Okay, I will solve all the questions from the image according to their given marks and word

limits.
SECTION - A (Max. Marks - 10) (Each question carries 2 Marks, answer in maximum 50
words)
Q.1 Write short notes on the following:
(A) Clonal Selection Clonal selection is a method of selection in vegetatively propagated crops.
It involves selecting superior individual plants (clones) from a mixed population, evaluating their
progeny over several asexual generations, and then releasing the best ones as varieties. This
method preserves the genetic makeup of the selected individual.
(B) Male sterility and its use Male sterility is the inability of a plant to produce functional pollen.
It is a valuable tool in hybrid seed production as it eliminates the need for emasculation
(removal of anthers), making the process more efficient and cost-effective. Different types of
male sterility (e.g., cytoplasmic, nuclear) are utilized in breeding programs.
(C) Define plant Breeding Plant breeding is the science and art of genetically improving plants
for human benefit. It involves manipulating plant genes to create new varieties with desirable
traits such as higher yield, improved quality, disease resistance, and adaptation to specific
environments.
(D) Role of mutation breeding Mutation breeding involves inducing genetic mutations
artificially using physical or chemical mutagens to create new genetic variability. This can lead to
the development of novel traits that are not present in the existing germplasm. It has been
successful in developing improved varieties in various crops.
(E) Apomixis Apomixis is a form of asexual reproduction in plants where seeds are produced
without fertilization. This results in offspring that are genetically identical to the mother plant.
Incorporating apomixis into crop plants can be beneficial for maintaining hybrid vigor across
generations without the need for repeated hybrid seed production.
SECTION - B (Max. Marks - 40) (Attempt any Four questions from Section 'B', Each
question carries 10 Marks)
Q.2 Enlist the various mechanisms which favour self and cross-pollination in crop plants
with suitable examples.
Mechanisms favoring self-pollination (Autogamy):
●​ Cleistogamy: Flowers remain closed, preventing cross-pollination (e.g., some varieties of
barley, wheat, and peanuts).
●​ Homogamy: Anthers and stigma mature at the same time within the same flower (e.g.,
wheat, rice).
●​ Chasmogamy with adaptations: Flowers open, but the arrangement of floral parts
facilitates self-pollination (e.g., some legumes).
Mechanisms favoring cross-pollination (Allogamy):
●​ Dichogamy: Anthers and stigma mature at different times within the same flower.
○​ Protandry: Anthers mature before the stigma (e.g., maize, sunflower).
○​ Protogyny: Stigma matures before the anthers (e.g., pearl millet).
●​ Male Sterility: Plants cannot produce functional pollen, obligating cross-pollination (e.g.,
many hybrid crops like maize and sorghum).
●​ Self-incompatibility: Plants cannot be fertilized by their own pollen or pollen from
genetically similar individuals (e.g., many fruit trees, brassicas).
●​ Herkogamy: Physical barriers or spatial separation between anthers and stigma prevent
self-pollination (e.g., some orchids, legumes).
●​ Dioecy: Male and female flowers are borne on separate plants (e.g., papaya, asparagus).
●​ Environmental factors: Wind (anemophily) and insects (entomophily) facilitate the
 transfer of pollen between different plants (e.g., grasses, many flowering plants).
Q.3 Describe the procedure of backcross breeding programme. When is this method
usually used? Write its merits and demerits.
Procedure of Backcross Breeding:
1.​ Selection of Parents: Choose two parents:
○​ Donor Parent: Possesses the desired gene or trait that needs to be transferred. It
is often an inferior variety lacking other desirable characteristics.
○​ Recurrent Parent: An elite variety with many desirable traits but lacking the
specific trait from the donor parent.
2.​ First Cross (F1 Generation): Cross the donor parent with the recurrent parent. The F1
generation will be heterozygous for the desired gene.
3.​ Backcrossing: The F1 progeny is crossed back to the recurrent parent.
4.​ Selection: In each backcross generation (BC1, BC2, BC3, etc.), select individuals that
possess the desired trait (introduced from the donor parent) and also resemble the
recurrent parent in other desirable traits.
5.​ Repeated Backcrossing and Selection: The selected individuals are repeatedly
backcrossed to the recurrent parent for several generations (typically 5-7). With each
backcross, the proportion of the recurrent parent's genome increases in the progeny
carrying the desired gene.
6.​ Selfing and Selection (in later generations): After sufficient backcrosses, the selected
individuals are selfed to obtain homozygous lines for the desired gene. Selection for the
desired trait and other desirable characteristics continues in the segregating generations.
7.​ Release of New Variety: The superior homozygous line possessing the desired trait and
the characteristics of the recurrent parent is released as a new variety.
When is this method usually used?
●​ To transfer one or a few simply inherited desirable genes into an elite variety.
●​ To overcome undesirable linkages associated with the introduced gene.
●​ To improve a specific defect in an otherwise well-adapted variety.
Merits of Backcross Breeding:
●​ Rapid recovery of the recurrent parent's genotype.
●​ High probability of retaining the desirable characteristics of the recurrent parent.
●​ Effective for transferring simply inherited traits with high heritability.
●​ Predictable outcome due to the focus on a specific gene.
Demerits of Backcross Breeding:
●​ Time-consuming process, especially for a large number of backcross generations.
●​ Less effective for transferring polygenic traits (controlled by many genes).
●​ May not create significant new genetic variation beyond the introduced gene.
●​ Requires a readily identifiable and heritable desired trait.
Q.4 Discuss in detail the pedigree method.
The pedigree method is a system of breeding used in self-pollinated crops to select superior
individuals from segregating generations following a cross between two genetically diverse
parents. It involves maintaining detailed records (pedigrees) of the selected plants and their
progeny through successive generations.
Procedure of the Pedigree Method:
1.​ Selection of Parents: Choose two genetically diverse and desirable parents with
complementary traits for hybridization.
2.​ First Cross (F1 Generation): Cross the selected parents to produce the F1 generation,
which will be heterozygous for many genes.
 3.​ F2 Generation: The F1 plants are self-pollinated to produce the F2 generation. This
generation exhibits a wide range of genetic variability due to segregation and
recombination. A large number of F2 plants are grown, and individual plants with
desirable characteristics are selected. Each selected F2 plant is tagged and its pedigree
is recorded.
4.​ F3 Generation: Seeds from each selected F2 plant are grown in separate rows or
families. Within each family, further selection is carried out for desirable traits and
uniformity. Superior plants within the best families are selected, and their individual
pedigrees are maintained.
5.​ F4 and Subsequent Generations (F5, F6, etc.): The process of growing progeny rows
from selected plants and selecting superior individuals within the best rows is continued
for several generations (typically until the F6 or F7 generation). Selection focuses on
improving the expression of desired traits, uniformity within families, and eliminating
undesirable characteristics.
6.​ Preliminary Yield Trials: Promising homozygous or near-homozygous lines from the
pedigree selection are evaluated for yield and other important agronomic traits in
preliminary yield trials, often conducted at one or a few locations.
7.​ Advanced Yield Trials: Superior lines identified in the preliminary yield trials are further
evaluated in multi-location trials over several years to assess their performance across
different environments.
8.​ Release of New Variety: The lines that consistently perform well in the advanced yield
trials and possess other desirable characteristics are considered for release as new
varieties.
Key Features of the Pedigree Method:
●​ Emphasis on selecting superior individuals within families in each generation.
●​ Maintenance of detailed pedigree records to track the ancestry of selected plants.
●​ Allows for visual selection of multiple traits simultaneously.
●​ Effective in accumulating favorable genes over generations.
●​ Leads to the development of homozygous or near-homozygous lines.
Advantages of the Pedigree Method:
●​ Effective in identifying and selecting superior genotypes with desirable combinations of
genes.
●​ Provides a good opportunity for the breeder to exercise their judgment in selecting
desirable plants.
●​ Leads to the development of genetically uniform and stable varieties.
Disadvantages of the Pedigree Method:
●​ Can be time-consuming and labor-intensive, especially when dealing with a large number
of crosses and progeny.
●​ Requires careful record-keeping and management.
●​ Selection in early generations might be based on phenotypic expression, which can be
influenced by environmental factors.
●​ May not be efficient for traits with low heritability.
Q.5 Give the objectives of hybridization and its types.
Objectives of Hybridization:
Hybridization, the crossing of genetically dissimilar parents, is a fundamental technique in plant
breeding with several key objectives:
●​ To create new genetic variability: Combining genes from different parents generates
novel gene combinations in the progeny, increasing the genetic diversity available for
 selection.
●​ To combine desirable traits: The goal is to bring together multiple desirable traits
present in different parental lines into a single superior variety (e.g., high yield from one
parent and disease resistance from another).
●​ To exploit heterosis (hybrid vigor): In some crosses, the F1 hybrid exhibits superior
performance in traits like yield, growth rate, and disease resistance compared to its
parents. This phenomenon is known as heterosis or hybrid vigor.
●​ To develop improved varieties: Ultimately, the aim of hybridization is to create new and
improved crop varieties that offer advantages over existing ones in terms of yield, quality,
adaptation, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses.
●​ To transfer specific genes: Hybridization is used to introduce specific desirable genes
(e.g., for disease resistance, herbicide tolerance) from a donor parent into an elite
recipient parent through backcrossing.
●​ To study gene action and inheritance: Analyzing the segregation patterns in the
progeny of crosses helps in understanding the inheritance of different traits and the
interaction between genes.
●​ To create base populations for selection: The segregating generations following a
cross provide a genetically diverse population from which superior individuals can be
selected using various breeding methods.
Types of Hybridization:
Hybridization can be classified based on the genetic relationship of the parents involved:
●​ Intravarietal Hybridization: Crossing individuals within the same variety. This aims to
increase uniformity or slightly improve specific traits within an already adapted variety.
●​ Intervarietal Hybridization (Intraspecific Hybridization): Crossing individuals from two
different varieties of the same species. This is the most common type of hybridization in
plant breeding and aims to combine desirable traits from different adapted germplasm.
●​ Interspecific Hybridization: Crossing individuals from two different species within the
same genus. This is often used to transfer desirable genes (e.g., disease resistance) from
a wild or related species into a cultivated species. It can be challenging due to issues like
cross-incompatibility and sterility in the hybrids.
●​ Intergeneric Hybridization: Crossing individuals from two different genera within the
same family. This is the most difficult type of hybridization and is less common. Hybrids
are often sterile and require specialized techniques like embryo rescue to obtain viable
plants. It is used to transfer highly desirable traits that are not available within the same
genus.
Q.6 Define recurrent selection and enlist its various types. Discuss the major features of
recurrent selection.
Definition of Recurrent Selection:
Recurrent selection is a cyclical breeding method designed to gradually increase the frequency
of favorable alleles for quantitatively inherited traits (controlled by many genes) in a population
while maintaining genetic variability. It involves repeated cycles of selection, intercrossing of
selected individuals, and evaluation of their progeny.
Various Types of Recurrent Selection:
Recurrent selection can be classified based on the selection unit and the type of progeny
evaluation:
●​ Simple Recurrent Selection (Mass Selection with progeny testing): Superior
individuals are selected based on their phenotype, and their progeny are evaluated to
confirm their genetic merit before intercrossing the selected parents.
 ●​ Recurrent Selection for General Combining Ability (GCA): Individuals are selected
based on the average performance of their progeny when crossed to a common tester
parent (usually a broad genetic base population). This aims to improve the overall
breeding value of the population.
●​ Recurrent Selection for Specific Combining Ability (SCA): Individuals are selected
based on the performance of their progeny in specific crosses (usually with an elite inbred
line or another selected individual). This aims to develop superior hybrid combinations.
●​ Reciprocal Recurrent Selection: Two populations are improved simultaneously by
selecting individuals in each population based on their cross performance with individuals
from the other population. This is particularly useful for exploiting heterosis in hybrid
development.
Major Features of Recurrent Selection:
●​ Cyclical Process: It involves repeated cycles of selection, intercrossing, and evaluation,
allowing for continuous genetic improvement over time.
●​ Focus on Population Improvement: The primary goal is to increase the frequency of
favorable alleles in the entire breeding population, rather than just developing superior
individuals in a single cycle.
●​ Evaluation of Progeny: Selection decisions are based on the performance of the
progeny of selected individuals, providing a more reliable estimate of their breeding value
compared to phenotypic selection alone.
●​ Maintenance of Genetic Variability: Intercrossing of selected individuals in each cycle
helps to maintain sufficient genetic variability within the population, allowing for further
improvement in subsequent cycles.
●​ Gradual Genetic Gain: Genetic improvement is achieved gradually over several cycles
as the frequency of favorable alleles increases incrementally.
●​ Adaptability to Quantitative Traits: Recurrent selection is particularly effective for
improving complex traits controlled by multiple genes with small individual effects.
●​ Long-Term Strategy: It is a long-term breeding strategy that requires significant time and
resources.
●​ Tester Parent Usage (in some types): The use of a tester parent helps to evaluate the
combining ability of selected individuals.
Q.7 Enlist different breeding methods for the improvement of cross-pollinated crops.
Discuss one breeding method and its merits and demerits.
Different Breeding Methods for the Improvement of Cross-Pollinated Crops:
●​ Mass Selection: Selecting superior individuals based on their phenotype and
intercrossing them to produce the next generation.
●​ Ear-to-Row Selection: A form of progeny selection where individual ears (in crops like
maize) are selected, and their progeny rows are evaluated. The best rows identify
superior parent ears.
●​ Full-Sib Family Selection: Progeny from crosses between selected pairs of individuals
are evaluated, and the best families are identified for recombination.
●​ Half-Sib Family Selection: Progeny from selected individuals crossed to a common
tester parent are evaluated to assess the general combining ability of the selected
parents.
●​ Recurrent Selection (as discussed in Q.6): Various types of recurrent selection are
employed to gradually improve the population for specific traits.
●​ Development of Hybrids: Utilizing heterosis by crossing genetically diverse inbred lines
to produce superior F1 hybrids. This involves developing inbred lines through methods
 like selfing and selection.
●​ Synthetic Varieties: Developing varieties by intercrossing a number of selected
genotypes (inbred lines, clones, or open-pollinated varieties) that have good combining
ability.
Discussion of Hybrid Development:
Hybrid development is a widely used and successful breeding method for improving
cross-pollinated crops, particularly for maximizing yield and uniformity.
Procedure:
1.​ Development of Inbred Lines: Superior plants are selected from the base population
and subjected to several generations of selfing (forced self-pollination). During selfing,
selection is practiced to eliminate undesirable genes and increase homozygosity, resulting
in the development of inbred lines.
2.​ Evaluation of Inbred Lines (Combining Ability Tests): The developed inbred lines are
evaluated for their combining ability, which is their ability to produce superior hybrid
progeny when crossed with other inbred lines. This involves crossing the inbred lines in
various combinations and evaluating the performance of the resulting hybrids.
○​ Topcross: Crossing inbred lines to a common open-pollinated variety or a broad
genetic base tester to assess general combining ability.
○​ Diallel Cross: Crossing all possible combinations of a set of inbred lines to assess
both general and specific combining ability.
3.​ Selection of Superior Crosses: Based on the combining ability tests, the best inbred
lines that produce high-performing hybrids are identified.
4.​ Hybrid Seed Production: The selected inbred lines are crossed on a large scale under
controlled conditions to produce the F1 hybrid seed for commercial cultivation. This often
involves utilizing male sterility systems to eliminate the need for manual emasculation.
5.​ Release of Hybrid Variety: The superior F1 hybrid is released as a commercial variety.
Merits of Hybrid Development:
●​ Exploitation of Heterosis (Hybrid Vigor): Hybrids often exhibit significantly higher yield,
better uniformity, and increased resistance to stresses compared to their inbred parents or
open-pollinated varieties.
●​ Uniformity: F1 hybrids are genetically uniform, leading to predictable performance in the
field.
●​ Adaptation: Specific hybrids can be developed for different agro-climatic regions and
growing conditions.
●​ Protection of Intellectual Property: Hybrid seed needs to be produced fresh for each
planting season, providing a form of natural protection for the seed industry.
Demerits of Hybrid Development:
●​ High Cost of Seed Production: Producing hybrid seed requires specialized techniques
and controlled pollination, making it more expensive than open-pollinated seed.
●​ Need for Purchased Seed Every Season: Farmers need to purchase new hybrid seed
for each planting as the subsequent generations (F2 and beyond) lose hybrid vigor and
exhibit segregation.
●​ Intensive Breeding Program: Developing superior inbred lines and identifying the best
hybrid combinations is a time-consuming and resource-intensive process.
●​ Potential Genetic Vulnerability: If the hybrid is based on a narrow genetic base of
inbred lines, it can be more vulnerable to new diseases or pests.
I hope this comprehensive solution is helpful! Let me know if you have any other questions.