ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS ASSIGNMENT

Bachelor of Technology (EEE)

Semester – 3rd
Submitted by- Md Saife Ali Ahmed

1. What is Normalizing Factor?

A normalizing factor is a constant used to scale a set of values so that they adhere
to a specific constraint or standard. The specific constraint varies depending on the
context. The goal is to ensure the normalized values have certain properties, often
involving a sum, a range, or a magnitude.
Here are some common contexts where normalizing factors are used:
Probability Distributions: In probability, a normalizing factor ensures that the
probabilities sum to 1. If you have a set of unnormalized probabilities, the
normalizing factor is the reciprocal of the sum of those values. Each
unnormalized probability is then multiplied by this factor to produce a valid
probability distribution.
Vector Normalization: In linear algebra, vectors can be normalized to have a
length (magnitude) of 1. This is done by dividing each component of the vector
by the vector's Euclidean norm (its length). The Euclidean norm acts as the
normalizing factor.
Data Normalization (Data Scaling): In data analysis and machine learning,
normalizing data often involves scaling the values to a specific range (e.g., 0 to 1
or -1 to 1). The normalizing factor here depends on the chosen method; it could
involve the minimum and maximum values in the dataset, or the mean and
standard deviation.
Wavefunctions in Quantum Mechanics: In quantum mechanics, wavefunctions
must be normalized so that the integral of the square of the wavefunction over
all space equals 1 (representing a 100% probability of finding the particle
somewhere). The normalizing factor ensures this condition is met.
In general, the normalizing factor is calculated based on the desired constraint and
the unnormalized data or values. The process involves finding a suitable factor to
adjust the magnitudes while preserving the relative relationships between the
original values.
2. Determine the power absorbed by each circuit elements in the ckt 1.

The circuit consists of:

Current Source: 5A
Resistor 1: 10 mΩ
Resistor 2: 40 mΩ
Steps:
1. Calculate the Voltage across Resistor 1:
The current source provides 5A, which flows through Resistor 1.
Using Ohm's Law (V = I * R), the voltage across Resistor 1 is:
V1 = 5A * 10 mΩ = 50 mV
2. Calculate the Power Absorbed by Resistor 1:
Using the formula P = V * I:
P1 = 50 mV * 5A = 250 mW
3. Calculate the Voltage across Resistor 2:
Since the circuit is a series circuit, the current flowing through Resistor 2 is
also 5A.
Using Ohm's Law (V = I * R), the voltage across Resistor 2 is:
V2 = 5A * 40 mΩ = 200 mV
4. Calculate the Power Absorbed by Resistor 2:
Using the formula P = V * I:
P2 = 200 mV * 5A = 1000 mW
Results:
Current Source: The current source is a power source, not a load, so it does not
absorb power.
Resistor 1: Absorbs 250 mW.
Resistor 2: Absorbs 1000 mW.
3. What is supermesh and supernode?
Supermesh:
A supermesh is a larger mesh formed by combining two or more meshes that share a
common branch containing a current source. It's used when a current source is
placed between two meshes, making it difficult to directly write the mesh current
equations.
Here's how it works:
1. Identify the meshes: Standard mesh analysis is attempted. However, one
encounters a current source that is shared by two meshes.
2. Form the supermesh: Instead of treating the meshes individually, you combine
them into one larger supermesh, essentially ignoring the shared branch with the
current source for the initial KVL equation.
3. Apply KVL to the supermesh: Write the KVL equation around the perimeter of
the supermesh. This equation will involve the mesh currents of the individual
meshes that make up the supermesh.
4. Apply KCL at the nodes: Use KCL at the nodes connected to the current source
to relate the mesh currents of the original meshes. This equation accounts for
the current source, which was omitted in the supermesh KVL step.
5. Solve the system of equations: Solve the system of equations (KVL for the
supermesh and KCL for the node) simultaneously to determine the unknown
mesh currents.
Supernode:
A supernode is similarly used to simplify circuit analysis, but for voltage sources
that are directly connected (in parallel) across a pair of nodes, or where one node is
connected directly to the reference node (ground). These voltage sources prevent
directly writing nodal equations.
Here's how it works:
1. Identify the nodes: A voltage source that connects two nodes directly, or
connects one node to the ground directly will prevent the writing of the nodal
equations directly.
2. Form the supernode: Enclose the voltage source and the nodes it connects with
a dashed line.
3. Apply KCL to the supernode: Write the KCL equation for the supernode. The sum
of currents entering and leaving the supernode must be zero.
4. Use the voltage source constraint: Write an equation stating the voltage
difference between the two nodes forming the supernode, based on the voltage
of the voltage source.
5. Solve the system of equations: Solve the system of equations (KCL for the
supernode and the voltage source constraint equation) simultaneously to find
the unknown node voltages.
 In both cases, supermeshes and supernodes simplify the process of setting up and
solving circuit equations by dealing effectively with dependent or independent
sources that would otherwise complicate the use of standard mesh or nodal analysis.
They offer a more streamlined approach to solving complex circuits.

4. Define clipper and clamper circuit.

The voltage across the capacitor in a series RLC circuit is maximum at the resonant
frequency. This occurs when the inductive reactance (XL) and capacitive reactance
(XC) are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, causing them to cancel each other
out.
Here's why and how to calculate it:
Impedance: The impedance (Z) of a series RLC circuit is given by: Z = √(R² + (XL -
XC)²)
Reactances: The inductive reactance is XL = 2πfL, and the capacitive reactance is
XC = 1/(2πfC), where:
f is the frequency in Hertz (Hz)
L is the inductance in Henries (H)
C is the capacitance in Farads (F)
Resonance: At resonance (when the voltage across the capacitor is maximum), XL
= XC. This simplifies the impedance equation to: Z = R (only the resistance
remains). This means the current will be maximum. However, the voltage across
the capacitor is given by I * XC. Since at resonance I is maximum, and XC is not
zero, we will have a maximum voltage across the capacitor.
Resonant Frequency Calculation: Setting XL = XC, we get:
2πfL = 1/(2πfC)
Solving for f (the resonant frequency, fr):
fr = 1/(2π√(LC))
Therefore, the magnitude of the frequency when the voltage across the capacitor in
a series RLC circuit is maximum is fr = 1/(2π√(LC)).

5. State and prove reciprocity theorem.

The reciprocity theorem states that in a linear bilateral network, if a voltage source V
is connected to a point A and the current I is measured at point B, then if the voltage
source is moved to point B and the current is measured at point A, the current will
remain the same. In simpler terms: The ratio of the excitation to the response
remains the same if the location of the excitation and the measurement are
interchanged.
Proof (using superposition):
The proof generally relies on the principle of superposition (the response to multiple
sources is the sum of responses to each source acting individually) and the linearity
and bilaterality of the network. Bilateral means the network behaves the same
regardless of current direction.
1. Consider a linear bilateral network: Let's assume a linear bilateral network with
two accessible terminals, A and B.
2. Apply a voltage source at A: Connect a voltage source V₁ at terminal A, and
measure the resulting current I₂ at terminal B. This is our first scenario. By
superposition, the current I₂ can be seen as the sum of the current caused by the
source V₁ acting alone.
3. Apply a voltage source at B: Now, connect a voltage source V₂ at terminal B and
measure the current I₁ at terminal A. This is our second scenario. Similar to the
first scenario, I₁ is the sum of currents from multiple sources, in this case, V₂
alone.
4. Superposition: Let's consider the network with both voltage sources V₁ and V₂
connected simultaneously. Due to superposition, the current at terminal B (I₂')
will be the sum of the currents caused by V₁ and V₂ acting individually. Similarly,
the current at terminal A (I₁') will be the sum of the currents caused by V₁ and V₂
acting individually. These equations can be presented as: I₂' = I₂ + I₂(V₂) (where
I₂(V₂) is the current at B due to V₂ alone) I₁' = I₁ + I₁(V₁) (where I₁(V₁) is the current at
A due to V₁ alone)
5. Reciprocity Condition: The reciprocity theorem states that if we swap the
locations of V₁ and V₂, the currents at the measurement points should remain
unchanged. The current in the network remains the same if the source and
observation points are switched. This means that: I₂(V₁) = I₁(V₂)
6. Demonstrating Reciprocity: Let's swap the voltage sources, connecting V₂ to A
and V₁ to B. Applying superposition again, we would get: I₂'' = I₂(V₂) + I₂(V₁) I₁'' =
I₁(V₁) + I₁(V₂)
7. Conclusion: Due to the linearity of the network and superposition, we've
demonstrated I₂(V₁) = I₁(V₂). This shows that the current measured at one terminal
due to a voltage source at the other terminal is the same if the locations of the
voltage source and the current measurement are swapped. This completes the
proof of the reciprocity theorem.
6. In a three phase 3 wire star connected load has between a-b, b-c, c-a is 45∠0˚Ω,
∠-60˚Ω 20∠45˚Ω respesctively across 100 V, 50Hz supply . Find the line currents.
 7. A 3 element series circuit with R = 5Ω, L = 5mH C= 50μF has an applied
voltage which is given by v(t) = (150 sin 1000t + 100 sin 2000t + 75 sin
3000t) Volt, find effective value of current and average power consurmed
by the circuit.
8. What is frequency spectrum ?

The frequency spectrum is a representation of the different frequencies present in

a signal or waveform, typically displayed as a graph or chart. It shows how much of
the signal's energy is contained at each frequency, allowing for analysis of the
signal's frequency components.
In more detail:
1. Definition: The frequency spectrum is a way to visualize the distribution of
power or amplitude of a signal across various frequencies. It can be used for
both continuous signals (like sound waves) and discrete signals (like digital data).
2. Components: The spectrum typically includes:
Frequency: The x-axis usually represents frequency, measured in hertz (Hz).
Amplitude or Power: The y-axis represents the amplitude or power of the
signal at each frequency.
3. Types of Spectra:
Continuous Spectrum: Represents a continuous range of frequencies, often
seen in analog signals.
Discrete Spectrum: Represents specific frequencies, often seen in digital
signals or sampled data.
4. Applications: The frequency spectrum is widely used in various fields, including:
Audio Engineering: To analyze sound signals, identify frequencies, and design
audio equipment.
Telecommunications: To manage bandwidth and optimize signal
transmission.
Signal Processing: To filter, compress, or enhance signals.
Vibration Analysis: To identify mechanical issues in machinery.
5. Fourier Transform: The frequency spectrum is often obtained through
mathematical techniques like the Fourier Transform, which decomposes a time-
domain signal into its constituent frequencies.
9. An induction motor draws a 3 phase power . Two wattmenter
measurement is applied to find the total real power, reactive power and
appearent power , power factor.
10. What is phase sequence?

Phase sequence refers to the specific order in which the phases of a multi-phase
electrical system, particularly in three-phase systems, reach their peak values over
time. This sequence is critical for the proper functioning of electrical equipment,
especially electric motors, as it determines the direction of rotation.
Key Points:
1. Definition: Phase sequence describes the rotation or order of alternating current
(AC) waveforms in a multi-phase system. In three-phase systems, it usually
involves three phases, commonly labeled as A, B, and C (or R, Y, B in some
regions).
2. Types of Phase Sequence:
Positive Sequence (ABC): The phases reach their maximum values in the
order A, B, C. This standard sequence produces a clockwise rotation in
motors.
Negative Sequence (ACB): The order is A, C, B, resulting in counterclockwise
rotation. Incorrect phase sequence can lead to inefficiencies or damage.
3. Importance:
Motor Operation: Ensures the correct direction of rotation, preventing
mechanical failure.
Equipment Compatibility: Essential for synchronizing generators and
ensuring balanced loads within power systems.
System Stability: A proper phase sequence helps maintain operational
stability in electrical systems, reducing the risk of imbalances.
4. Methods of Checking:
Phase Sequence Meters: Instruments that visually indicate the sequence.
Two-Wattmeter Method: A calculation-based approach using power
measurements.
Mechanical Methods: Techniques like the rotating disc method that provide
visual confirmation of the phase order.
5. Effects of Incorrect Phase Sequence:
Motors may rotate in the wrong direction, leading to operational hazards.
Can cause overheating, equipment damage, and increased system losses due
to unbalanced currents.