evidence & practice / philosophy

NOVICE RESEARCHERS

Introduction to positivism, interpretivism

and critical theory
Ryan GS (2018) Introduction to positivism, interpretivism and critical theory. Nurse Researcher. 25, 4, 14-20.
Date of submission: 19 February 2017; Date of acceptance: 3 May 2017. doi: 10.7748/nr.2018.e1466

Gemma Ryan Abstract

Lecturer in nursing, Open Background There are three commonly known philosophical research paradigms used to guide
University, United Kingdom research methods and analysis: positivism, interpretivism and critical theory. Being able to justify
the decision to adopt or reject a philosophy should be part of the basis of research. It is therefore
Correspondence important to understand these paradigms, their origins and principles, and to decide which is
[email protected] appropriate for a study and inform its design, methodology and analysis.

Review Aim To help those new to research philosophy by explaining positivism, interpretivism and critical
theory.
This article has been subject
to double-blind review and has Discussion Positivism resulted from foundationalism and empiricism; positivists value objectivity
been checked for plagiarism and proving or disproving hypotheses. Interpretivism is in direct opposition to positivism; it
using automated software originated from principles developed by Kant and values subjectivity. Critical theory originated in
the Frankfurt School and considers the wider oppressive nature of politics or societal influences,
Conflict of interest and often includes feminist research.
None declared Conclusion This paper introduces the historical context of three well-referenced research
philosophies and explains the common principles and values of each.
Implications for practice The paper enables nurse researchers to make informed and rational
decisions when embarking on research.

Keywords
critical theory, interpretivism, novice researchers, nursing research, positivism, research philosophy

Introduction The components of philosophy

A research philosophy is what the researcher Epistemology is our belief about how we may
perceives to be truth, reality and knowledge. come to know the world (Figure 1). Objectivism
It outlines the beliefs and values that guide takes the position that there is a single version
the design of and the collection and analysis of what is real, regardless of the researcher’s
of data in a research study, these choices perspective; the only way to find this truth
complementing philosophical principles. and ‘credible’ data is to measure or observe
Ontology relates to the values a researcher the world with as little intervention from the
holds about what can be known as real and researcher and other factors as possible.
what someone believes to be factual (Bryman By contrast, subjectivism takes into account
2008). In this paper, this will relate to whether the multiple and varied perspectives of what may
the researcher values realism, historical realism be real. Is reality what people see and feel or is it
or relativism (Figure 1). Realists believe that what we can measure? Subjectivism asserts that
a world exists outside the influence of the reality is our own perceptions, experiences and
researcher (the world is there to be discovered), feelings. Finally, theory explains how we give
while relativists believe that the world depends meaning to, explain or understand the results
on how the individual views and experiences of research. It is a method of representing the
it (the world is different to different people). world, truth or knowledge (Howell 2013).
Historical realism is the belief that reality is
shaped over time by values, for example social, Types of reasoning
political, cultural or gender (Guba and Lincoln To understand different philosophical
2011). Lincoln et al (2011) also suggested post- research concepts, it is important to
positivism as a fourth paradigm – however, this understand how theories and conclusions
is beyond the scope of this paper. are found in the data – that is, the reasoning

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applied to data to obtain the results. There is the same for each person (for example,
are two main types of reasoning – inductive patient weight is the same regardless of
and deductive – although paradigms such as who measured it), and observation and
realism also refer to ‘retroductive’ reasoning, measurement tell us what that reality is.
which Danermark et al (2002) discussed. Bryman (2008) suggested four important
Inductive reasoning starts with observation, characteristics of positivism:
experiment and measurement, and »» Phenomenalism – only knowledge confirmed
generalisation and finding patterns in data; by the sciences is genuine knowledge.
theory is then developed to describe the »» Deductivism – theory generates hypotheses
situation (Bryman 2008). Researchers then that can be tested for provable ‘laws’.
make repeated measures and observations »» Objectivity – science must be value-free.
until they are confident that their findings »» Inductivism – knowledge is gained by
describe the wider situation. For example, gathering facts that provide the basis for
a patient with haematuria, dysuria, cloudy laws.
urine, urethritis, pelvic pain and an indwelling
catheter is diagnosed with a urinary tract Foundationalism
infection (UTI); a nurse would sensibly Foundationalists believe that hypotheses
assume from this that similar patients also should be proven through value-free,
have UTIs. controlled experiments or observations.
Deductive reasoning follows the reverse Foundationalism states that true knowledge
process: find a theory, make predictions based should be incapable of being wrong (Howell
on the theory, and then use observation or 2013). For example, foundationalists would
experiment to test it (Bryman 2008). For argue that facts known about physiological
example, if a new patient presents with a functions in the human body or the existence
range of symptoms, the nurse would assess of gravity are indisputable.
the patient, consider the possibilities based on Until the start of the 20th century, all
the available evidence and then explore those philosophical research theories were theories
using appropriate diagnostic processes until of knowledge (epistemologically driven)
correctly concluding the patient has a UTI. involving one single reality (ontology)
independent of researchers (Denzin and
Aim Lincoln 2011, Howell 2013).
This article outlines the origin, historical
context and core principles of positivism, Hobbes: a rationalist
interpretivism and critical theory. It can Thomas Hobbes argued that knowledge is
inform research studies and those new more than cause and effect and is experienced
to research philosophy, and provides a through the ‘five senses’ (Howell 2013). For
contextual base for common philosophical Hobbes, knowledge began with perception
paradigms. It can form the foundation for by the senses, such as sounds, shapes and
further study into research philosophy and colours, obtained through interactions
guide decisions about which values reflect
research plans. Figure 1. Philosophical paradigms

What is positivism and from where did Constructivism/

it originate? Positivism interpretivism Critical theory
Commonly associated with experiments and
quantitative research, positivism is considered
What is the reality?

a form of or a progression of empiricism.

Ontology

Phillips and Burbules (2000) suggested Empiricism Historical realism

Naive realism Relativism (Historic social
that empiricism is one of two forms of Logical realism structures)
foundationalist philosophy – rationalist
or empiricist – which believes knowledge
should be objective and free from any bias
stemming from the researcher’s values and
What is the truth?
Epistemology

beliefs. To outline the origin and historical

context of positivism, each of the core Modified
Objectivity Subjectivity
subjectivity
influencing philosophers will be discussed in
turn (Figure 2).
Ontologically, positivists believe that
there are facts that can be proven, reality Source: adapted from Phillips and Burbules (2000)

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evidence & practice / philosophy

between observation and the mind (Howell cannot be rationally doubted and what seems
2013). The primary focus of Hobbes’ indubitably true should be accepted as being
methodology was ‘reductionism’ – the true.
reduction of scenarios and problems into
component parts, to understand how they Locke and Hume: empiricists
might fit with each other. In this, you begin Empiricists take the approach that different
with the effects and work backwards to contexts, circumstances, the passing of time
identify the causes. This effect-cause and the experiences of the enquirer might
approach – rather than the deductive produce different results, with knowledge
cause-effect – incorporated inductive coming from the experiences of our senses –
reasoning. An example would be case-control observation and experiment. Knowledge is
studies such as Alberg et al (2016) that considered to be true when a hypothesis has
identify an effect and look backwards to been proven (Bryman 2008).
examine the possible causes. John Locke examined his ‘self’, to take an
objective approach and find a ‘foundation’
Descartes: a rationalist for enquiry (Howell 2013). He believed
As a rationalist, Rene Descartes believed that that something must be tested repeatedly,
for anything to be labelled as knowledge, it with the same result each time. Contrary to
should be securely established. He suggested foundationalism, he argued that everything
that opinions, values and beliefs might has the potential to be disproven.
be false and inaccurate, even if people David Hume agreed that knowledge
accept them, and argued that scientific was derived from our observations and
knowledge should be founded on what experimentation. He argued that our
motivations and our experiences are what
lead to enquiries for knowledge (Hume
Figure 2. Perspectives of empiricism and positivism 2011). He proposed that knowledge can be
found in our experiences, our perceptions of
our experiences or the combination of our
reasoning between the two.
Foundationalism
Hume also believed it was wrong to assume
that events could not change in the future. For
example, foundationalists would argue that
it is an infallible truth that smoking tobacco
causes lung cancer; Hume would argue that
this is not true for everyone who smokes.
Rationalism
Empiricism Importantly for the social sciences,
eg Hobbes (1620) and
eg Lock (1690) and Hume (1748)
Descartes (1748) Hume highlighted that science goes beyond
the natural world, so there is a need for
knowledge of human nature. The natural
world is not necessarily about humanity but it
certainly is investigated by humanity.
Fundamentalist approach to Hume was clearer than his predecessors
empiricism
about what constitutes evidence: hypotheses
should be constructed based on what we
know; experiment and observation should
be used to gather data; and knowledge may
Positivism be obtained and validated from this (Howell
Naive realism 2013).
Auguste comte (1844)
Auguste Comte: a positivist
Auguste Comte had an alternative view. He
claimed that human thought evolved through
three phases: religious, metaphysical and
Positivism scientific. Building on the work of Hume,
Logical realism he argued that society, humanity and people
Vienna Circle could be investigated through empirical
(1920s/30s) observation.
Epistemologically, positivists believe that
Source: adapted from Finlayson (2005) the researcher and the world are separate,

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with the world existing regardless of the 2. Verstehen (Weber 1947)
researcher’s presence (Bryman 2008, Howell Verstehen focuses on the exploration of
2013). Ontologically, they argue that one understanding and perception from the points
external reality exists and it is discoverable of view of research participants or patients, to
through hypothesis and experimental testing understand why a phenomenon exists or why
using deductive reasoning. For example, they behave the way they do.
if we know that something occurs, we can 3. Symbolic interactionism (Mead 1962)
look backwards to find its cause. This naive Symbolic interactionism has three core principles
realism suggests that what we observe exactly (Blumer 1969):
reflects the world as it really is (Howell 2013). »» People’s behaviour is based on their own
meanings.
The Vienna Circle »» Meanings are generated from social
In the 1920s and 1930s, a group of interactions.
mathematicians, physicists, social scientists »» People may adapt meanings, based on
and philosophers known as the Vienna their perceptions of situations or their
Circle continued the concept of positivism. experiences of them.
‘Logical realists’, they accepted some of Aldiabat and Le Navenec (2013) used
Comte’s principles, but argued that without symbolic interactionism to work with and
physical observations and collected data, understand older people with suicidal
claims to ‘truth’ were simply speculation tendencies.
and scientifically meaningless – for example, 4. Phenomenology (Schutz 1962)
spirituality and intuition are not easily Phenomenology focuses on the interpretation
measured or observable, so cannot be proved and description of people’s experiences. It is
(Denzin and Lincoln 2011). deeply informed by philosophical assumptions
(Wilson 2015).
What is interpretivism?
Similar to positivism, interpretivism has its What is real and what is truth?
historical roots in anthropology. However, Interpretivism has a ‘relativist’ ontological
it is in opposition to positivism, so is perspective. Relativists suggest that reality is
sometimes known as anti-positivism (Flick only knowable through socially constructed
2014). Interpretivism argues that truth and meanings and that there is no single shared
knowledge are subjective, as well as culturally reality (Ritchie and Lewis 2003). For
and historically situated, based on people’s example, every patient on a hospital ward
experiences and their understanding of them. will have his or her own perspective and
Researchers can never be completely separate experience of the care provided, informed by
from their own values and beliefs, so these their interactions with patients, staff, visitors
will inevitably inform the way in which they and previous experiences. This reflects the
collect, interpret and analyse data. proposition that there are multiple realities

Contributors to interpretivism BOX 1. The principles of critical theory

Interpretivism has its origins in the 18th
century with the philosopher Giambattista »» Social and historical constituted power relations affect
Vico, who opposed Descartes, arguing that and mediate all ideas and thinking
there is a distinction between the natural and »» Values and facts can never be separated*
»» Facts always contain an ideological dimension*
social world and more importantly, that social
»» Ideas and objects are mediated through social
organisation and social experiences form our
relations
perceptions of reality and truth (Costelloe »» Relationships between signifier and signified are
2016). continually in flux*
According to Bryman (2008), there are »» Relations of capitalist production and consumption
four main approaches to interpretivist affect relationships between individuals and society
research: »» Subjectivity is determined by discourse
1. Hermeneutics (Heidegger 1962) »» Privilege and oppression characterises social relations
This is commonly associated with interpreting »» Oppression is more endemic when subordinates
and understanding texts or documents and accept the hegemonic inevitability of their position in
the deeper meaning in them. Patients’ signs and society
symptoms may be regarded as a form »» Oppression is multifaceted
of ‘text’, waiting for the nurse to interpret and »» Positivistic research is elitist and unwittingly produces
existing social power relations
understand them, for example (Charalambous * Indicates where there may be similarities with critical realism
2010).

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evidence & practice / philosophy

because of individuals’ different perceptions: power structures that exist in society

meanings are ‘the categories that make (Thomas 1993).
up a participant’s view of reality and with
which actions are defined… culture, norms, What is reality and truth?
understanding, social reality and definitions of Critical theorists value modified subjectivity
the situation’ (Krauss 2005). – the researcher and society are influenced by
Krauss (2005) and Frankl (1963) proposed their own perceptions and experiences, which
that meanings are the most fundamental aspect are manipulated by power structures such as
of the social setting and are of paramount culture, politics, race, gender, class and the
importance to human life. mass media (Howell 2013). The researcher
should consider subjective preconceptions
Critical theory about philosophy and the subject being
Critical theory (CT) seeks to challenge world investigated. CT proposes that the object of
views and the underlying power structures study and subject of study are inextricably
that create them. Bronner (2011) explained linked and that the researcher is always part
that ‘critical theorists today must look of the object of enquiry. For example, subjects
backward to move forward’. In this way are the people in the world, and objects
critical theorists take a historical realist are what we study, and the researcher is a
perspective on ontology. subject, but may become an object of study
CT has several core principles (Howell when reflecting on their thoughts, processes
2013) (Box 1). It acknowledges that the and actions (Groff 2014). This is logical
evolution of society is making it increasingly when reflecting on the core purpose of CT
complex and so more difficult to investigate. It outlined by the Frankfurt School – to improve
examines oppression and routes to challenging the practical prospects for revolutionary
oppression, focusing on exploitation of parts action. However, it is highly unlikely that
of society (alienation) and society’s view of a researcher will be detached from class,
people as political or other objects (reification) culture, gender or race.
(Bronner 2011). These two notions arguably Marxism and The Frankfurt School
‘turned the individual into a cog in the CT originated in 1937 in the Frankfurt School
machine’ (Bronner 2011). that developed between the first and second
Critical realism (CR) is often confused world wars. It was intended to challenge
with CT but while there may be similarities the perceived oppression and inequality
with CR (Box 1), CR does not focus solely in Western society (Bronner 2011). Marx
on – although may acknowledge – the and Engels (1996) proposed that economic
political, economic or ‘taken for granted’ factors determine the elements of social life,
and other influencers of the development of
CT include Kant, who claimed that moral
TABLE 1. Habermas’ five principles autonomy is the greatest freedom (Bronner
2011). Although Marxism played an
Programme Principles
influential role, CT is neo-Marxist so aims to
Pragmatic meaning Two kinds of meaning: pragmatic and propositional. Pragmatic function explore more than the economic structures.
of speech is to obtain consensus. There are three types of validity claim: It focuses on the overarching political and
to truth, to rightness and to truthfulness cultural structures, with the aim of changing
these through emancipation (Bronner 2011).
Communicative rationality Two types of action: communicative and instrumental. Communicative The Frankfurt School dismissed
actions are aimed at securing understanding and consensus. Practical foundationalism as a power structure in itself,
success is achieved through instrumental claiming that power structures lead society to
accept that oppression is the only situation
Social theory »» Social order rests on meaning and validity. Societies are made up of
that can exist. It also dismissed aspects of
the life world (communication) and the system (instrumental action)
»» People are forced into the patterns of instrumental action and lose interpretivism, as interpretivists argue that
meaning and autonomy meaning and reality are social or individual
constructions, whereas CT would contest that
Discourse ethics »» Moral norms determine actions to be right or permitted these perceptions are the result of oppression
»» Ethics concerns individual happiness and the good of communities and power structures.
Habermas
Political theory Well-ordered political systems rely on a balance between private and Jürgen Habermas is one of the most well-
public autonomy with rational decisions about institutions. Laws must known promoters of CT and his work
reflect the norms and values of society
continues to dominate the field today. Part of
Source: Adapted from Finlayson (2005) the Frankfurt School, his work spans five core

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programmes and five principles (see Table 1). older people’s views of health and well- Write for us
Like post-positivists such as Kuhn, being, and Van Groneou and Deeg (2010) For information about
Habermas argued the need for change to detailed a longitudinal study examining older writing for RCNi
journals, contact
improve humanity, by raising awareness of people’s social participation. These studies [email protected]
oppression (Habermas 1971). He argued were considered by NICE (2015) and so
that approaches such as positivism sought contributed to national guidance in the UK. For author guidelines,
objectivity in such a way that they failed to Arguably, interpretivism’s principles go to rcni.com/write-
and values align with many of nursing’s for-nurse-researcher
understand social phenomena.
Habermas stood apart from some approaches, principles and values, including
other Frankfurt School critical theorists patient-centred, holistic and personalised
by emphasising the value of language, care. The ways in which patients or groups of
communication and the freedom of speech in service users place meaning on their health,
the public sphere. He criticised the school’s well-being or experience are of great value in
approach to social, political and cultural nursing.
situations, arguing that these were too one- Similarly, the principles of CT can have
sided and that its concept of change and wider application in understanding and
the achievement of ‘utopia’ was empirically exploring the historical, social and political
flawed (Finlayson 2005). nature of communities. For example,
Deforge et al (2011) used critical ethnography
The relevance of philosophical to learn about the culture in a long-term
paradigms to nursing care home and identified the unintended
The most commonly applied positivist consequences of the implementation of new
research design involves the use of assessment processes and policy. Conversely,
experimental quantitative methods, although CT can be used to explore nursing, with
cohort and case control are also used. Gerrish Mahon and Macpherson (2014) using CT to
(2013) and Polit and Beck (2012) discussed investigate the reasons why nurses leave or
the hierarchies of evidence that seek to remain in the profession, for example.
place greater value on systematic reviews, The three components of evidence-based
meta-analyses and other positivist practice are: scientific evidence and research;
approaches. Although there is some clinical expertise; and patient experience
allowance for expert opinion and ‘case (Gerrish 2013). ‘Science’ and research that
study’ (World Health Organization (WHO) values facts, cause and effect, and outcome
2014, National Institute for Health and Care measures play a clear role in patient care.
Excellence (NICE) 2015), organisations, such However, patients’ and communities’
as NICE, that develop clinical guidelines experiences can only be explored and Implications for
frequently recommend the need for evidence investigated through in-depth processes that practice
from randomised controlled trials, to show enable patients to explore and share their Ensure that there is
explicit justification for
cost-effectiveness and quantify benefits own experiences and perceptions. Therefore, your chosen methods
(NICE 2011, WHO 2014). Research the role of interpretivist and CT research in and the purpose of
recommendations in guidance documents and nursing is of great value, but it should be your research. Decide
the grading systems used to appraise evidence well considered and justified based on the on your underpinning
philosophy and allow
demonstrate this (for example, NICE 2011). corresponding principles of the paradigms.
this to guide your
Conversely, positivism is essential in public decisions. Consider:
health and in presenting epidemiological Conclusion »» Your rationale and
findings, to inform service provision and Consideration of the range of nursing research what you want to
health and social care strategies locally, paradigms available is important, but without achieve
nationally and globally (WHO 2016). a basic background of what they entail and »» The paradigms
The false assumption that positivist how they have evolved, it is difficult to select available and which
research only uses quantitative methods one over another. Conversely, a philosophical is likely to reflect your
aims
sometimes leads researchers to favour perspective should explicitly underpin the
»» The methodological
interpretivism. However, positivist approaches research design and methodological choices. choices that will
to anthropology and ethnography have long A basic understanding of the paradigms complement your
been successfully used in world-leading and available, their origins and their principles philosophical
highly influential research, such as Darwin should assist nurse researchers to make more paradigm
(1859). Conversely, there are many positivist informed, evidence-based decisions about the »» All your choices. Be
studies that use qualitative measures alongside methodology and design of their research, as explicit about why
they are suitable
quantitative outcomes. For example, well as enable them to justify their decisions. – the rationale,
Hoban et al (2013) used grounded theory Consequently, this will enhance the quality design, methods and
with a mixed-methods design to explore and relevance of nursing research. measures

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evidence & practice / philosophy

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