Each guest takes a sip and passes the cup to the one next to
him until all have partaken of the "fruit of the vine."

I have no doubt that it was after this custom that the disciples drank
when Jesus "took the cup, and when he had given thanks, he gave to them:
and they all drank of it."[4]

No account of fraternal feasting in Syria can be complete without

mention of the zĭkreh (remembrance). To be remembered by his friends
after his departure from them is one of the Syrian's deepest and dearest
desires. The zĭkreh plays a very important part in the literature of the East,
and expresses the tenderest spirit of its poetry. The expressions "I
remember," "remember me," "your remembrance," "the remembrance of
those days" and like phrases are legion among the Syrians. "O friends,"
cries the Arabian poet, "let your remembrance of us be as constant as our
remembrance of you; for such a remembrance brings near those that are far
away."

Rarely do friends who have been feasting together part without this
request being made by those of them who do not expect to meet with their
friends again for a time. "Remember me when you meet again," is said by
the departing friend with unspeakable tenderness. He is affectionately
grateful also when he knows that he is held in remembrance by his friends.
So St. Paul pours out his soul in grateful joy for his friends' remembrance of
him. "But now when Timotheus came from you unto us, and brought us
good tidings of your faith and charity, and that ye have good remembrance
of us always, desiring greatly to see us, as we also to see you."[5]

This affectionate request, "remember me," signifies, "I love you,

therefore I am always with you." If we love one another, we cannot be
separated from one another. The z[)i]ikreh is the bond of fraternity between
us.

Was not this the very thing which the Master meant when he said, "This
do in remembrance of me"?[6] The disciples were asked never to allow
themselves to forget their Master's love for them and for the world: never to
forget that if his love lived in their hearts he was always with them, present
at their feasts, and in their struggles in the world to lead the world from
darkness into light. "This do in remembrance of me," is therefore the
equivalent of "Lo, I am with you alway, even unto the end of the world."[7]

"Now there was leaning on Jesus' bosom one of his disciples, whom
Jesus loved."[8] The posture of the "beloved disciple," John,—so
objectionable to Occidental taste,—is in perfect harmony with Syrian
customs. How often have I seen men friends in such an attitude. There is
not in it the slightest infringement of the rules of propriety; the act was as
natural to us all as shaking hands. The practice is especially indulged in
when intimate friends are about to part from one another, as on the eve of a
journey, or when about to face a dangerous undertaking. They then sit with
their heads leaning against each other, or the one's head resting upon the
other's shoulder or breast.

They talk to one another in terms of unbounded intimacy and

unrestrained affection. The expressions, "My brother," "My eyes," "My
soul," "My heart," and the like, form the life-centers of the conversation.
"My life, my blood are for you; take the very sight of my eyes, if you will!"
And lookers-on say admiringly, "Behold, how they love one another! By the
name of the Most High, they are closer than brothers."

Was it, therefore, strange that the Master, who knew the deepest secret of
the divine life, and whose whole life was a living sacrifice, should say to his
intimate friends, as he handed them the bread and the cup on that
momentous night, "Take, eat; this is my body"; and "Drink ye all of it; for
this is my blood"? Here again the Nazarene charged the ordinary words of
friendly intercourse with rare spiritual richness and made the common
speech of his people express eternal realities.

But let me here call attention to Da Vinci's master-stroke which changes

for a moment John's posture and relieves the Last Supper of a feature which
is so objectionable to Occidental taste. The artist seizes the moment when
Peter pulled John from Jesus' breast by beckoning to the beloved disciple
"that he should ask who it should be of whom he spoke" (the one who
should betray him). John remains in the attitude of loving repose; he simply
lifts his body for an instant, and inclines his head to hear Peter.

The treachery of Judas is no more an Oriental than it is a human

weakness. Traitors can claim neither racial nor national refuge. They are
fugitives in the earth. But in the Judas episode is involved one of the most
tender, most touching acts of Jesus' whole life. To one familiar with the
customs of the East, Jesus' handing the "sop" to his betrayer was an act of
surpassing beauty and significance. In all my life in America I have not
heard a preacher interpret this simple deed, probably because of lack of
knowledge of its meaning in Syrian social intercourse.

"And when he had dipped the sop, he gave it to Judas Iscariot, the son of
Simon."[9] At Syrian feasts, especially in the region where Jesus lived, such
sops are handed to those who stand and serve the guests with wine and
water. But in a more significant manner those morsels are exchanged by
friends. Choice bits of food are handed to friends by one another, as signs of
close intimacy. It is never expected that any person would hand such a sop
to one for whom he cherishes no friendship.

I can never contemplate this act in the Master's story without thinking of
"the love of Christ which passeth knowledge." To the one who carried in his
mind and heart a murderous plot against the loving Master, Jesus handed
the sop of friendship, the morsel which is never offered to an enemy. The
rendering of the act in words is this: "Judas, my disciple, I have infinite pity
for you. You have proved false, you have forsaken me in your heart; but I
will not treat you as an enemy, for I have come, not to destroy, but to fulfill.
Here is my sop of friendship, and 'that thou doest, do quickly.'"
 Apparently Jesus' demeanor was so cordial and sympathetic that, as the
evangelist tells us, "Now no man at the table knew for what intent he spake
this unto him. For some of them thought, because Judas had the bag, that
Jesus had said unto him, Buy those things that we have need of against the
feast, or that he should give something to the poor."[10]

Thus in this simple act of the Master, so rarely noticed by preachers, we

have perhaps the finest practical example of "Love your enemies" in the
entire Gospel.

Is it therefore to be wondered at that in speaking of Judas, the writer of

St. John's Gospel says, "And after the sop Satan entered into him"? For,
how can one who is a traitor at heart reach for the gift of true friendship
without being transformed into the very spirit of treason?

Again, Judas's treasonable kiss in Gethsemane was a perversion of an

ancient, deeply cherished, and universally prevalent Syrian custom. In
saluting one another, especially after having been separated for a time, men
friends of the same social rank kiss one another on both cheeks, sometimes
with very noisy profusion. When they are not of the same social rank, the
inferior kisses the hand of the superior, while the latter at least pretends to
kiss his dutiful friend upon the cheek. So David and Jonathan "kissed one
another, until David exceeded." Paul's command, "Salute one another with a
holy kiss," so scrupulously disobeyed by Occidental Christians, is
characteristically Oriental. As a child I always felt a profound reverential
admiration for that unreserved outpouring of primitive affections, when
strong men "fell upon one another's neck" and kissed, while the women's
eyes swam in tears of joy. The passionate, quick, and rhythmic exchange of
affectionate words of salutation and kisses sounded, with perhaps a little
less harmony, like an intermingling of vocal and instrumental music.

So Judas, when "forthwith he came to Jesus, and said, Hail, Master, and
kissed him,"[11] invented no new sign by which to point Jesus out to the
Roman soldiers, but employed an old custom for the consummation of an
evil design. Just as Jesus glorified the common customs of his people by
using them as instruments of love, so Judas degraded those very customs by
wielding them as weapons of hate.
 [1] Matt. xxvi: 23.

[2] Matt. xxvi: 21.

[3] Revised Version, xiv: 17-20.

[4] Mark xiv: 23.

[5] 1 Thess. iii: 6.

[6] Luke xxii: 19.

[7] Matt. xxviii: 10.

[8] John xiii: 23.

[9] John xiii: 26.

[10] John xiii: 28, 29.

[11] Matt. xxvi: 49.

CHAPTER VII

THE LAST SCENE

Perhaps nowhere else in the New Testament do the fundamental traits of

the Oriental nature find so clear an expression as in this closing scene of the
Master's life. The Oriental's dependence, to which the world owes the
loftiest and tenderest Scriptural passages, finds here its most glorious
manifestations.

As I have already intimated, the Oriental is never afraid to "let himself

go," whether in joy or sorrow, and to give vent to his emotions. It is of the
nature of the Anglo-Saxon to suffer in silence, and to kill when he must,
with hardly a word of complaint upon his lips or a ripple of excitement on
his face. He disdains asking for sympathy. His severely individualistic
tendencies and spirit of endurance convince him that he is "able to take care
of himself." During my early years in this country the reserve of Americans
in times of sorrow and danger, as well as in times of joy, was to me not only
amazing, but appalling. Not being as yet aware of their inward fire and
intensity of feeling, held in check by a strong bulwark of calm calculation,
as an unreconstructed Syrian I felt prone to doubt whether they had any
emotions to speak of.

It is not my purpose here to undertake a comparative critical study of

these opposing traits, but to state that, for good or evil, the Oriental is
preëminently a man who craves sympathy, yearns openly and noisily for
companionship, and seeks help and support outside himself. Whatever
disadvantages this trait may involve, it has been the one supreme
qualification that has made the Oriental the religious teacher of the whole
world. It was his childlike dependence on God that gave birth to the twenty-
third and fifty-first Psalms, and made the Lord's Prayer the universal
petition of Christendom. It was also this dependence on companionship,
human and divine, which inspired the great commandments, "Thou shalt
love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and thy neighbor as thyself."

Now it is in the light of this fundamental Oriental trait that we must view
Christ's utterances at the Last Supper and in Gethsemane. The record tells
us that while at the Supper he said to his disciples, "With desire I have
desired to eat this passover with you before I suffer,"[1]—or, as the
marginal note has it, "I have heartily desired," and so forth, which brings it
nearer the original text. Again, "He was troubled in spirit, and testified and
said, Verily, verily, I say unto you, that one of you shall betray me." "This is
my body ... This is my blood ... Do this in remembrance of me." We must
seek the proper setting for these utterances, not merely in the upper room in
Zion, but in the deepest tendencies of the Oriental mind.

And the climax is reached in the dark hour of Gethsemane, in the hour of
intense suffering, imploring need, and ultimate triumph in Jesus' surrender
to the Father's will. How true to that demonstrative Oriental nature is the
Scriptural record, "And being in an agony he prayed more earnestly: and his
sweat was as it were great drops of blood falling down to the ground."[2]

The faithful and touching realism of the record here is an example of the
childlike responsiveness of the Syrian nature to feelings of sorrow, no less
striking than the experience itself. It seems to me that if an Anglo-Saxon
teacher in similar circumstances had ever allowed himself to agonize and to
sweat "as it were great drops of blood," his chronicler in describing the
scene would have safeguarded the dignity of his race by simply saying that
the distressed teacher was "visibly affected"!

The darkness deepened and the Master "took with him Peter and the two
sons of Zebedee, and began to be sorrowful and very heavy. Then saith he
unto them, My soul is exceeding sorrowful, even unto death; tarry ye here,
and watch with me."[3] Three times did the Great Teacher utter that
matchless prayer, whose spirit of fear as well as of trust vindicates the
doctrine of the humanity of God and the divinity of man as exemplified in
the person of Christ: "O my Father, if it be possible, let this cup pass from
me: nevertheless not as I will, but as thou wilt!"[4]

The sharp contrast between the Semitic and the Anglo-Saxon

temperament has led some unfriendly critics of Christ to state very
complacently and confidently that he "simply broke down when the critical
hour came." In this assertion I find a very pronounced misapprehension of
the facts. If my knowledge of the traits of my own race is to be relied on,
then in trying to meet this assertion I feel that I am entitled to the
consideration of one who speaks with something resembling authority.

The simple fact is that while in Gethsemane, as indeed everywhere else

throughout his ministry, Jesus was not in the position of one trying to "play
the hero." His companions were his intimate earthly friends and his
gracious heavenly Father, and to them he spoke as an Oriental would speak
to those dear to him,—just as he felt, with not a shadow of show or sham.
His words were not those of weakness and despair, but of confidence and
affection. The love of his friends and the love of his Father in heaven were
his to draw upon in his hour of trial, with not the slightest artificial reserve.
How much better and happier this world would be if we all dealt with one
another and with God in the warm, simple, and pure love of Christ!
 As the life and words of Christ amply testify, the vision of the Oriental
has been to teach mankind not science, logic, or jurisprudence, but a simple,
loving, childlike faith in God. Therefore, before we can fully know our
Master as the cosmopolitan Christ, we must first know him as the Syrian
Christ.

[1] Luke xxii: 15.

[2] Luke xxii: 44.

[3] Matt. xxvi: 37-38.

[4] Ibid. 39.

PART II
THE ORIENTAL MANNER OF SPEECH

CHAPTER I

DAILY LANGUAGE

The Oriental I have in mind is the Semite, the dweller of the Near East,
who, chiefly through the Bible, has exerted an immense influence on the
life and literature of the West. The son of the Near East is more emotional,
more intense, and more communicative than his Far-Eastern neighbors.
Although very old in point of time, his temperament remains somewhat
juvenile, and his manner of speech intimate and unreserved.
 From the remote past, even to this day, the Oriental's manner of speech
has been that of a worshipper, and not that of a business man or an
industrial worker in the modern Western sense. To the Syrian of to-day, as
to his ancient ancestors, life, with all its activities and cares, revolves
around a religious center.

Of course this does not mean that his religion has not always been beset
with clannish limitations and clouded by superstitions, or that the Oriental
has always had a clear, active consciousness of the sanctity of human life.
But it does mean that this man, serene or wrathful, at work or at play,
praying or swearing, has never failed to believe that he is overshadowed by
the All-seeing God. He has never ceased to cry: "O Lord, Thou hast
searched me, and known me. Thou knowest my downsitting and mine
uprising; Thou understandest my thought afar off. Thou hast beset me
behind and before, and laid thine hand upon me. Such knowledge is too
wonderful for me; it is high, I cannot attain unto it!"[1]

And it is one of the grandest, most significant facts in human history

that, notwithstanding his intellectual limitations and superstitious fears,
because he has maintained the altar of God as life's center of gravity, and
never let die the consciousness that he was compassed about by the living
God, the Oriental has been the channel of the sublimest spiritual revelation
in the possession of man.

The histories of races are the records of their desires and rewards, of
their seeking and finding. The law of compensation is all-embracing. In the
long run "whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap."[2] "He which
soweth sparingly shall reap also sparingly; and he which soweth bountifully
shall reap also bountifully."[3] In the material world the Oriental has sown
but sparingly, and his harvests here have also been very meager. He has not
achieved much in the world of science, industry, and commerce. As an
industrial worker he has remained throughout his long history a user of
hand tools. Previous to his very recent contact with the West, he never knew
what structural iron and machinery were. As a merchant he has always been
a simple trader. He has never been a man of many inventions. His faithful
repetition of the past has left no gulf between him and his remote ancestors.
The implements and tools he uses to-day are like those his forefathers used
in their day.

The supreme choice of the Oriental has been religion. To say that this
choice has not been altogether a conscious one, that it has been the outcome
of temperament, does by no means lessen its significance. From the
beginning of his history on the earth to this day the Oriental has been
conscious above all things of two supreme realities—God and the soul.
What has always seemed to him to be his first and almost only duty was and
is to form the most direct, most intimate connection between God and the
soul. "The fear of the Lord," meaning most affectionate reverence, is to the
son of the East not "the beginning of wisdom" as the English Bible has it,
but the height or acme of wisdom. His first concern about his children is
that they should know themselves as living souls, and God as their Creator
and Father. An unbeliever in God has always been to the East a strange
phenomenon. I never heard of atheism or of an atheist before I came in
touch with Western culture in my native land.

My many years of intimate and sympathetic contact with the more

varied, more intelligent life of the West has not tended in the least to lessen
my reverence for religion nor to lower my regard for culture. Culture gives
strength and symmetry to religious thought, and religion gives life and
beauty to culture. And just as I believe that men should pray without
ceasing, so also do I believe that they should strive to make their religious
faith ever more free and more intelligent.

Yet the history of the Orient compels me to believe that the soil out of
which scriptures spring is that whose life is the active sympathy of religion,
regardless of the degree of acquired knowledge. When the depths of human
nature are thoroughly saturated with this sympathy, then it is prepared both
to receive and to give those thoughts of which scriptures are made. Industry
and commerce have their good uses. But an industrial and commercialistic
atmosphere is not conducive to the production of sacred books. Where the
chief interests of life center in external things, religion is bound to become
only one and perhaps a minor concern in life.

The Oriental has always lived in a world of spiritual mysteries. Fearful

or confident, superstitious or rational, to him God has been all and in all.
"The judgments of the Lord are true and righteous altogether. In keeping of
them there is great reward."[4] The son of the East has been richly
rewarded. He is the religious teacher of all mankind. Through him all
scriptures have come into being. All the great, living religions of the world
originated in Asia; and the three greatest of them—Judaism, Christianity,
and Mohammedanism—have come into the world through the Semitic race
in that little country called Syria. The perpetual yearning of the Oriental for
spiritual dreams and visions has had its rewards. He sowed bountifully, he
reaped bountifully.

Note the Syrian's daily language: it is essentially Biblical. He has no

secular language. The only real break between his scriptures and the
vocabulary of his daily life is that which exists between the classical and the
vernacular. When you ask a Syrian about his business he will not answer,
"We are doing well at present," but "Allah mûn 'aim" (God is giving
bounteously). To one starting on a journey the phrase is not "Take good care
of yourself," but "Go, in the keeping and protection of God." By example
and precept we were trained from infancy in this manner of speech. Coming
into a house, the visitor salutes by saying, "God grant you good morning,"
or "The peace of God come upon you." So it is written in the tenth chapter
of Matthew, "And as ye enter into the house, salute it. And if the house be
worthy, let your peace come upon it; but if it be not worthy, let your peace
return unto you."

In saluting a day laborer at work we said, "Allah, yaatik-el-afie" (God

give you health and strength). In saluting reapers in the field, or "gatherers
of the increase" in the vineyards or olive groves, we said just the words of
Boaz, in the second chapter of the Book of Ruth, when he "came from
Bethlehem and said unto the reapers, The Lord be with you. And they
answered him, The Lord bless thee." Or another Scriptural expression, now
more extensively used on such occasions, "The blessing of the Lord be
upon you!" It is to this custom that the withering imprecation which is
recorded in the one hundred and twenty-ninth Psalm refers: "Let them all be
confounded and turned back that hate Zion: let them be as the grass upon
the housetops which withereth afore it groweth up: wherewith the mower
filleth not his hand, nor he that bindeth sheaves his bosom. Neither do they
which go by say, The blessing of the Lord be upon you: we bless you in the
name of the Lord."

In asking a shepherd about his flock we said, "How are the blessed
ones?" or a parent about his children, "How are the preserved ones?" They
are preserved of God through their "angels," of whom the Master spoke
when he said, "Take heed that ye despise not one of these little ones; for I
say unto you that in heaven their angels do always behold the face of my
Father."[5] Speaking of a good man we said, "The grace of God is poured
upon his face." So in the Book of Proverbs,[6] "Blessings are upon the head
of the just."

Akin to the foregoing are such expressions as these. In trying to rise

from a sitting posture (the Syrians sit on the floor with their legs folded
under them), a person, using the right arm for leverage, says, as he springs
up, "Ya Allah" (O God [help]). In inquiring about the nature of an object, he
says, "Sho dinû?" (what is its religion?) And one of the queerest
expressions, when translated into English, is that employed to indicate that
a kettleful of water, for example, has boiled beyond the required degree:
"This water has turned to be an infidel" (kaffer). It may be noticed here that
it is not the old theology only which associates the infidel with intense heat.

So this religious language is the Oriental's daily speech. I have stated in

my autobiography that the men my father employed in his building
operations were grouped according to their faith. He had so many Druses,
so many Greek Orthodox, Maronites, and so forth.

The almost total abstinence from using "pious" language in ordinary

business and social intercourse in America may be considered
commendable in some ways, but I consider it a surrender of the soul to the
body, a subordination of the spirit of the things which are eternal to the
spirit of the things which are temporal. In my judgment, the superior culture
of the West, instead of limiting the vocabulary of religion to the one hour of
formal worship on Sunday, and scrupulously shunning it during the
remainder of the week, should make its use, on a much higher plane than
the Orient has yet discovered, coextensive with all the activities of life.
 [1] Ps. cxxxix: 1-6.

[2] Gal. vi: 7.

[3] 2 Cor. ix: 6.

[4] Ps. xix: 9, 11.

[5] Matt. xviii: 10.

[6] x: 6.

CHAPTER II

IMPRECATIONS

Again, the Oriental's consideration of life as being essentially religious

makes him as pious in his imprecations and curses as he is in his
aspirational prayer. Beyond all human intrigue, passion, and force, the great
avenger is God. "Vengeance is mine, I will repay, saith the Lord."[1] "See
now that I, even I, am he, and there is no God with me: I kill and I make
alive; I wound and I heal; neither is there any that can deliver out of my
hand."[2]

By priests and parents these precepts have been transmitted from

generation to generation in the Orient, from time immemorial. We all were
instructed in them by our elders with scrupulous care. Of course as weak
mortals we always tried to avenge ourselves, and the idea of thar (revenge)
lies deep in the Oriental nature. But to us our vengeance was nothing
compared with what God did to our "ungodly" enemies and oppressors.
 The Oriental's impetuosity and effusiveness make his imprecatory
prayers, especially to the "unaccustomed ears" of Americans, blood-
curdling. And I confess that on my last visit to Syria, my countrymen's (and
especially my countrywomen's) bursts of pious wrath jarred heavily upon
me. In his oral bombardment of his enemy the Oriental hurls such missiles
as, "May God burn the bones of your fathers"; "May God exterminate your
seed from the earth"; "May God cut off your supply of bread (yakta
rizkak)"; "May you have nothing but the ground for a bed and the sky for
covering"; "May your children be orphaned and your wife widowed"; and
similar expressions.

Does not this sound exactly like the one hundred and ninth Psalm?
Speaking of his enemy, the writer of that psalm says, "Let his days be few,
and let another take his office. Let his children be fatherless, and his wife a
widow. Let his children be continually vagabonds, and beg; let them seek
their bread also out of their desolate places. Let there be none to extend
mercy unto him; neither let there be any to favor his fatherless children. Let
his posterity be cut off; and in the generation following let their name be
blotted out."

The sad fact is that the Oriental has always considered his personal
enemies to be the enemies of God also, and as such their end was
destruction. Such sentiments mar the beauty of many of the Psalms. The
enemies of the Israelites were considered the enemies of the God of Israel,
and the enemies of a Syrian family are also the enemies of the patron saint
of that family. In that most wonderful Scriptural passage—the one hundred
and thirty-ninth Psalm—the singer cries, "Surely thou wilt slay the wicked,
O God: depart from me, ye bloody men. For they speak against thee
wickedly, and thine enemies take thy name in vain. Do not I hate them, O
Lord, that hate thee? and am I not grieved with those that rise against thee?
I hate them with perfect hatred: I count them mine enemies." Yet this ardent
hater of his enemies most innocently turns to God and says in the next
verse: "Search me, O God, and know my heart: try me and know my
thoughts: and see if there be any wicked way in me, and lead me in the way
everlasting."
 This mixture of piety and hatred, uttered so naïvely and in good faith, is
characteristically Syrian. Such were the mutual wishes I so often heard
expressed in our neighborhood and clan fights and quarrels in Syria. When
so praying, the persons would beat upon their breasts and uncover their
heads, as signs of the total surrender of their cause to an avenging
Omnipotence. Of course the Syrians are not so cruel and heartless as such
imprecations, especially when cast in cold type, would lead one to believe. I
am certain that if the little children of his enemy should become fatherless,
the imprecator himself would be among the first to "favor" them. If you will
keep in mind the juvenile temperament of the Oriental, already mentioned,
and his habit of turning to God in all circumstances, as unreservedly as a
child turns to his father, your judgment of the son of Palestine will be
greatly tempered with mercy.

The one redeeming feature in these imprecatory petitions is that they

have always served the Oriental as a safety-valve. Much of his wrath is
vented in this manner. He is much more cruel in his words than in his deeds.
As a rule the Orientals quarrel much, but fight little. By the time two
antagonists have cursed and reviled each other so profusely they cool off,
and thus graver consequences are averted. The Anglo-Saxon has outgrown
such habits. In the first place the highly complex social order in which he
lives calls for much more effective methods for the settling of disputes, and,
in the second place, he has no time to waste on mere words. And just as the
Anglo-Saxon smiles at the wordy fights of the Oriental, the Oriental
shudders at the swiftness of the Anglo-Saxon in using his fists and his
pistol. Both are needy of the grace of God.

[1] Rom. xii: 19.

[2] Deut. xxxii: 39.

 CHAPTER III

LOVE OF ENEMIES

The preceding chapter makes it very clear why Jesus opened the more
profound depths of the spiritual life to his much-divided and almost
hopelessly clannish countrymen, by commanding them to love their
enemies. He who taught "as one having authority, and not as the scribes,"
knew the possibilities and powers of divine love as no man did. It is in such
immortal precepts that we perceive his superiority to his time and people
and the divinity of his character. His knowledge of the Father was so
intimate and his repose in the Father's love so perfect that he could justly
say, "I and my father are one."

"Ye have heard," he said to his followers, "that it hath been said, Thou
shalt love thy neighbor [in the original, quarib—kinsman] and hate thine
enemy: but I say unto you, love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do
good to them that hate you, and pray for them which despitefully use you
and persecute you; that ye may be the children of your father which is in
heaven."[1]

Here we have the very heart and soul of the Gospel, and the dynamic
power of Jesus' ministry of reconciliation. Yet to many devout Christians, as
well as to unfriendly critics of the New Testament, the command, "Love
your enemies," offers a serious perplexity. An "independent" preacher in a
large Western city, after reading this portion of the Sermon on the Mount to
his congregation, stated that Jesus' great discourse should be called, "The
Sarcasm on the Mount." Is not love of enemies beyond the power of human
nature?

This question is pertinent. And it is an obvious fact that we cannot love

by command; we cannot love to order. This mysterious flow of soul which
we call love is not of our own making; therefore we cannot will to love.
Such a discussion, however, falls outside the scope of this publication.
What I wish to offer here is a linguistic explanation which I believe will
throw some light on this great commandment.
 The word "love" has been more highly specialized in the West than in
the East. In its proper English use it means only that ardent, amorous
feeling which cannot be created by will and design. In the West the word
"love" has been relieved of the function of expressing the less ardent desires
such as the terms "to like," "to have good-will toward," and "to be well-
disposed toward" imply.

Not so in the East. The word "like," meaning "to be favorably inclined
toward," is not found either in the Bible or in the Arabic tongue. In the
English version it is used in two places, but the translation is incorrect. In
the twenty-fifth chapter of Deuteronomy the seventh verse, "If the man like
not to take his brother's wife," should be rendered, "If the man consent not";
and in the fourth chapter of Amos, the fifth verse, "For this liketh you, O ye
children of Israel," is in the original, "For this ye loved, O ye children of
Israel." In any standard concordance of the Bible, the Hebrew verb Aheb (to
love) precedes these quotations.

So to us Orientals the only word which can express any cordial

inclination of approval is "love." One loves his wife and children, and loves
grapes and figs and meat, if he likes these things. An employer says to an
employee, "If you love to work for me according to this agreement, you
can." It is nothing uncommon for one to say to a casual acquaintance whom
he likes, "I must say, Sahib [friend], that I love you!" I know of no
equivalent in the Arabic for the phrase, "I am interested in you." "Love" and
"hate" are the usual terms by which to express approval and disapproval, as
well as real love and hatred.

The Scriptural passages illustrative of this thought are not a few. In the
ninth chapter of the Epistle to the Romans, the thirteenth verse, it is said,
"As it is written, Jacob have I loved, but Esau have I hated." God does not
"hate." The two terms here, "loved" and "hated," mean "approved" and
"disapproved." It is as a father approves of the conduct of one of his
children and disapproves that of another of them. Another example of this
use of the word "hate" is found in the twenty-first chapter of Deuteronomy,
the fifteenth verse: "If a man have two wives, one beloved, and another
hated, and they have born him children, both the beloved and the hated; and
if the firstborn son be hers that was hated: then it shall be, when he maketh
his sons to inherit that which he hath, that he may not make the son of the
beloved firstborn before the son of the hated, which is indeed the first-born:
but he shall acknowledge the son of the hated for the firstborn, by giving
him a double portion of all that he hath." Here it is safe to infer that the
writer meant to distinguish between the wife who was a "favorite" and the
one who was not. There could be no valid reason why a husband should live
with a wife whom he really hated when he could very easily divorce her,
according to the Jewish law, and marry another. In such a case the husband
was simply partial in his love. The hatred which is felt toward an enemy
and a destroyer does not apply here.

Another Scriptural passage which illustrates the free use of the word
"love" is the story of the rich man in the tenth chapter of St. Mark's Gospel.
Beginning with the seventeenth verse, the passage reads: "And when he was
gone forth into the way, there came one running, and kneeling to him, and
asked him, Good Master, what shall I do that I may inherit eternal life? And
Jesus said unto him, Why callest thou me good? there is none good but one,
that is, God. Thou knowest the commandments, Do not commit adultery,
Do not kill, Do not steal, Do not bear false witness, Defraud not, Honor thy
father and mother. And he answered and said unto him, Master, all these
have I observed from my youth. Then Jesus, beholding him, loved him, and
said unto him, One thing thou lackest"; and so forth. Apparently the brief
conversation with the young man showed Jesus that his questioner was both
polite and intelligent, so the Master liked him. Stating the case in Western
phraseology it may be said that the young Hebrew seeker was an agreeable,
or likable man.

Quite different is the import of the word "love" in such of the Master's
sayings as are found in the fifteenth chapter of St. John's Gospel: "As the
Father hath loved me, so have I loved you: continue ye in my love. This is
my commandment, That ye love one another, as I have loved you." Here the
term "love" is used in its truest and purest sense.

From all this it may be seen that when the Great Oriental Teacher said to
his countrymen, who considered all other clans than their own as their
enemies, "Love your enemies," he did not mean that they should be
enamored of them, but that they should have good will toward them. We
cannot love by will and design, but we certainly can will to be well
disposed even toward those who, we believe, have ill will toward us. He
who really thinks this an impossibility gives evidence not of superior
"critical knowledge," but of being still in the lower stages of human
evolution.

But I have something more to say on this great subject. Whether used in
a general or a highly specialized sense the word "Love" speaks indeed of
the "greatest thing in the world."

When the Master of the Art of Living said, "Love your enemies," he
urged upon the minds of men the divinest law of human progress. Yet
compliance with this demand seems, to the majority of men, to be beyond
the reach of humanity. When you are admonished to love your enemies, you
will be likely to think of the meanest, most disagreeable human being you
know and wonder as to how you are going to love such a person. But the
Master's law far transcends this narrow conception of love. Its deeper
meaning, when understood, renders such a conception shallow and childish.
It is to be found, not in the freakish moods of the sensibility, but in the
realm of permanent ideals.

There are in the world two forces at work, love and hatred. Hatred
destroys, love builds; hatred injures, love heals; hatred embitters life, love
sweetens it; hatred is godlessness, love is godliness. The supreme question,
therefore, is, not as to whether there are unlovable persons in the world or
not, but rather, which one of these two forces would you have to rule your
own life and the life of humanity at large, love or hatred? Which nutrition
would you give your own soul and the souls of those who are near and dear
to you, that of hatred, or that of love? Can it be your aim in life to aid that
power which injures, destroys, embitters life and estranges from God, or the
power which heals, builds up, sweetens life and makes one with God?

You say you have been injured through the malicious designs of others,
you are pained by the injury, and a sense of hatred impels you to avenge
yourself. But what formed such designs against you, love or hatred? Hatred!
You enjoy, idealize, adore the love of those who love you. The designs of
love give you joyous satisfaction, and not pain. You know now by actual
personal experience that the fruits of hatred are bitter, and the fruits of love
are sweet. Is it your duty, therefore, to give your life over to the power of
hatred, and thus increase its dominion among men and multiply its bitter,
poisonous fruit in the world, or to consecrate your life to the power of love,
which you idealize and adore, and whose fruits are joy and peace?

This, therefore, is the Master's law of love: Give your life and service to
that power which merits your holiest regard and engages your purest
affections, regardless of the "evil and the undeserving." Recognize no
enemies, and you shall have none. The only power which can defeat the
designs of hatred is love. The foams of hatred and fumes of vengeance are
destined to pass away with all their possessors; only love is permanent and
sovereign good.

The man of hatred is destined, sooner or later, to lose his nobler

qualities, his own self-respect and the respect of others, and to occupy the
smallest and most undesirable social sphere. Therefore love, and do not
hate! Exercise good will toward those even who have injured you.

You may not be able to reach and redeem by your generous thoughts and
designs such persons as have injured you, but a hundred others may learn
from you the law of redeeming love. Let your children grow to know you as
a man of love. Let your employees and fellow citizens think of you as a
man of peace and good will, a builder and not a destroyer. Let your fireside
be ever cheered by the music of love. When the shadows of night fall and
you come to enter into the unknown land of sleep, let loving thoughts be
your companions; let them course into the deepest recesses of your nature
and leaven your entire being. Be a man of love! Love even your blind and
misguided enemies!

[1] Matt. v: 43-45.

 CHAPTER IV

"THE UNVERACIOUS ORIENTAL"

The Oriental's juvenile temperament and his partial disregard for

concrete facts have led his Anglo-Saxon cousin to consider him as
essentially unveracious. "You cannot believe what an Oriental says." "The
Orientals are the children of the 'Father of Lies.'" "Whatever an Oriental
says, the opposite is likely to be the truth"; and so forth.

I do not wish in the least to undertake to excuse or even condone the

Oriental's unveracity, any more than to approve of the ethics of American
politicians during a political campaign. I have no doubt that the Oriental
suffers more from the universal affliction of untruthfulness than does the
Anglo-Saxon, and that he sorely needs to restrict his fancy, and to train his
intellect to have more respect for facts. Nevertheless, I feel compelled to
say that a clear understanding of some of the Oriental's modes of thought
will quash many of the indictments against his veracity. His ways will
remain different from the ways of the Anglo-Saxon, and perhaps not wholly
agreeable to the latter; but the son of the East—the dreamer and writer of
scriptures—will be credited with more honesty of purpose.

It is unpleasant to an Anglo-Saxon to note how many things an Oriental

says, but does not mean. And it is distressing to an Oriental to note how
many things the Anglo-Saxon means, but does not say. To an
unreconstructed Syrian the brevity, yea, even curtness, of an Englishman or
an American, seems to sap life of its pleasures and to place a
disproportionate value on time. For the Oriental, the primary value of time
must not be computed in terms of business and money, but in terms of
sociability and good fellowship. Poetry, and not prosaic accuracy, must be
the dominant feature of speech.

There is much more of intellectual inaccuracy than of moral delinquency

in the Easterner's speech. His misstatements are more often the result of
indifference than the deliberate purpose to deceive. One of his besetting sins
is his ma besay-il—it does not matter. He sees no essential difference
between nine o'clock and half after nine, or whether a conversation took
plate on the housetop or in the house. The main thing is to know the
substance of what happened, with as many of the supporting details as may
be conveniently remembered. A case may be overstated or understated, not
necessarily for the purpose of deceiving, but to impress the hearer with the
significance or the insignificance of it. If a sleeper who had been expected
to rise at sunrise should oversleep and need to be awakened, say half an
hour or an hour later than the appointed time, he is then aroused with the
call, "Arise, it is noon already—qûm sar edh-hir." Of a strong and brave
man it is said, "He can split the earth—yekkid elaridh." The Syrians suffer
from no misunderstanding in such cases. They discern one another's
meaning.

So also many Scriptural passages need to be discerned. The purpose of

the Oriental speaker or writer must be sought often beyond the letter of his
statement, which he uses with great freedom.

In the first chapter of St. Mark's Gospel, the thirty-second and thirty-
third verses, it is said, "And at even, when the sun did set, they brought unto
him all that were diseased, and them that were possessed of devils. And all
the city was gathered together at the door." The swiftness with which the
poor people in Eastern communities bring their sick to a healer, be he a
prophet or only a physician, is proverbial. Because of the scarcity of
physicians, as well as of money with which to pay for medical attendance,
when a healer is summoned to a home many afflicted persons come or are
brought to him. The peoples of the East have always believed also in the
healing of diseases by religious means. When a prophet arises the first thing
expected of him is that he should heal the sick. Both the priest and the
physician are appealed to in time of trouble. To those who followed and
believed in him Jesus was the healer of both the soul and the body. But note
the account of the incident before us. The place was the city of Capernaum,
and we are told that "all the city was gathered together at the door" of the
house where Jesus was bestowing the loving, healing touch upon the sick.
Was the whole city at the door? Were all the sick in that large city brought
into that house for Jesus to heal them? Here we are confronted by a physical
impossibility. An Anglo-Saxon chronicler would have said, "Quite a number
gathered at the door," which in all probability would have been a correct
report.
 But to the Oriental writer the object of the report was not to determine
the number of those who stood outside, nor to insist that each and every
sick person in Capernaum was brought into the humble home of Simon and
Andrew. It was rather to glorify the Great Teacher and his divine work of
mercy, and not to give a photographic report of the attendant circumstances.
The saying, "Quite a number gathered at the door," may be correct, but to
an Oriental it is absolutely colorless and tasteless, an inexcusably
parsimonious use of the imagination.

Take another Scriptural passage. In the seventeenth chapter of St.

Matthew's Gospel, the first verse, we read: "And after six days Jesus taketh
Peter, James, and John his brother, and bringeth them up into an high
mountain apart, and was transfigured before them; and his face did shine as
the sun." "After six days" from what time? In the preceding chapter a
general reference to time is made in the thirteenth verse, where it is said:
"When Jesus came into the coasts of Cæsarea Philippi, he asked his
disciples, saying, Whom do men say that I the Son of man am?" But here no
definite date is given. Chapter sixteenth ends with those great words, "For
whosoever will save his life shall lose it: and whosoever will lose his life
for my sake shall find it. For what is a man profited, if he shall gain the
whole world, and lose his own soul?" The two last verses of this chapter
promise the speedy coming of the Kingdom.

"After six days" from what time? Well, what does it matter from what
time? Do you not see that the object of the record is to give a glimpse of
what happened on that "high mountain" where the light and glory of the
unseen world were reflected in the face of the Christ?

The intelligent lay reader of the New Testament cannot fail to notice,
especially in the Gospels, gaps and abrupt beginnings such as "In those
days"; "Then came the disciples to Jesus"; "And it came to pass"; and many
similar expressions which seem to point nowhere. The record seems to be
rather incoherent. Yes, such difficulties, which are due largely to the
Oriental's indifference to little details, exist in the Bible, but they are very
unimportant. The central purpose of these books is to enable the reader to
perceive the secret of a holy personality, whose mission was, is, and forever
shall be, to emancipate the soul of man from the bondage of a world of fear,
weakness, sin, and doubt, and lead it onward and upward to the realms of
faith, hope, and love. This purpose the Scriptures abundantly subserve.

CHAPTER V

IMPRESSIONS vs. LITERAL ACCURACY

A Syrian's chief purpose in a conversation is to convey an impression by

whatever suitable means, and not to deliver his message in scientifically
accurate terms. He expects to be judged not by what he says, but by what he
means. He does not expect his hearer to listen to him with the quizzical
courtesy of a "cool-headed Yankee," and to interrupt the flow of
conversation by saying, with the least possible show of emotion, "Do I
understand you to say," etc. No; he piles up his metaphors and superlatives,
reinforced by a theatrical display of gestures and facial expressions, in order
to make the hearer feel his meaning.

The Oriental's speech is always "illustrated." He speaks as it were in

pictures. With him the spoken language goes hand in hand with the more
ancient gesture language. His profuse gesticulation is that phase of his life
which first challenges the attention of Occidental travelers in the East. He
points to almost everything he mentions in his speech, and would portray
every feeling and emotion by means of some bodily movement. No sooner
does he mention his eye than his index finger points to or even touches that
organ. "Do you understand me?" is said to an auditor with the speaker's
finger on his own temple. In rebuking one who makes unreasonable
demands upon him, a Syrian would be likely to stoop down and say, "Don't
you want to ride on my back?"

One of the most striking examples of this manner of speech in the Bible
is found in the twenty-first chapter of the Book of Acts. Beginning with the
tenth verse, the writer says: "And as we tarried there [at Cæsarea] many
days, there came down from Judea a certain prophet, named Agabus. And
when he was come unto us, he took Paul's girdle, and bound his own hands
and feet, and said, Thus saith the Holy Ghost, So shall the Jews at
Jerusalem bind the man that owneth this girdle, and shall deliver him into
the hands of the Gentiles." Now an Occidental teacher would not have gone
into all that trouble. He would have said to the great apostle, "Now you
understand I don't mean to interfere with your business, but if I were you I
would n't go down to Jerusalem. Those Jews there are not pleased with
what you are doing, and would be likely to make things unpleasant for
you." But in all probability such a polite hint would not have made Paul's
companions weep, nor caused him to say, "What mean ye to weep and to
break mine heart? for I am ready not to be bound only, but also to die at
Jerusalem for the name of the Lord Jesus."

It is also because the Syrian loves to speak in pictures, and to

subordinate literal accuracy to the total impression of an utterance, that he
makes such extensive use of figurative language. Instead of saying to the
Pharisees, "Your pretensions to virtue and good birth far exceed your actual
practice of virtue," John the Baptist cried: "O generation of vipers, who hath
warned you to flee from the wrath to come? Bring forth, therefore, fruits
meet for repentance: and think not to say within yourselves, We have
Abraham to our father: for I say unto you that God is able of these stones to
raise up children unto Abraham."

Just as the Oriental loves to flavor his food strongly and to dress in
bright colors, so is he fond of metaphor, exaggeration, and positiveness in
speech. To him mild accuracy is weakness. A host of illustrations of this
thought rise in my mind as I recall my early experiences as a Syrian youth. I
remember how those jovial men who came to our house to "sit"—that is, to
make a call of indefinite duration—would make their wild assertions and
back them up by vows which they never intended to keep. The one would
say, "What I say to you is the truth, and if it is not, I will cut off my right
arm"—grasping it—"at the shoulder." "I promise you this,"—whatever the
promise might be,—"and if I fail in fulfilling my promise I will pluck out
my right eye."

To such speech we always listened admiringly and respectfully. But we

never had the remotest idea that in any circumstances the speaker would
carry out his resolution, or that his hearers had a right to demand it from
him. He simply was in earnest; or as an American would say, "He meant
that he was right."

Such an Oriental mode of thought furnishes us with the background for

Jesus' saying, "If thy right eye offend thee, pluck it out, and cast it from
thee. If thy right hand offend thee, cut it off, and cast it from thee."[1]

To many Western Christians, especially in the light of the Protestant

doctrine of the infallibility of the letter of the Bible, these sayings of Christ
present insurmountable difficulties. To such the question, "How can I be a
true disciple of Christ, if I do not obey what he commands?" makes these
misunderstood sayings of Christ great stumbling blocks. Some time ago a
lady wrote me a letter saying that at a prayer-meeting which she attended,
the minister, after reading the fifth chapter of Matthew, which contains
these commands, said, "If we are true Christians we must not shrink from
obeying these explicit commands of our Lord."

My informant stated also that on hearing that, she asked the preacher,
"Suppose the tongue should offend, and we should cut it off; should we be
better Christians than if we did endeavor to atone for the offense in some
other way?" The preacher, after a moment of perplexed silence, said, "If
there is no one here who can answer this question, we will sing a hymn."

The best commentary on these sayings of Christ is given by Paul in the

sixth chapter of his Epistle to the Romans. This is precisely what the Master
meant: "Neither yield ye your members as instruments of unrighteousness
unto sin; but yield yourselves unto God, as those that are alive from the
dead, and your members as instruments of righteousness unto God." Cutting
or mutilation of the body has nothing to do with either passage, nor indeed
with the Christian life. The amputation of an arm that steals is no sure
guaranty of the removal of the desire to steal; nor would the plucking out of
a lustful eye do away with the lust which uses the eye for an instrument.

With this should be classed also the following commands: "Whosoever

shall smite thee on the right cheek, turn to him the other also." "If any man
will sue thee at the law, and take away thy coat, let him have thy cloak also;
and whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him twain."[2]
 The command to give the coat and the cloak to a disputant, rather than to
go to law with him, will seem much more perplexing when it is understood
that these words mean the "under garment" and the "upper garment." The
Orientals are not in the habit of wearing a coat and a cloak or overcoat. In
the Arabic version we have the thaub ("th" as in "throw") and the rada'. The
thaub is the main article of clothing—the ample gown worn over a shirt
next to the body. The rada' is the cloak worn on occasions over the thaub.
The Scriptural command literally is, "To one who would quarrel with thee
and would take thy thaub, give him the rada' also." It may be clearly seen
here that literal compliance with this admonition would leave the non-
resistant person, so far as clothes are concerned, in a pitiable condition.

The concluding portion of this paragraph in the fifth chapter of St.

Matthew's Gospel—the forty-second verse—presents another difficulty. It
says, "Give to him that asketh thee, and from him that would borrow of thee
turn not thou away." Of all those whom I have heard speak disparagingly of
this passage I particularly recall a lawyer, whom I knew in a Western State,
whose dislike for these words of Christ amounted almost to a mental
affliction. It seems to me that on every single occasion when he and I
discussed the Scriptures together, or spoke of Christianity, I found him
armed with this passage as his most effective weapon against the innocent
Nazarene. "What was Jesus thinking of," he would say, "when he uttered
these words? What would become of our business interests and financial
institutions if we gave to every one that asked of us, and lent money without
good security to every Tom, Dick, and Harry?"

The thought involved in this text suffers from the unconditional manner
in which it is presented, and which gives it its Oriental flavor. Seeing that
he was addressing those who knew what he meant, the writer did not deem
it necessary to state exactly the reason why this command was given. It
seems, however, that when Jesus spoke those words he had in mind the
following passage: "And if thy brother be waxed poor, and his hand fail
with thee; then thou shalt uphold him: as a stranger and a sojourner shall he
live with thee. Take thou no interest of him or increase, but fear thy God:
that thy brother may live with thee. Thou shalt not give him thy money upon
interest, nor give him thy victuals for increase."[3] According to this legal
stipulation, an Israelite could not lawfully charge a fellow Israelite interest
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