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Readings in Ancient Greek Philosophy From Thales to
Aristotle 4th Edition S. Marc Cohen (Editor) Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): S. Marc Cohen (editor), Patricia Curd (editor), C. D. C. Reeve
(editor)
ISBN(s): 9781603844628, 1603844627
Edition: 4
File Details: PDF, 37.85 MB
Year: 2011
Language: english
 readings in
Ancient
Greek
Philosophy
From Thales to Aristotle

Edited by S. Marc Cohen, Patricia Curd, and C.D.C. Reeve

 Readings in
Ancient Greek Philosophy
from Thales to Aristotle

Fourth Edition
 Readings in
Ancient Greek Philosophy
from Thales to Aristotle
Fourth Edition

Edited by
S. MARC COHEN
PATRICIA CURD
C.D.C. REEVE

Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

Indianapolis/Cambridge
 Copyright © 2011 by Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

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Readings in ancient Greek philosophy : from Thales to Aristotle / edited by S. Marc

Cohen, Patricia Curd, C.D.C. Reeve.—4th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-1-60384-462-8 (pbk.) — ISBN 978-1-60384-463-5 (cloth)
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Adobe PDF ebook ISBN: 978-1-60384-597-7

 CONTENTS

Introduction viii
Maps xi
Timeline xiv
Acknowledgments xv

The Presocratics and the Sophists*

1. Introduction 1
2. The Milesians 10
2.1. Thales 10
2.2. Anaximander 12
2.3. Anaximenes 15
3. Pythagoras and Early Pythagoreanism 18
4. Xenophanes of Colophon 23
5. Heraclitus of Ephesus 29
6. Parmenides of Elea 40
7. Zeno of Elea 47
8. Empedocles of Acragas 52
9. Anaxagoras of Clazomenae 75
10. Leucippus and Democritus: Fifth-Century Atomism 80
11. Melissus of Samos 93
12. Philolaus of Croton 97
13. Diogenes of Apollonia 100
14. The Sophists 104
14.1. Protagoras 105
14.2. Gorgias 107
14.3. Prodicus 112
14.4. Hippias 113
14.5. Antiphon 113
15. The Derveni Papyrus, Columns IV–XXVI 118
*Except where noted, translations of the Presocratics and the Sophists are by R. D.
McKirahan.

v
vi CONTENTS

Plato
Introduction 127
Euthyphro, tr. C.D.C. Reeve 135
Apology, tr. C.D.C. Reeve 153
Crito, tr. C.D.C. Reeve 179
Protagoras (317e–334c, 348c–362a), tr. S. Lombardo and K. Bell 192
Gorgias (462a– 481b), tr. D. J. Zeyl 219
Meno, tr. G.M.A. Grube 241
Phaedo, tr. G.M.A. Grube 267
Symposium, tr. A. Nehamas and P. Woodruff 320
Republic, tr. G.M.A. Grube; rev. C.D.C. Reeve 369
I 369
II 398
III 424
IV 456
V 483
VI 515
VII 542
VIII 568
IX 594
X 616
Parmenides (127b–135d), tr. M. L. Gill and P. Ryan 642
Timaeus (27e–58c), tr. D. J. Zeyl 652
 CONTENTS vii

Aristotle*
Introduction 683
Categories 1–5, tr. S. M. Cohen and G. B. Matthews 694
De Interpretatione 1– 4, 7, 9 701
Topics I.1–2, 5 709
Posterior Analytics I.1–6, 10; II.8–10, 19 714
Physics I.1, 5–9; II; III.1–3; VIII.6 732
On Generation and Corruption, I.1, 3– 4; II.1–5 765
On the Heavens I.2; III.3–6, tr. W.K.C. Guthrie 777
Meteorologica IV.12, tr. S. M. Cohen 785
Parts of Animals I.1, 5 787
Metaphysics I.1– 4, 6, 9; IV.1–3; VII.1– 4, 6, 10–11, 13, 15, 17;
VIII.1–2, 6; XII.6–9 796
De Anima I.1, 4; II.1–6, 11–12; III.3–5, 10–11 847
Nicomachean Ethics, I.1–5, 7–9, 13; II.1–6; III.1–5; V.1–2;
VI.1–2, 5, 7, 12–13; VII.1–3; X.6–9, tr. T. Irwin 870
Politics I.1–2; II.1–5; III.1, 4, 6–12; VII.1–3, 13, 15 930

Appendixes
Suggestions for Further Reading 961
The Presocratics and the Sophists 961
Plato 965
Aristotle 965
Concordance for the Presocratics and the Sophists 967
Glossary for Aristotle 973

* Except as noted, Aristotle translations are reprinted from Aristotle, Selections,

translated and edited by Terence Irwin and Gail Fine. Copyright  1995 Terence
Irwin and Gail Fine. Reprinted with permission. Glossary for Aristotle is adapted
from the same work.
 INTRODUCTION

This anthology is intended to introduce readers to a broad selection of the

writings of some of the greatest of the ancient Greek philosophers—
Heraclitus, Parmenides, Democritus, Protagoras, Plato, Aristotle, and
many others. Together these thinkers brought about one of the most signif-
icant revolutions we know of, one that set the Western world on a path
that—with minor and not so minor deviations—it has followed ever since.
What they did, to put it boldly and oversimply, was to invent critical
rationality and embody it in a tradition; for the theories they advanced,
whether on the nature and origins of the cosmos or on ethics and politics,
were not offered as gospels to be accepted on divine or human authority
but as rational products to be accepted or rejected on the basis of evidence
and argument: do not listen to me, Heraclitus says, but to my account.
Every university and college, every intellectual discipline and scientific
advance, every step toward freedom and away from ignorance, supersti-
tion, and enslavement to repressive dogma is eloquent testimony to the
power of their invention. If they had not existed, our world would not
exist.
Obviously, there is more to say about the achievements of Greek phi-
losophy than this. But bold and oversimple as our claim is, and standing in
need of modification and elaboration as it does, it points nonetheless to
something central and vital, something that will surely be borne in upon
any reader of the texts collected here: the world of Greek philosophy is an
argumentative world.
As we weigh and consider the ideas and evaluate the arguments con-
tained in the following pages, we will find ourselves thinking about the
ultimate structure of reality, about the mind, about the nature of knowl-
edge and scientific theorizing, about ethical values, and about the best
kind of society for people to live in. Some of what we uncover we will no
doubt find congenial; some we will want to criticize or reject. But as long as
evidence and argument remain our touchstone, we will be joining in the
enterprise that these philosophers both invented and did so much to
develop. In the process, we will be to some degree becoming what some of
them thought was the best thing to be—fully rational human beings.
This may sound attractive, but it may also seem one-sided, so it is
perhaps important to add that the critical rationality vital to success-
ful theorizing, while it is recommended as a very important ingredient in

viii
 INTRODUCTION ix

the best kind of life, is certainly not all that is recommended to us by

these philosophers. For many of them, a successful life is one in which all
the elements in our characters—needs, desires, emotions, and beliefs—
are harmoniously integrated and in which we ourselves are harmoniously
integrated with others into a flourishing society that is itself in har-
mony with the larger world of which it is a part. Moreover, many of the
Greek philosophers—like their fellow poets and tragedians—recognized
that there were profoundly nonrational elements in the world: the same
Heraclitus who asks us to listen to his account also reminds us that “The
Lord whose oracle is at Delphi neither speaks nor conceals, but gives
a sign”; Socrates, the patron saint of rational self-scrutiny, is also a
holy man, a servant of Apollo. Indeed, one of the most attractive features
of Greek philosophy is its inclusivity, its manifest wish to see the world
whole and see it right. Few contemporary philosophers offer us such all-
encompassing visions of ourselves and our world as we find in Plato and
Aristotle; few have the audacity to reach as far or as wide as the great
Presocratics. That is not, surely, the only reason to make friends with these
splendid thinkers, but it is, nonetheless, one major reason why they have
never lost their power to challenge, inspire, and enlighten those who do
befriend them.

We have divided the selection of readings into three sections, each with a
separate introduction. Patricia Curd is primarily responsible for the sec-
tion on the Presocratics and Sophists; David Reeve for the section on Plato;
and Marc Cohen for the section on Aristotle. An excellent anthology of
later Greek philosophical writers, which nicely complements this one, is B.
Inwood and L. P. Gerson (eds.), Hellenistic Philosophy: Introductory Read-
ings, second edition (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1997).

The fourth edition of Readings in Ancient Greek Philosophy features an ex-

tensive revision in the Presocratics unit, which had been untouched since
the appearance of the first edition in 1995. Since then, Presocratic studies
have grown rapidly. Exciting new material has been discovered: the
Strasbourg Papyrus with its previously unknown lines of Empedocles,
and the Derveni Papyrus, which shows how Presocratic philosophy was
adopted into the wider intellectual world of ancient Greece. There have
been new studies published, and numerous international conferences:
scholars have asked novel questions, and offered fresh interpretations. For
Readings in Ancient Greek Philosophy, the most important development has
been Richard D. McKirahan’s complete revision of his excellent volume,
Philosophy Before Socrates, for its second edition. The translations prepared
for that volume form the backbone of the Presocratics unit of this one.
In addition, all of the introductory material to this unit has been revised
(in many cases to take advantage of recent interpretations), and much of
x INTRODUCTION

the new material that has come to light (especially on Empedocles) has
been included. The fragments in the Heraclitus and Empedocles chapters
have been reordered, and the chapter on the Sophists has been changed in
order to provide longer selections and a view of the Sophists more in
keeping with contemporary scholarship. Finally, this edition includes the
text of the intriguing Derveni Papyrus.

References to the Greek philosophers make use of certain standard edi-

tions of their words. Thus references to the Presocratics employ “Diels-
Kranz numbers” because H. Diels and W. Kranz, Die Fragmente der Vor-
sokratiker (1903) was the first authoritative collection of Presocratic Texts.
Testimonia about a philosopher written by someone else are identified by
the letter “A,” and fragments of the philosopher’s own works by the letter
“B.” “22A2,” for instance, refers to the second of the testimonia listed on
Heraclitus, to whom the number 22 is assigned; 28B1 refers to the first
fragment of Parmenides. References to Plato are to the edition of his works
produced by Henri Estienne (known as Stephanus) in 1578, and are given
by title and “Stephanus page number” (e.g., Republic 464d). References to
Aristotle are to Immanuel Bekker’s edition (1831) and are given by title
and “Bekker page and line number” (e.g., Politics 1252a10).
xi
xii
xiii
xiv
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Excerpts from Richard D. McKirahan, Philosophy Before Socrates: An Introduction with

Texts and Commentary, 2nd edition. Hackett Publishing Company, 2010. Copyright
 2010, Hackett Publishing Co. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Excerpts from Patricia Curd, Anaxagoras of Clazomenae: Fragments and Testimonia.
Texts and Translation with Notes and Essays (The Phoenix Presocratics Series) Univer-
sity of Toronto Press, 2007. Copyright  2007, University of Toronto Press. Re-
printed by permission of the publisher.
Plato’s Euthyphro, Apology, and Crito, translated by C.D.C. Reeve from The Trials
of Socrates, edited by C.D.C. Reeve. Copyright  2002 Hackett Publishing Co.
Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Excerpts from Plato’s Protagoras, translated by Stanley Lombardo and Karen
Bell. Copyright  1992 Hackett Publishing Co. Reprinted by permission of the
publisher.
Excerpts from Plato’s Gorgias, translated by Donald Zeyl. Copyright  1987
Hackett Publishing Co. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Plato’s Meno, translated by G.M.A. Grube. Copyright  1981 Hackett Publishing
Co. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Plato’s Phaedo, translated by G.M.A. Grube. Copyright  1987 Hackett Publish-
ing Co. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Plato’s Symposium, translated by Alexander Nehamas and Paul Woodruff.
Copyright  1989 Hackett Publishing Co. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Plato’s Republic, translated by G.M.A. Grube, revised by C.D.C. Reeve. Copy-
right  1992 Hackett Publishing Co. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.
Plato’s Parmenides, translated by Mary Louise Gill and Paul Ryan. Copyright 
1995 Hackett Publishing Co. Reprinted by permission of the translators and
publisher.
Plato’s Timaeus, translated by Donald Zeyl. Copyright  1995 Hackett Publish-
ing Co. Reprinted by permission of the translator and publisher.
Excerpts from Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, translated by Terence Irwin.
Copyright  1985 Hackett Publishing Co. Reprinted by permission of the translator
and publisher.
Excerpts from Aristotle, Selections, translated by Terence Irwin and Gail Fine.
Copyright  1995 Hackett Publishing Co. Reprinted by permission of the transla-
tors and publisher.
Excerpts from Aristotle, De Caelo, translated by W.K.C. Guthrie (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1939). Reprinted by permission of the publishers
and the Loeb Classical Library.
Excerpt from Aristotle, Meteorologica, translated by S. Marc Cohen. Copyright 
1994 S. Marc Cohen. Reprinted by permission of the translator.
Excerpt from Aristotle, Categories, translated by S. Marc Cohen and Gareth B.
Matthews. Copyright  1995 S. Marc Cohen and Gareth B. Matthews. Reprinted by
permission of the translators.
 THE PRESOCRATICS
AND THE SOPHISTS

1. INTRODUCTION
Ancient tradition says that Thales of Miletus predicted an eclipse of the
sun. Although we know none of the details of this supposed prediction,
the event (an eclipse in 585 BCE) has traditionally marked the beginning of
philosophy and science in Western thought. Aristotle, who was one of the
earliest to think critically about the history of philosophy, speculated
about why this kind of inquiry should have begun in Miletus, a Greek city
on the Ionian coast of Asia minor (in what is now Turkey); like later
scholars who have asked this question, Aristotle was unable to find an
answer. So the circumstances surrounding the beginning of philosophy
remain unclear; perhaps the question is unanswerable. Nevertheless,
Thales, the titular first philosopher, stands at the beginning of a great
tradition of rational inquiry and critical thought about the world and the
place of human beings in it that continues to the present day.
Thales was the first of a succession of thinkers known as the Pre-
socratics who lived in Greece in the sixth and fifth centuries BCE.1 These
thinkers do not belong to any unified school of thought, and they differed
dramatically in their views. Yet they share intellectual attitudes and as-
sumptions and they all display an enthusiasm for inquiry that justifies
studying them as a group. It cannot be merely Thales’ reported predic-
tion of an eclipse that can justify our thinking of him as the first West-
ern philosopher and scientist—after all, both the Babylonians and the
Egyptians had complex astronomies. Nevertheless, for Aristotle and those

1. The name “Presocratics” comes from 19th-century classical scholars, who saw a
fundamental break between the interests and methods of our group of thinkers
and Socrates (470–399 BCE), and who regarded Socrates’ interests in ethics as a
radical advance in Western thought. Few would now agree with that evaluation,
and it is worth pointing out that several of our Presocratics were actually contem-
poraries of or younger than Socrates. So, as a descriptive label, the name “Presocra-
tics” is misleading, but as a designator for a recognized group of thinkers, it is quite
useful, and I shall use it here in that sense. For more on this issue, see articles in
Long.

1
2 THE PRESOCRATICS AND THE SOPHISTS

who came after him, Thales, and his fellow-Milesians Anaximander and
Anaximenes, shared an outlook that truly marks the beginning of philo-
sophical inquiry. Part of this was a willingness to speculate and give rea-
sons based on evidence and argument. Another aspect was a commitment
to the view that the natural world (the entire universe) can be explained
without needing to refer to anything beyond nature itself. For instance,
Thales seems to have thought that everything is from water (although it is
not clear whether he thought that water is the origin of all things, or that
everything really is water in some form or another). This may strike us as a
naı̈ve and overly simplistic claim. Yet Aristotle saw in Thales’ views some-
thing that suggested that Thales had reasons and arguments for them:

[T]hey do not all agree about how many or what kinds of such
principles there are, but Thales, the founder of this kind of philoso-
phy, stated it to be water. (This is why he declared that the earth rests
on water.) Perhaps he got this idea from seeing that the nourishment
of all things is moist, and that even the hot itself comes to be from the
moist and lives on it (the principle of all things is that from which
they come to be)—getting this idea from this consideration and also
because the seeds of all things have a moist nature; and water is the
principle of the nature of moist things.
(Aristotle, Metaphysics 1.3 983b18–27 = DK 11A12)

From Aristotle’s comments, it is clear that he thought that Thales’ claim

was based on reasoning from observational evidence.
We may contrast Thales’ account of the character of the natural world
with the story Hesiod tells (probably in the century before Thales) about
the origin of the cosmos:

Tell me these things, Muses, who dwell on Olympus,

From the beginning, and tell me, which of them was born first.
First of all Chaos came into being. Next came
broad-breasted Gaia [Earth], the secure dwelling place forever of
all
the immortals who hold the peak of snowy Olympus.
And murky Tartaros [Underworld] in a recess of the broad-roaded
Earth,
and Eros [Love], who is the most beautiful among the immortal
gods, who
loosens the limbs and overpowers the intentions and sensible
plans
of all the gods and all humans too.
From Chaos there came into being Erebos [Darkness] and black
Night.
 1. INTRODUCTION 3

From Night, Aithēr [bright upper air] and Hemera [Day] came
into being,
which she conceived and bore after uniting in love with Erebos.
Gaia first brought forth starry Ouranos [Heaven]
equal to herself, to cover her all about
in order to be a secure dwelling place forever for the blessed gods.
She brought forth long mountains, beautiful shelters of divine
Nymphs who live in wooded mountains,
and also, without delightful love, gave birth to the barren sea,
Pontos, raging with its swelling waves. Then,
bedded by Ouranos, she gave birth to deep-swirling Ocean
and Koios and Kreios and Hyperion and Iapetos
and Theia and Rhea and Themis and Mnemosyne
and Phoebe with a golden wreath and lovely Tethys.
After them, last of all, was born crafty-minded Kronos,
the most terrible of the children, and he hated his mighty father.
(Hesiod, Theogony 114 –38)
Hesiod requests the help of the Muses for the claims he will make. He then
reports on the births of the gods with the Muses’ authority as his source. In
relying on the Muses, Hesiod does not infer his account of the cosmos from
natural evidence. Nor does he think that appeals to evidence are necessary:
the divine warrant offered by the Muses is sufficient for his purposes.
Hesiod’s account of the origins of the universe (his cosmogony) is in fact a
story of the origins of the gods (a theogony). Each aspect of the cosmos is
identified with the distinct characteristics and personality of a god, who
controls that part of the universe. The change from the state of chaos to the
presence of Gaia (Earth), Tartaros (the deepest underworld), Eros (desire),
Erebos (the darkness under the earth), and Night is not explained in this
passage.2 Earth, Tartaros, and Eros simply came to be; there is no attempt to
explain how this happened or justify why they came to be at exactly this
moment rather than another. Once Eros is present, the model of generation
is primarily sexual, although we are told that Gaia (Earth) gave birth to
Pontos (sea) “without delightful love.” These gods who, in some sense, are
the different parts of the universe, behave like humans in their desires,
emotions, and purposes. As in the Egyptian, Sumerian, and Hebrew cre-
ation myths, the Hesiodic story makes no clear distinction between a
personality and a part of the cosmos: The natural and the supernatural
coincide. Since Hesiod feels no compunction about asserting his claims
without reasons to support them, he seems to think that the proper re-
sponse to the story is acceptance. The hearer or reader should not subject it
to critical scrutiny followed by rational agreement or disagreement.
2. Hesiod says that Chaos “came into being”; there is no explanation for this
coming-to-be.
Other documents randomly have
different content
SECTION XXII.

Then the foremost of Raghus addressed Ocean in stern words,

saying,—"To-day will I dry up the Ocean along with the nether
regions. And, O Ocean, thy waters being burnt up by my shafts, and
thou being dried up, with thy (aquatic) animals slaughtered, a
mighty volume of dust shall arise (from thy bed). And, O Ocean, in
consequence of the arrowy shower discharged from my bow, the
monkeys shall go over to the further shore on foot. Having attained
dimensions in consequence of access of waters, thou knowest not
my manliness or my prowess But, O abode of Dānavas, grief shalt
thou reap at my hands". Then fixing an arrow resembling the rod of
Brahmā with a Brahma Mantra, on the best of bows, that
exceedingly strong one drew it. And as Rāghava suddenly stretched
his bow, heaven and earth seemed to be riven, and the mountains
trembled. And darkness covered the world, and the cardinal points
became invisible. And at once the watery expanses and rivers were
agitated. And the stars appeared simultaneously with the Sun and
Moon.⁵⁶ And the sky was illumined with the rays of the Sun, and yet
it was overspread with darkness; and it burned with an hundred
meteors. And thunder-bolts sending forth sounds surpassing all
others, dropped from the firmament. And the winds began to blow
violently; breaking down trees and momentarily scattering clouds;
damaging mountain-tops and shattering summits. And then the
dread and mighty thunders possessing impetuous speed and
emitting tremendous roars,—coming together, produced lightning
flashes. And those creatures that could be seen, uttered sounds
resembling the thunder; and those that were invisible gave forth
frightful cries. And overwhelmed with fright, and quaking (for fear),
the creatures began to measure their lengths,—and they were sore
afflicted, and bereft of motion through terror. And then the mighty
deep with its animals, and with its waters and waves, and with its
serpents and Rākshasas, was suddenly wrought up with a violent
motion. And albeit it was not the occasion of the universal
dissolution, the Ocean passed beyond his shores for a full hundred
yojanas. And seeing the elated Ocean—lord of streams and rivers—
thus overpass his bounds, that destroyer of enemies, Raghu’s son,
Rāma, was not moved.⁵⁷ Then from forth the mid-sea arose Ocean
himself, even as the maker of day riseth from the mighty ascending-
hill, Meru. And accompanied by Pannagas⁵⁸ of flaming faces, the
Ocean showed himself, appearing like cool lapises, adorned with
golden ornaments,—wearing a wreath of gems and a jewelled
vesture, with his eyes resembling lotus-leaves, bearing on his head a
noble garland containing all flowers; decked with ornaments of
polished gold; as well with excellent ornaments of gems originating
in himself, like the mountain Himavān embellished with metals
(sprung in himself),—(the Ocean arose) with wave on wave whirling
around, and rife with winds blowing among clouds,—surrounded by
streams, Ganga, Sindhu (and others). And approaching the arrow-
showering Rāma, and greeting him fair, Ocean spoke unto him with
joined hands,—"O Rāghava, earth, air, sky, water and light,—these,
O mild one, retaining their eternal course, maintain their (respective)
natures. Mine also is that nature whereby I am fathomless and
incapable of being crossed. The reverse of this is the having a
bottom. And for this reason I speak to thee (concerning the means).
O king’s son, not from desire, or covetuousness, or fear, or anger,
can I anywise deprive my waters abounding in alligators of their
(perpetual) motion. I will tell thee how thou wilt pass (over me); and
I will bear it. And no ferocious aquatic animals shall do wrong so
long as thy forces have not crossed. And, O Rāma, I will make as it
were firm land for the crossing over of the monkeys". Then Rāma
said,—"O Varuna’s abode, listen to me! This arrow (of mine) must
accomplish the end (intended). Where shall I let it light?" Hearing
Rāma’s speech, and looking at the mighty arrow, that exceedingly
energetic one, the great Deep, addressed Rāghava, saying,—"There
is a certain spot of mine in the North, which is more sacred (than
the rest). It is famed as Drumakulya, even as thou art famed in the
world. There are there many robbers of ferocious forms and actions,
—wicked wights, headed by cow-herds,—who drink of my water.
These persons of unrighteous acts touch me, and I cannot bear this
sin. O Rāma, do thou at that place render this best of arrows
successful". Hearing the words of the high-souled Ocean, (Rāma)
immediately after,⁵⁹ let fly that flaming shaft. And the place where
the arrow resembling the thunder-bolt and vajra in splendour,
alighted, hath been celebrated on earth as Marukāntāra. And hurt
with the dart, the Earth emitted roars; and in consequence of this,
water began to gush out at the mouth of the wound from the
subterranean regions. And this then became well-known as Vrana;
and there are seen the waters of the Ocean spring up. And there
arose a terrific report of riving. And owing to this,⁶⁰ as well as the
incident of the arrow, the water that existed in the tanks, was dried
up. Having dried up Marukāntāra famous throughout the three
regions, as well as the reservoirs of water, Rāma the son of
Daçaratha, learned and of god-like prowess, conferred a boon on the
desert, saying,—"This place shall be filled with food nourishing
beasts; and ailments shall be rare here. And the fruits and roots
shall be replete with relish; and it shall abound in oil and overflow
with milk; and it shall contain various odorous drugs". Thus did the
desert come to possess these attributes; and from Rāma’s bestowal
of a boon, it attained a pleasant aspect. On that place being burnt
up, that lord of streams, the Ocean, thus spake unto Rāghava,
versed in every branch of learning,—"O mild one, this one is named
Nala, son unto Viçwakarmā. He hath received a boon from his sire.
Viçwakarmā’s son is well pleased with thee. Let this monkey,
surcharged with exhuberant spirits, build a bridge over me. I will
hold that up. This one is as his sire". Having delivered himself thus,
Ocean disappeared. Then that foremost of monkeys, Nala, arising,
spoke unto the mighty Rāma,—"Resorting to my sire’s skill, I will
build a bridge over the spacious abode of Makaras. The mighty
Ocean hath spoken justly. In respect of the ingrate even
chastisement is supreme in this world,—this is my conviction. Down
with forbearance, or moderation, or gift! This dreadful Ocean, this
mighty deep, expecting to see a bridge (thrown over him), hath
granted depth unto Rāghava.—(Formerly) is Mandara, Viçwakarmā
had conferred a boon on my mother: ’O exalted one, thy son shall
be like me.’ I am a son of his, sprung from his loins, and I am like
unto Viçwakarmā. Not having been asked by thee, I had not
unfolded my qualifications. I also am capable of constructing a
bridge over Varuna’s abode. Therefore this very day let the foremost
monkeys construct the bridge". Then directed by Rāma, the principal
monkeys with alacrity entered the mighty forest in hundrerds and
thousands. And themselves resembling mountains, the foremost of
the monkeys began to break down and draw them towards the
Ocean. And the monkeys filled the Ocean with sālas, and
açwakarnas, dhavas, bamboos kutajas, arjunas, palms, tilakas,
tiniças, billakas, aparnas, and blossoming karnikāras, mangoes, and
a trees. And those monkeys—the foremost of their species—began
to gather the trees, some with their roots, some without them,—
carrying them like Indra’s ensign. And those huge-bodied monkeys
possessed of prodigious strength, procured palms and
pomegranates, cocoanuts and itakas, Kariras, Vakulas, and Nimbas,
—as well as rocks. Measuring elephants’ dimensions; and uprooting
crags, they tossed them by means of machines. And on rocks being
plunged into the waters, the latter, suddenly swelling up, mounted to
the welkin, and again subsided.—And (the trees) dropping (into the
deep), vexed it all around. And some made lines (for insuring
straightness unto the bridge). And in the middle of the lord of rivers
and streams, Nala made a grand bridge measuring an hundred
yojanas. And then he went about constructing the bridge with the
assistance of monkeys of dreadful deeds. And some took the
measuring and others bore (timber to the sea). And by help of
hundreds of monkeys following Rāma’s mandate, hued like woods or
mountains, (they) constructed a bridge with grass, and wood. And
the monkeys made the bridge of trees with blossoming tops. And
(monkeys) resembling Dānavas were rushing all around with rocks
resembling hills, and mountain-summits. And tremendous was the
tumult that came of crags thrown and rocks toppled down into the
mighty deep. And on the first day the elephant-like monkeys of
spirits and exerting themselves vigorously, finished fifteen yojanas.
And the exceedingly strong and huge-bodied monkeys on the second
day speedily disposed of twenty yojanas. And on the third day the
huge-bodied active monkeys did one and twenty yojanas on the sea.
And on the fourth day the exceedingly impetuous monkeys,
bestirring themselves vigorously, did two and twenty yojanas. And
On the fifth day the fast-speeding monkeys accomplished three and
twenty yojanas reaching unto the fair shore. And resembling his sire,
that best of monkeys, the lusty and graceful offspring of
Viçwakarmā, (thus) constructed the bridge over the sea. And that
bridge built by force over the abode of makaras, looked graceful and
splendid like the Milky way in the firmament. And then the deities
and Gandharbas, the Siddhas and the prime saints, appearing in the
heavens, stood there, eager to behold this wonder. And the gods
and Gandharbas saw that bridge of Nala, difficult of being made,
having an area of ten yojanas and measuring an hundred in length.
And the monkeys, leaping and bounding and roaring, as well as all
creatures, beheld that building of the bridge on the ocean,
inconceivable, and marvellous, displaying skill past thought and
capable of making one’s hair stand on end. And those thousands of
Kotis of exceeding vigor, having constructed the bridge over the
ocean, went over to the other shore of the mighty main. And
spacious, skillfully constructed, graceful, well-paved and nicely
finished, the great bridge appeared like the line where the hair hath
been parted on the Ocean’s head. Then on the other shore of the
ocean, Bibhishana, with the view of opposing foes (that might
advance), stationed himself mace in hand, along with some
councilors. Then Sugriva spoke unto Rāma, having truth for his
prowess,—"Do thou get upon Hanumān, and let Laskhmana get
upon Angada. O hero, vast is this Ocean—abode of Makaras. These
monkeys, rangers of the sky, shall hold you up both". Thereat the
graceful and righteous Rāma along with Lakshmana, equipped with
his bow, set out in the van of the army in company with Sugriva.
And some monkeys proceeded along the middle, and some plunged
into the deep, and some went by the road. And some coursed
through the air, bounding up bird-like. And that dreadful array of
monkeys crossing over, with its mighty uproar drowned the dreadful
roar of the deep, which had been arising. On the monkey-host
having crossed by the bridge of Nala, the king stationed it on the
shore abounding in fruits, roots and water. Beholding that work of
Rāghava incapable of being performed, the deities together with the
Siddhas and Charanas, and the Maharshis, suddenly presenting
themselves before Rāma, sprinkled him one by one with sacred
water, and said,—"Mayst thou be victorious, O human-divine one!
Rule thou the Earth eternally!" Thus in various auspicious words, did
they pay homage unto that one honored by the Brahmanas, Rāma.

⁵⁶ The phenomenon, remarks the commentator, was owing to

the heavenly
bodies obstructing each other’s orbit.—T.

⁵⁷ Nātichakrāma may also mean, (Rāma) did not discharge any

more
arrows.—T.

⁵⁸ Semi-divine serpents.—T.

⁵⁹ Sāgaradarçanāt—may also mean, agreeably to the

Ocean’s instruction.—T.

⁶⁰ i.e. the sound.

SECTION XXIII.

Having seen omens, that one, Lakshmana’s elder brother, conversant

with them, embracing the son of Sumitrā, said these words,—"O
Lakshmana, occupying (this tract) of cool waters and woods affluent
with fruits, will we, dividing and arranging our forces, stay here.
Mighty is the fear that I see at hand,—boding destruction to people
and the slaughter of the foremost heroes of bears, monkeys and
Rākshasas. The wind bloweth darkly, and the Earth shaketh. The
tops of the mountains tremble, and trees topple down. And the
clouds are ashen and roistering, and roar roughly. And lowering,
they shower portentous drops of blood. And the twilight is terrible
and looketh like the red sandal. And a fiery circle droppeth from the
flaming sun. And on all sides birds and beasts, distressed, uttering
woe-begone notes, and grim-visaged, set up crying against the sun,
arousing great fear. And the Moon, although not appearing⁶¹ in the
night, burneth, and with dark and red rays riseth, as if it intended to
exterminate people. And the aspect (of the sun) is slight, rough, and
not good;⁶² and, O Lakshmana, a blue mark is visible on the
unclouded Sun. And the stars seem erased by a mighty volume of
dust. O Lakshmana, behold this sight disastrous to people like unto
the universal dissolution. Crows, and hawks, and the inferior
vultures, wheel all round. And jackals are sending inauspicious yells,
exciting great fear. The earth shall be covered with darts and
javelins, and swords discharged by monkeys and Rākshasas, and
then turned into mire with flesh and gore. Surrounded by all these
monkeys, will we, using speed, this very day rapidly enter into the
city ruled by Rāvana, incapable of being subdued. Having said this,
that subduer in conflict, that lord, the enchanter of men, Rāma,⁶³
equipped with his bow, proceeds in the direction of Lankā. And all
the principal monkeys— Sugriva with Bibhishana—went on, setting
up roars, for the destruction of foes, who were determined to battle
with them. And consequently Raghu’s son was well pleased with the
fortitude and exertions of the powerful monkeys, for bringing about
what was dear unto Rāghava.

⁶¹ The moon, it seems, doth appear, but does not look out
clearly.—T.
 ⁶² Praçasta—I do not see the propriety of this epithet in this
connection. This may be a mistake.—T.

⁶³ The word Rāma occurs twice, one being the cognomen of the
solar
line. The other means, the enchanter of men.—T.

SECTION XXIV.

And with the presence of the king⁶⁴ that assembly of heroes looked
beautiful, as doth the autumnal night, garnished with beauteous
stars, with the Moon. And oppressed with the bursting energy of the
host resembling the ocean, the Earth trembled. And then the
rangers of the forest heard a hubbub in Lankā, as well as the sounds
of trumpets and Mridangas, mighty and capable of making people’s
down stand on end. And at those sounds, the leaders of monkey-
bands were delighted beyond measure, and, resenting the same, set
up cries louder than those sounds. And the Rākshasas also heard the
roars of the monkeys, resembling the rumbling of haughty clouds in
the sky. Beholding Lankā with variegated standards, and streamers,
Daçaratha’s son went⁶⁵ to Sitā with an aggrieved heart. "Here that
one having eyes resembling those of a young deer, is confined by
Rāvana, like unto Rohini overpowered by the red-bodied planet".⁶⁶
And, sighing hot and long, and looking at Lakshmana, that hero
spoke words fraught with his good at that time—"Behold, O
Lakshmana, Lankā towering up as if piercing the heavens; and, built
by Viçwakarmā on the brow of the mountain, she seems to have
been made by the Mind. Constructed in time past with edifices
thronging her, Lankā looks like the all-encasing air, covered with pale
clouds. Lankā is embellished with groves resembling Chitraratha, fair,
and eloquent with the notes of various birds, and fraught with fruits
and flowers. Behold the intoxicated birds, and the black bees
blending (with the blossoms). And the blessed breeze swayeth the
trees vocal with the coels". Having divided his forces there agreeably
to the directions of the scriptures, Daçaratha’s son, Rāma, thus
spoke unto Lakshmana. And he ordered that monkey-army, saying,
—"Taking his own forces, let the puissant and invincible Angada
along with Nila, station himself in the centre of the forces. And let
the monkey, named Rishabha, surrounded by numbers of monkeys,
post himself at the right of the monkey-army. And let the active and
irrepressible Gandhamādana, resembling an elephant fragrant with
the temporal exudation, stay, occupying the left of the forces. I
myself along with Lakshmana, shall needfully stay in the fore-front.
And the monkeys, Jāmbavān, Sushena and Vagadarçi, the three
high-souled, foremost bears,⁶⁷—shall protect the interior (of the
forces). And as the Sun, surcharged with energy, protects the hind
half of the globe, let the monkey-monarch protect the rear of the
monkey-army". And that army being skilfully divided into parts and
protected by great monkeys, resembled the welkin covered with
clouds. Then, taking up mountain-peaks and mighty trees, the
monkeys began to proceed towards Lankā burning to crush Lankā in
battle. "We shall demolish Lankā by hurling mountain-peaks, or with
our clenched fists". Thus did the foremost of monkeys think in their
minds. Then the exceedingly energetic Rāma addressed Sugriva,
saying,—"Our forces have been rightly marshalled,—let go (now)
Suka". Hearing Rāma’s words, the lord of monkeys possessed of
great strength, liberated the envoy, Suka, at the command of Rāma.
Liberated at the word of Rāma, Suka, who had been sore tormented
by the monkeys, oppressed with exceeding great fear, went to the
lord of Rākshasas. Thereat, Rāvana, laughing, said unto Suka,—"Are
thy wings fettered? And thou seemst as if thy wings had been
severed. Why? Didst thou come under the control of the volatile
(monkeys)?" Thereat, exercised with fear, Suka, commanded by the
monarch, answered the lord of Rākshasas in this excellent speech,
saying,—"Repairing to the northern shore of the sea, I, pacifying
(the monkeys) with mild speech, communicated thy tidings clearly
(unto Sugriva). Thereat, as soon as they saw me, the monkeys flying
into a wrath, captured me, and attempted to clip my wings and slay
me with their clenched fists. They are insuseptible of being spoken
to. No doubt whatever can exist that, O lord of Rākshasas, the
monkeys are by nature wrathful and fierce. The same Rāma that
hath slain Virādha and Kavandha and Khara, hath arrived (here)
along with Sugriva, searching for the whereabouts of Sitā. Having
thrown a bridge across the brine and crossed the salt sea, Rāghava,
equipped with his bow, stayeth here, setting the Rakshas at naught.
And the hosts consisting of thousands of bears and monkeys,
resembling hills and clouds, envelope the Earth. And peace there can
be none between the forces of the Rākshasas and the hosts of the
sovereign of monkeys, like unto the deities and the Dānavas. And
they advance before the wall. Speedily do one of these things—make
over Sitā without delay, or give (him) battle". Hearing Suka’s speech,
Rāvana with his eyes reddened in wrath, spoke, as if burning (Suka)
with them,—"Even if gods, and Gandharbas, and Dānavas should
array themselves against me, I will not from fear of all creatures,
render (back) Sitā. When shall my shafts pursue Rāghava, like
maddened Bhramaras making towards blossomy trees in spring?
When by means of flaming shafts shot from my bow shall I burn
(Rāghava) with his body bathed in blood, even as a meteor
(burneth) an elephant? And when, surrounded by a mighty host,
shall I confound his ranks, even as the Sun arising, (vanquisheth)
the light of the stellar spheres? My impetuosity like the Ocean’s, my
strength like the Wind’s, Dāçarathi doth not know,—and therefore it
is that he desireth to fight with me. Rāma hath not seen my shafts
resting in the quiver, resembling venomous serpents,—and therefore
it is that he seeketh to fight with me. Rāghava hath not in conflict
formerly known my bow representing my Vinā sounded with my
shafts; having tremendous sounds proceeding from the strings;
dreadful; with the cries of distressed people for its mighty strains of
music; and resonant with the reports of Nārāchas and palms. And,
having bathed in the great field of battle representing the river of
hostile forces, I will in the encounter strike (this Vinā). Neither the
thousand-eyed Vasava, nor Varuna himself, can (cope) with me in
battle; nor can Yama, or Vaicravana’s self vanquish me in mighty
conflict with the fire of arrows".

⁶⁴ Rāma.—T.

⁶⁵ i.e. mentally.—T.

⁶⁶ Angāraka.—T.

⁶⁷ The epithet ’bears’ coming after ’monkeys’ may look

incongruous; but, I fancy, ’monkeys’ is used in the general
sense of being connected with the monkey-host.—T.

SECTION XXV.
On Daçaratha’s son, Rāma, having crossed the Ocean with his
forces, the graceful Rāvana addressed his two counsellors, Suka and
Sārana, saying,—"The crossing the entire ocean incapable of being
crossed, by the monkey-forces, and the building over the sea of the
bridge by Rāma— all this had never happened before. The
construction of a bridge over the ocean cannot at all command
credence. But (however it be), I must enumerate the monkey-hosts.
Entering the monkey-army unobserved, it behoveth you to ascertain
the magnitude thereof, its strength, who are the foremost monkeys,
who are the councilors assembled there of Rāma, and who of
Sugriva, who range at the head, who among the monkeys are
heroic; how they have constructed the bridge over the water of the
ocean; how the high-souled monkeys stay there; Rāma’s, as well as
Lakshmana’s purpose, prowess and the arms (they fight with). And
who is the commander of those magnanimous monkeys? Having
learnt all this truly, ye ought to return speedily". Being thus
commissioned, these heroes, the Rākshasas, Suka and Sārana,
assuming monkey-shapes, entered into the hosts of monkeys. But
Suka and Sārana could not number that army of monkeys,
incomprehensible and capable of making people’s hair stand on end.
The forces were on mountain-tops, by fountains and in caves. And
those rangers of the night beheld those forces, some having already
crossed, and some crossing, and some intent on doing so; and some
having sat down and some sitting—that mighty army sending terrific
roars,—that ocean of hosts incapable of being disturbed. As they
remained thus disguised, they were discovered by Vibhishana.
Thereat, taking them captive, he unfolded (the fact) unto Rāma,
saying,—"These are the counsellors of the lord of Rākshasas—Suka
and Sārana. O captor of hostile capitals, they have come as spies
from Lankā". Seeing Rāma, they were greatly afflicted, and,
despairing of their lives and exercised with fear, with joined hands,
said,—"O placid one, commanded by Rāvana, we have come here, O
son of Raghu, for the purpose of gathering information concerning
this army". Hearing their speech, Rāma—son unto Daçaratha—ever
engaged in the welfare of all beings, laughing, remarked,—"If you
have heedfully noted this entire array, or if you have done what ye
had been commanded to do, return in peace. If aught remaineth
unseen, do ye see it anew. Or Vibhishana will again fully show it
unto you. Having been taken, ye need not fear on the score of your
lives. Even if envoys happen to be taken who are equipped with
weapons, they should not be slain. And albeit these night-rangers
have come as spies in disguise, with the view of creating division
among their foes, yet, O Vibhishana, let them off. Entering the
extensive Lankā, ye should say unto the king—younger brother unto
the Dispenser of riches—the words which I utter,—’That force relying
on which thou hast carried away my Sitā, do thou as thou wishest,
along with thy forces and friends, display the same. On the morning
of the morrow behold the city of Lankā with her wall and gates, as
well as the hosts of Rākshasas, destroyed by me with my shafts. And
as Vasava equipped with the thunder-bolt hurleth the same amidst
the Dānavas, will I, O Rāvana, on the morning of the morrow pour
down my dreadful ire upon thee along with thy forces.’" Thus
directed (by Rāma), those Rākshasas, Suka and Sārana, having
saluted the righteous Rāghava with ’Victory!,’ came (back) to Lankā
and spoke unto the lord of Rākshasas, saying,—"O lord of
Rākshasas, having been taken by Vibhishana for the purpose of
being slain, we came to be seen by the righteoua-souled Rāma of
immeasurable energy, and (finally) were liberated (by him). As these
four persons have combined—like unto the Lokapalas, heroic,
accomplished in arms, and of steady prowess—viz., Daçaratha’s son,
Rāma, the graceful Lakshmana, Vibhishana, and the highly powerful
Sugriva, resembling the great Indra, these are capable of uprooting
the city of Lankā—walls and gateways—and replacing her (on her
former site),—leave thou the monkeys aside. Such is Rāma’s figure
and arms that he shall alone demolish Lankā,—leave the other three
alone. And that host protected by Rāma, Lakshmana and Sugriva,
shall become exceedingly hard to combat even by the Asuras and
gods.—And the army of the high-souled rangers of the woods, eager
for encounter, contains warriors bursting with high spirits. No use of
dispute. Be thou intent on pacification. Do thou render back Maithili
unto Daçaratha’s son".

SECTION XXXI.

Hearing Sārana’s words, pregnant and truthful, king Rāvana

addressed him, saying,—"Even if the gods, Gandharvas and Dānavas
should attack me, Sitā will I not part with from fear of all creatures.
O amiable one, thou, having been hard handled by the monkeys and
distressed in consequence, deemst it fit that Sitā should be rendered
back this very day. What foe of mine is there who is competent to
conquer me in battle?" Having uttered this rough speech, the
graceful Rāvana—lord of the Rākshasas—desirous of surveying (the
monkey-hosts), ascended an edifice white like snow, and elevated
like many palms (placed one upon another). And transported with
passion, Rāvana in company with those spies, saw the sea,
mountains and forests. And they beheld the Earth enveloped with
monkeys, and the mighty host of monkeys, boundless and
irresistible. And having seen this, king Rāvana asked Sārana,—"Who
among these monkeys are the foremost, who are the heroes, and
who possessed of great strength? Who, bursting with spirits, stay all
about the fore? Whom doth Sugriva listen to? And who are the
leaders of the monkey-leaders? O Sārana, relate thou all this unto
me. And what is the prowess of the monkeys?" Thereat, Sārana,
knowing the chiefs (of the monkey-army), spoke unto the sovereign
of Rākshasas, who had asked (him), as to who were the heads of
the rangers of the woods. "This monkey, that, setting up roars,
stayeth in front of Lankā, surrounded by hundreds and thousands of
monkey-leaders, by whose tremendous shouts Lankā trembleth with
her wall, gateways, hills, woods and forests, and who is posted in
front of the forces of the high-souled Sugriva—master of all the
monkeys—is the heroic leader of monkey-bands named Nila. And
that one, possessed of prowess, who, folding up his arms, paceth
the gound on foot, who, facing Lankā, from wrath is frequently
yawning, who resembles a mountain-peak and is like the filaments
of a lotus, who, enraged again and again soundeth his tail, and the
ten cardinal points resound with the sounds of whose tail,—is he
who hath been sprinkled by Sugriva—king of monkeys—the heir
apparent, named Angada. He challengeth thee to the fight. The
worthy son of Vāli and ever dear unto Sugriva, he putteth forth his
prowess, as Varuna doth for Sakra. That that well-wisher of
Rāghava, the vehement Hanumān, hath seen Janaka’s daughter, was
owing to the advice of this one. That powerful (hero) is proceeding,
taking innumerable bands belonging to the lord of monkeys, for the
purpose of beating thee by means of his soldiery. Following Vāli’s
son, and surrounded by a mighty force, stayeth in the field the
heroic Nala, the builder of the bridge. Those that with their limbs
lying inactive, and setting up roars and ululations, are following this
one,⁶⁸ are heroes dwelling in Chandana.⁶⁹ With his own army alone,
the silver-hued Sweta of dreadful prowess hopes to subdue Lankā.
Marshalling his monkey-forces and cheering up his soldiers, that
intelligent monkey, famed over the three regions, having speedily
met with Sugriva, is retracing his steps. From days of yore on the
banks of the Gomati there is a mountain, (named) Ramya,
(otherwise) called Sanrochana. The mount abounds with various
trees. There that leader of bands, named Kumuda, governs his
kingdom. And he that cheerfully draweth after his hundreds and
thousands of monkeys, and the long grim hairs of whose tail,
coppery, yellow, sable and white, are cast about, is the energetic
monkey, Chanda, eager for encounter. And he hopes to conquer
Lankā by help of his own forces. And this one, resembling a lion,
tawny and furnished with a long mane, who, remaining apart,
vieweth all Lankā as if consuming her with his eyes, dwelleth for
ever and a day in Vindhya, the mountain Krisha, Sahya, and the
mount Sudarçana, and, a leader of bands, is named Rambha. Three
hundred Kotis of the foremost of monkeys, dreadful and fierce and
possessed of terrific prowess, surrounding (him) go in his wake for
the purpose of demolishing Lankā by their (native) might. And he
that expandeth his ears and yawneth again and again, who defieth
the fear of death and doth not move his forces, who trembleth for
wrath and eyeth frequently askance,—and behold the lashing of his
tail!—and who setteth up leonine shouts, O king, with great energy
and with fear cast off,—resideth in the romantic mount, Sālweya,
and, a leader of companies, is named Sarabha. To him, O king,
belong forty hundred thousands of powerful leaders. And he that
stayeth, like unto a mighty mass of clouds covering up the sky, in
the midst of the monkey-heroes, as doth Vāsava in the centre of the
celestials, whose lofty shout is heard (mingled with) the uproar set
up by the foremost monkeys, burning for battle, dwelleth in the
excellent hill Pārijātra; and, ever irrepressible in fight, is named
Panaça, a leader of (monkey)-bands. Fifty lacs of leaders with their
forces arranged, environ this commander of monkeys. He that
stayeth gracing the dreadful array overflowing with talk, stationed on
the shore of the ocean,—resembling a second sea and like unto
Durdara⁷⁰—is the leader named Vitata. And he rangeth, drinking of
(the waters of) the Venā,—best among streams—and his forces are
sixty lacs of monkeys. And the monkey, named Krathana,
challengeth thee to conflict. He hath (under him) powerful and
vigorous generals, and forces well divided. And the monkey owning
that person of the hue of red chalk, and, who, elated with strength,
disregardeth all the monkeys,—is named Gavaya, who approacheth
thee wrathfully. Several lacs (of troops) girt him round; and by their
means he has to bring down Lankā. These are the heroes, incapable
of being borne, whose numbers cannot be enumerated. These are
the leaders and the heads thereof, as well as the forces set in order
of battle".

⁶⁸ The reference is prospective. It means the monkey, Sweta, in

the
next sloka.—T.

⁶⁹ This may mean some wood of sandals; but the commentator

is
silent over it.—T.

⁷⁰ Name of a celebrated monkey-leader.—T.

SECTION XXVII.
As thou lookest on, I shall describe unto thee the leaders who shall
put forth their prowess for Rāghava, lay down their lives (in his
behalf.) That one of dread deeds the long hairs on whose long tail,
coppery, and yellow, and black, and white, thrown up, look like the
rays of Sun, and are trailing over the ground, is the monkey, named
Hara; whom follow hundreds and thousands (of monkeys)
desperately upraising trees, intent upon (scaling) Lankā—leaders of
the monkey-king and his servants present (in that conflict.) And
these whom thou beholdest present, resembling mighty masses of
sable clouds, like unto black collyrium, of genuine prowess,
countless and incapable of enumeration dwelling in mountains,
provinces, and rivers,—terrible beings—approach thee, O king. In
their amidst is their king, gray eyed and of fierce appearance, like
unto Parjanya⁷¹ encompassed by clouds,—who dwelleth in that best
of mountains, Rikkhavān, drinking of the Narmadā.—Behold this one
resembling a hill—younger brother of Dhumra, lord of the bears. He
is equal to his brother in beauty, and of superior prowess. This
leader of redoubtable leaders named Jāmbavān. He is mild, obedient
to his superiors and fierce in fight. The intelligent Jāmbavān assisted
Sakra signally in the war of the gods and Asuras, and he hath won
many boons (in consequence). Ascending the tops of mountains,
these hurl down gigantic crags huge as colossal clouds, nor doth
(the fear of) death (ever) disquiet them. And their bodies covered
with hair, they resemble Rākshasas and ghosts (in their conduct).
This one of immeasurable energy hath innumerable troops going
about, who behold this leader of leaders under unusual excitement
leaping and resting (by turns). This lord of monkeys dwelleth near
the thousand-eyed Deity; and this leader of bands, gifted with
strength, is named Rambha. And he that going, toucheth with his
side a mountain situated at the distance of a Yojana, and, rising up,
measureth the same length,—and whose beauty is surpassed by
none among quadrupeds,—is known under the name of Sannādana,
the grand-father of the monkeys;—this intelligent one battled with
Sakra,⁷²—nor did he meet with discomfiture. This is that general of
the forces. And he whose prowess is like that of Sakra, is this one
begot by Fire on a Gandharva’s daughter, for assisting the celestials
on the occasion of the war of the gods and the Asuras. And this
graceful and powerful one—best of monkeys—disporteth in that
sovereign of mountains inhabited by numbers of Kinnaras, where
king Vaiçavana eateth rose apples, and which, O lord of Rakshas,
ever conduceth to the pleasure of thy brother. And this one who
never extolleth himself in battle, is named Krathana—leader of hosts.
Surrounded by a thousand Koti (of troops), and stationed in the
midst of the monkeys, he hopeth to subjugate Lankā with his own
troops alone. And he that roameth about the Gangā, terrifying
leaders of elephant-herds, remembering the former hostility of the
monkeys and the elephants, is this leader of bands, who, roaring,
opposeth wild elephants in mountain-caverns and crusheth trees,—
and foremost of monkeys, and chief of the monkey-forces—like
Sakra himself in heaven, sporteth, resorting to Uçiravija pertaining to
Mandara, best of mountains, on the golden river.⁷³ A thousand lacs
of monkeys, elated with vigor and prowess, setting up roars and
furnished with (long) arms follow him; and this one is the leader of
those high souled monkeys. And, O king, he whom thou seest
resembling clouds uplifted by the winds, is a leader named Pramāthi.
And his fleet-coursing soldiery are fiery, and volumes of red-hued
dust are scattered about him profusely on all sides. And these
wondrous strong and dreadful Golāngulas⁷⁴ numbering hundreds
and hundred thousands, seeing the building of the bridge,
surrounding, O mighty monarch, the leader named Gavāksha—a
Golāngula—set up shouts, intending to demolish Lankā with their
prowess. Where the trees bring forth fruits of every season and the
black bees resort,—in the mountain furnished with solar splendour,
which the Sun circumambulates, by whose radiance ever beam
beasts and birds with a like hue,—whose table-lands are never
forsaken by magnanimous Maharshis; where the trees yield every
object of desire and all are fraught with fruits; in which best of
mountains excellent honey is found,—there in the charming Golden
hill, O king, sporteth this one—the foremost of the principal
monkeys, Kaçari by name, a leader of bands. There are sixty
thousand charming Golden hills. In their midst is that best of
mountains,⁷⁵ even as thou, O sinless one, art among the Rakshas.
There in the inmost hill dwell (monkeys) tawny-hued; and white,—
with coppery faces; yellowish like honey; sharp-toothed; having nails
for their weapons; and four teeth like lions; irresistible like tigers all
equal to Vaiçwānara, and resembling flaming venomous snakes;
furnished with long tails; like unto mad elephants; seeming like
gigantic hills; roaring like mighty clouds; with eyes tawny and round;
of terrific mein; and emitting sounds,—and these are gazing at
Lankā, as if devastating her. And this powerful one staying in their
midst, is their leader, eager for victory; and the puissant (monkey)
always looketh like the Sun himself; and this one, O king, is famed
on earth by the name of Satavali. And this heroic one, powerful and
mighty, established in his own prowess, hopeth to devastate Lankā
with his own forces. And for compassing Rāma’s desire, the monkey
doth not cherish any kindness for his life. Gaya, Gavāksha, Nala, and
the monkey Nila—each of these is encompassed by ten kotis of
warriors. (Besides these) there are other choice monkeys dwelling in
the Vindhya mountain, but I cannot enumerate these (monkeys)
possessed of fleet vigor, in consequence of their vast number. All
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