Question: Write a brief description of conventional approaches in improved crop plant varieties

development.
General Procedures in Conventional Plant Breeding
Certain general steps or activities which are associated with conventional plant breeding
described by Acquaah (2012) are: (a) Setting objective(s); (b) Creation and assembly of
variation; (c) Selection; (d) Evaluation; (e) Release; (f) Multiplication and (g) Distribution of the
new cultivar. Plant breeders are not responsible for seed multiplication and distribution.
However, a seed company usually conducts all these seven activities. A breeder should have a
comprehensive plan for a breeding project that addresses these steps.
1.0 Objectives
Breeding objectives depend on the species and the intended use of the cultivar to be developed.
The breeder should first define a clear objective for initiating the breeding program, taking the
needs of end-users into account as follows (Acquaah 2012):
(a) The producer (grower) – Consider from the point of view of growing the cultivar profitably
(e.g., need for high yield, disease resistance, early maturity, lodging resistance).
(b) The processor (industrial user) – Consider as it relates to efficiently and economically using
the cultivar as raw material for producing new products (e.g., canning qualities, fiber strength,
wood quality, mechanized production).
(c) The consumer (household user) – Consider their preference (e.g., taste, high nutritional and
cooking quality, shelf life, aesthetics).
2.0 Creation and Assembly of Variation
Genetic variation or variability is essential to plant breeding (Allard, 1960). After determining
the breeding objective(s), the next step is to assemble the requisite germplasm for initiating the
breeding program. If, for example, breeding for disease resistance is the objective, the gene
conferring resistance to the disease must be available for initiating the base population (Acquaah,
2012). The most common method of introducing the desired gene into the base population is via
artificial crossing of appropriate parents (Gur and Zamir, 2004). If the gene does not exist, the
breeder may attempt to create it. The common conventional method of creating a nonexistent
gene is via mutagenesis (use of mutation agents to induce variation) (Micke, 1992).
Variability exists in many plant gene banks (repositories for plant germplasm) to which scientists
have access. Gene banks may be operated on a small scale by national governments. However,
comprehensive operations are undertaken by international entities such as the international
research centers (Acquaah 2012). These centers focus on mandate crops (e.g., CYMMIT in
Mexico for maize and ICRISAT in India for sorghum). The desired variability may already exist
in the breeder’s local collection and in remnants from previous breeding projects (Harland and
De Wet, 1971).
3.0 Selection and Evaluation
Selection is simply discriminating among the available or created variability to identify
individuals with the desired combination of genes (genotype) or expressed trait(s) (Dudley and
Lambert, 1992). With the introduction of genetics and statistics into modern plant breeding,
breeders have developed standard breeding methods for the species, the genetics of the trait of
interest and the type of product desired. There are selection or breeding methods for species
based on their modes of reproduction, genetics or whether the product should be uniform or
variable (Briggs and Knowles, 1967).
The final selection cycle in breeding results in a small number of genotypes that are potential
candidates for advancing as cultivars for release to producers. These genotypes are subjected to
rigorous evaluation under conditions which must include those under which the cultivars will be
commercially grown (Borojevic, 1990). Evaluations may be conducted at multiple locations and
over multiple years (Fehr, 1987a). Included in such evaluations are standard cultivars of known
performance (for comparison), which could be replaced if superior performers emerge from the
trials.
4.0 Certification and Cultivar Release
In countries with more advanced agricultural operations, there exist standardized and approved
protocols for releasing new cultivars to growers. There may be national crop certifying agencies
that oversee the seed certification process for various crops (Agrawal, 1998). The ultimate
purpose of seed certification is to ensure that the seed produced by the plant breeder reaches the
public (consumer) in its highest quality, original genetic identity and highest genetic purity.
5.0 Multiplication and Distribution
Certified seed is multiplied by certified seed growers contracted by independent breeders and
seed companies to mass-produce released cultivars for sale to growers (Allard 1960). New
cultivars are sold to consumers via a variety of outlets. Commercial seed companies have
elaborate sales mechanisms.
Developing Self-Pollinated Cultivars
Self-pollinated cultivars may be developed from either a single plant or a mixture of plants, each
with implications for the genetic structure of the cultivar (Briggs and Knowles, 1967). The
methods used for breeding self-pollinated species may be classified into two, one that is
preceded by a planned cross (hybridization) and one that is not (Acquaah 2012). Further, the
final product (cultivar) may be derived from a single plant (after the cross, if there is one), or a
mixture. The methods used for cultivars deriving from a single plant include the following basic
ones: pure line, pedigree, single seed descent, bulk, backcross. Methods that use a mixture of
plants include the following basic ones: mass selection, composites or blends, and recurrent
selection (Borojevic 1990).
1.0 Mass Selection
Mass selection is applicable to both self- and cross-pollinated species, but with different genetic
consequences (Allard 1960). The persistence of inbreeding alters population gene frequencies
reducing heterozygosity from one generation to the next in self-pollinated species (Acquaah
2012). It is a population improvement strategy whose purpose is to increase the gene frequencies
of desirable genes and therefore increase the average performance of the base population. It acts
on existing variability without creating a new one. Procedurally, off-types or undesirable plants
are rogued out of the population; alternatively, desirable plants may be selected and bulked from
the existing population to form the improved cultivar. Single plants, pods, or heads as applicable,
may be the selection unit (Baezinger et al., 2006).
Mass selection may be used to maintain the purity of an existing cultivar after it has been
contaminated (e.g., by natural outcrossing, spontaneous mutation, mechanical mixing). It is used
in breeding horizontal (durable) resistance into a cultivar, and for adapting a new cultivar to a
production region. Mass selection is based on plant phenotype and is hence most effective if the
trait of interest is highly heritable (Brown and Caligari, 2008). The resulting cultivar is fairly
uniform (for the trait of interest), but genotypically, it could comprise a large number of pure
lines, thus making is genetically broad-based, adaptable and stable. It is inexpensive, simple and
rapid to conduct, requiring only one generation per cycle. Large populations can be handled at
once.
2.0 Pure Line Selection
In theory, a pure line cultivar is one in which the plants have identical alleles at all loci,
something that is impractical to achieve (Allard 1960). It has a narrow genetic base, and the traits
of interest tend to be phenotypically uniform (Acquaah 2012). Such cultivars are suited to uses
that demand uniformity of traits (e.g., uniform maturity or ripening for mechanized farming,
uniform shape and size for processing or a discriminating market). It is rapid and easy to
conduct, for once a genotype has been selected from a variable population, it is repeatedly selfed
until there is no noticeable segregation in the progeny (Poehlman and Sleper, 1995). Selection
based on progeny performance makes it suitable for improving traits with low heritabilities. Pure
line selection can also be part of other breeding methods (e.g., bulk breeding). Pure line cultivars
lack yield stability over a wide range of environments and are susceptible to devastation by
pathogenic outbreaks (Allard, 1960).
3.0 Pedigree Selection
A key difference between pedigree and mass or pure line selection methods is that, as the name
implies, pedigrees are descended from known parents or ancestors (Poehlman and Slepper1995).
Consequently, hybridization is used to establish the base population for the breeding program.
To maintain ancestry of the cultivar, the breeder must keep meticulous records such that the
parent-progeny can be traced back to an individual F2 plant from any subsequent generation
(Acquaah 2012). The method is suited to species that allow individual plants to be observed,
selected and harvested separately (e.g., peanut, tomato, tobacco).
Starting, usually with the F2, plants are reselected in subsequent generations until a desirable
level of homozygosity is attained (Allard 1960). Lines begin to form by the F4 and as such
selection should be on the basis of progenies rather than individual plants. The method is tedious
and time-consuming, prolonging the breeding program.
4.0 Bulk Population Breeding
A key distinguishing feature of the bulk population breeding method is that artificial selection is
delayed, thereby allowing natural selection pressure to bear on the initial variability (Briggs and
Knowles, 1967). The rationale is that natural selection would weed out individuals that are
susceptible to abiotic factors in the production region (e.g., drought, cold, photoperiodic
response), before emphasis is placed on the trait of interest (Acquaah 2012). The cultivar that
emerges would already be adapted to the production region. It is suitable for breeding self-
pollinating species that are closely spaced in production (e.g., small grains like wheat, barley;
also, field beans, soybean).
After initiating the program with a cross, the F2 is planted and bulk-harvested. A sample of the
harvest is used to initiate the next bulk planting cycle until F5 when selected plants are space-
planted for individual observation (Allard 1960). It is easy to conduct and less labor intensive in
the early stages, allowing large amounts of segregating material to be handled. A negative aspect
of this scheme is that, under natural selection, a desirable genotype (even possibly the target
trait) that is not competitive can be lost in the early generations, while an aggressive but
undesirable genotype may persist to later generations (Acquaah 2012).
5.0 Single-Seed Descent
Single-seed descent is a method for speeding up a breeding program by randomly selecting a
single seed from each of the desirable F2 plants for planting the next generation (Allard 1960).
This strategy is continued through F3. This way, the breeder is able to advance a larger than
normal number of F2 plants through several generations, thereby attaining homozygosity rapidly,
while delaying selection. It is best suited to breeding self-pollinated small grains and legumes
like soybean (Tigchelaat and Casali, 1976). The early generations require a small space (can be
conducted in a greenhouse).
6.0 Backcross Breeding
Backcross breeding is undertaken to transfer one or a few specific genes of interest from a source
(donor parent) to an adapted cultivar (breeding line), while preserving all other qualities
(Acquaah 2012). After initiating the transfer via a cross, the desirable (adapted cultivar; called
the recurrent parent) is repeatedly crossed (backcrossed) to the F1 to retrieve all the desirable
genes of the adapted cultivar. Backcrossing may be done for 2–5 cycles (BC1 – BC5), depending
on how much of the recurrent parent the breeder wants to recover, and how easy it is to observe
the trait of interest.
After adequate backcrossing, the breeder selfs the product (e.g., BC5F1, and then BC5F2) to
stabilize the gene in a homozygous state (Chahal and Gosal, 2000). The method works best for
qualitative traits. The procedure is used to introgress genes from wild gene pools into
domesticated ones. It is also used to develop isogenic lines (Borojevic 1990). When the gene of
interest is recessive, an additional step is needed in each cycle to allow the breeder to distinguish
between the homozygote (RR) from the heterozygote (Rr) which carries the desired recessive
gene (Acquaah 2012). By selfing, the breeder will be able to identify the desired rr genotype for
subsequent backcrossing cycles to the recurrent parent. It is important what parent is used as
female in a cross, because of cytoplasmic inheritance (especially, when using CMS in breeding).
If the gene of interest is tightly linked with undesirable genes, the product of backcross breeding
could suffer from the consequences of linkage drag (Allard 1960).
7.0 Multiline Breeding and Cultivar Blends
A multiline or blend is a planned seed mixture of cultivars or lines (multiple pure lines)
composted in a predetermined ratio (Fehr, 1987a). Each component line (isoline) is developed by
a separate backcross, making the method expensive to conduct. The strategy of multiline is to
increase heterogeneity of the self-pollinated cultivar so that it would have greater environmental
buffering to reduce the risk of total loss from biotic or abiotic factors (Agrawal 1998).
Technically, a multiline is spatially differentiated, plant-to-plant, such that the cultivar creates a
mosaic of genotypes in the field. This physical layout buffers against rapid spread of disease.
The multiline cultivar appears phenotypically uniform and provides yield stability (Acquaah
2012). For example, the component lines may provide resistance to different races of a pathogen.
The cultivar is widely used in the turfgrass industry. A blend or multiline can be reconstituted,
should a component line fail to perform as planned. As disease patterns change the component
lines are periodically changed as well, through reconstituting (Fehr, 1987a).
8.0 Composites
A composite cultivar is similar to a multiline, in that it consists of a mixture of different
genotypes (Jensen 1978). However, the component genotypes are not closely related (as in
isolines), but may be inbred lines, hybrids, populations and other dissimilar genotypes, which are
carefully selected to have some similarity in agronomic benefit (e.g., similar growth habit,
disease resistance) (Acquaah 2012).
References:
Acquaah G (2012) Principles of plant genetics and breeding, 2nd edn. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford

Agrawal RL (1998) Fundamentals of plant breeding and hybrid seed production. Science
Publishers, Inc, Enfield

Allard RW (1960) Principles of plant breeding. John Wiley and Sons, New York

Borojevic S (1990) Principles and methods of plant breeding. Elsevier, Amsterdam

Briggs FN, Knowles PF (1967) Introduction to plant breeding. Reinhold Publishing Corporation,
New York