Bachelor of Science in Criminology
Lesson 16
Dispute Resolution and Crises/Incidents
Management
Crises and Emergency
Learning Objectives:
1. Define Crisis and Emergency;
2. Discuss the national and local government response to various crisis and
emergency situations; and
3. Illustrate best practices in crisis management by viewing different events
in the Philippines.
16.1 DEFINE CRISIS AND EMERGENCY
Crisis and Emergency
Crisis – came from the GREEK word CRISIS, which
means to SEPARATE. It is a turning point in the
progress or a series of events.
Emergency – came from the LATIN word
EMERGENTIA, which means DIPPING’ PLUNGING. It is
a sudden condition or state of affairs calling for
immediate action.
The word Crisis is defined as “a tragedy or negative event.” A crisis can be political, social,
financial, or even related to the weather or environment. Crises is simply the word we use
when describing more than one crisis
Emergency, Crisis, and Disaster Distinguished
If the situation is still controlled and the response given is for the purpose of containing the situation
from getting out of control, then it is just an EMERGENCY
If the situation is already beyond a normal control, what is happening is already a CRISIS
If the effects of the crises can no longer be controlled even by its author, it is now a DISASTER.
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Bachelor of Science in Criminology
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Dispute Resolution and Crises/Incidents
Management
Crisis Management – It is an expert handling of a
crisis or emergency to reduce or eliminate danger
or damage, or the like, especially on the part of the
government
Humans today are witnessing multiple serious crises, whether economic, social, environmental, but
the most devastating crises are those security crises that end up with endless wars, killing thousands
each year, and displacing millions of others. Today’s crises bring new challenges to address and
the theoretical frameworks that have been developed by various scholars may not be adequate
to deal with them.
The term crisis carries meaning in itself. These meanings guide crisis managers ad leaders in
deciding what to do in a crisis situation. It is an interesting applied area as well since we talk about
“managing” a crisis when actually each crisis situation is very unique by itself.
CRISIS MANAGEMENT is a proactive process which involves dealing with the crisis before it
happens, during the crisis and aftermath.
CRISIS MANAGEMENT is an expert handling of a crisis or emergency to reduce or eliminate danger
or damage, or the like, especially on the part of the government. It is the process by which
organization deals with a major event that threatens to harm the organization or the general
public
CRISIS MANAGEMENT is occasionally referred as INCIDENT MANAGEMENT. (Wikipedia.org)
In contrast to RISK MANAGEMENT, which involves assessing potential threats and finding the best
ways to avoid those threats, CRISIS MANAGEMENT involves dealing with threats, before, during,
and after they have occurred. It is a discipline within the broader context of MANAGEMENT
consisting of skills and techniques required to identify, assess, and cope with a serious situation,
especially from the moment it first occurs to the point that recovery procedures start,
(Wikipedia.org)
Two Essential Elements of Crisis Management
CONSEQUENCE MANAGEMENT (CM) – refers to an act focused on mitigation of adverse effects
that may be brought about by the incident by utilizing non-law enforcement elements such as
medical and fire services.
It is concerned with minimizing the damage resulting from a disruptive event (White house, 1998).
CM is often conducted in conjunction with crisis management activities.
CRISIS OR INCIDENT MANAGEMENT – refers to an act containing the situation within certain level
mostly by law enforcement interventions.
Crisis or Incident Management is a law enforcement mission aimed at early detection, prevention,
and elimination of the cause of disruption as quickly as possible (White House, 1998).
Purpose of Crisis Management
SALVARI VITAS means to save live.
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Bachelor of Science in Criminology
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Dispute Resolution and Crises/Incidents Management
Objective of Crisis Management
1. Resolved without further incident.
2. Safety of all participants.
3. Apprehension of all participants.
4. Accomplish the task within the framework of current community standards.
Types of Crises
Crisis managers must anticipate events, and understanding the major types of crises isa good
precursors to developing a threat list.
1. Natural Crises/Emergencies Example:
Fire marine/Air Disaster, structural collapse, hazardous, utilities failure (power, water,
telephone), nuclear accidents, food scarcity/famine, fuel shortage, pestilence/epidemic,
eruption, earthquake, tidal wave, typhoons, and drought.
2. Man-made/Emergencies Example:
Civil disturbance, revolt, revolution, border incident war, kidnapping, hijacking, hostage
taking, terrorist activities, attacks/raids on government installations/facilities and vital
facilities.
4P’s of Crisis Management
The four (4) P’s is a mnemonic that captures
the essential elements of crisis management:
PREDICTION, PREVENTION, PREPARATION
AND PERFORMANCE. These terms remind
organizations to minimize threats, develop
crisis plans, rehearse these plans, and
execute them effectively when needed.
Crisis incidents occur when they are least expected. What makes these incidents become crisis
situations is when they go out of control and cause destruction to life and property, or endanger
public safety. The 4P Crisis management Model envisioned to address situations in two (2) phases:
A. THE PRO-ACTIVE PHASE – designed to predict or prevent the probability of occurrence of crises
and at the same time to prepare to handle them when they occur.
It encompasses the 3P’s of the 4P Crisis Management Model:
1. PREDICTION – (1st stage)- this stage involves foretelling the likelihood of crises occurring whether
natural or man-made through the continuous assessment of all possible threats and threat groups,
as well as the analysis of developing or reported events and incidents. Crisis incidents can be
predicted through updated inputs from intelligence reports as well as continuous monitoring and
analysis of the confluence of related events.
2. PREVENTION – (2nd stage) with most man-made crises or emergencies, this stage involves the
institution of passive and active security measures, as well as the remedy or resolution of
destabilizing factors and security flaws leading to such crises or emergencies.
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Dispute Resolution and Crises/Incidents Management
3. PREPARATION – (3rd stage) this entails planning organization, training and stockpiling of
equipment and supplies needed for such crises or emergencies. Simulated drills at unspecified
days and times test the effectiveness of preparations, bring out flaws ad weakness, and enable
corrections or remedies effected to heightened levels of readiness of systems, procedures,
organization, equipment and logistics to better cope with actual crises or emergencies.
B. THE REACTIVE PHASE – this phase covers the last 4P’s of Crisis Management Model:
3. PERFORMANCE – (4th stage) this is the actual execution or implementation of contingency
plan when a crisis situation occurs despite the proactive measures taken.
The objective in this stage is to:
a) Ensure a high possibility of success in neutralizing the perpetrators;
b) To minimize, or cushion the adverse effects of the crisis incident; and
c) To ensure a smooth and speedy rehabilitation or return to normalcy
New Nature of Crisis
Recent crises have challenged political leadership
and risk managers in many countries, often due to
unexpected or unforeseen circumstances, but also
due to weak links and breakdowns in information flow.
Examples includes: the events of 11 September 2001, the SARS and H1N1 pandemic outbreaks in
2003 and 2009, the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the 2010 Iceland
volcanic eruption and its ash cloud over Europe or the 2011 Tohoku earthquake in eastern Japan,
in which the tsunami and the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident resulted in cascade effects, and
Covid-19. In these cases, risk managers, processes and structures were unprepared to deal with.
These new crises differ significantly from the past in several respects:
▪ Their unexpectedly large scale;
▪ The fact that they are new or unprecedented – at least in human or crisis managers’
memories – or their unusual combination (D. Leonard, 2012);
▪ Their trans-boundary nature (Ansell, Boin, Keller, 2010). A trans-boundary crisis spreads
across geographic borders (between nations, States or other local authorities) and/or
policy boundaries (between administrations, sectors, public-private, etc.)
Changing Roles of Governments and Increased demand from Citizens and the Media
In addition to the emergence of new threats and vulnerabilities, elements to consider in the
changing paradigm for crisis managers relate to the evolution of governments. While crisis
management will always remain one of their fundamental roles, the wave of privatization and
decentralization has reduced overall capacities in many governments to take direct actions to
prevent or mitigate risks in sectors that are critical for the well-functioning of societies, such as
utilities and infrastructure.
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Dispute Resolution and Crises/Incidents Management
In the meantime, government openness and transparency, constant scrutiny by the media and
widespread dissemination of information on-line and through social media put governments and
their decision-makers under constant pressure. This pressure is all the more acute when a crisis
occurs; citizen’s expectations are the highest due to the emotional nature of a crisis. They demand
more transparency, responsibility and high standards of ethics from their governments, which
need to react almost instantly or risk a political backlash amid criticism of unresponsiveness.
Crisis Preparedness: Planning Scenarios vs, Preparing for the Unknown
Preparing for crisis has traditionally consisted in developing capacities and tools to prepare for
crises that occurred in the past. Preparing for the new landscape of crises requires adapting
approaches that enable preparation for response to the unknown.
A. Risk Assessment: sectoral analysis based on historical events vs. national risk assessment
Risk knowledge is the foundation of crisis and emergency preparedness. Analyzing hazards,
threats and vulnerabilities through risk assessment enables response planning. Risk assessment
approaches and methodologies can hardly be decoupled from their purpose: while risk
assessment for traditional crises aims at developing emergency response plans, novel or trans-
boundary crises need more flexible and adaptable capacities for responses, thus implying a more
holistic and dynamic approach to risk assessment.
B. Emergency planning” Scenario-based vs. capability-based and network
Emergency planning is directly linked to risk assessment., Once risks have been identified,
resources can be allocated to develop emergency response capacities and emergency plans
can be developed to utilize these to respond to pre-defined scenarios.
C. Training: testing plans and procedures vs. strategic exercises and networks building
Exercising and training constitutes a key task to prepare for a crisis. Most emergency response
agencies have dedicated structures for constant training of their staff. In many emergency
response units, training exercises is an important daily activity.
Training and exercising for crisis preparedness can have different purposes: training units and
individuals; testing equipment and the ability of the staff to deploy and use it; controlling stocks of
supplies; and testing all components of contingency plans from the knowledge of the detailed
protocols and procedures by the staff to the plan itself. Tabletop pr large-scale exercises can be
organized t test a specific response plan as well as its related co-ordination mechanisms.
Feedback from training can then be used to improve planning.
D. Activation” Early warning Systems triggering emergency plans vs. strategic foresight
Early warning Systems (EWS) have been instrumental in reducing loss of life and damage caused
by natural hazards and other threats (WMO. 2012). Through the detection of potential risks and
the information of emergency services and the population at risks, EWS allows emergency
measures and plans to be activated.
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Bachelor of Science in Criminology
Lesson 16
Dispute Resolution and Crises/Incidents Management
E. Response: Command and Control vs. adaptive capacities
When a threat is clearly forecasted, or when the crisis is actually present, the real response phase
starts.
▪ Operational picture: Crisis development monitoring vs sense-making - Getting a clear
operational picture of the development of the crisis is the basis for decision-making both
operational and strategic levels.
▪ Response: Standard Operating Procedures vs. managing large response network – Rapid,
sustainable and properly scaled deployment of emergency forces, means and supplies is
expected in the crisis response phase.
▪ Leadership: crisis communication vs. meaning-making – In addition to ensuring co-
ordination of the emergency response network, leadership plays a major role in crisis
communication. During a crisis, the emotions of the population are usually running very
high, and leadership must convey messages that answer their expectations. It is also
essential to disseminate some important messages to the public at risk for its own safety,
and this requires appropriate crisis communication technique and tools.
▪ End of crisis: improving crisis response vs. rebuilding trust – As a crisis winds down, officials
should clearly indicate closure to the public through a formal, well-communicated process
to help alleviate continuing anxiety and encourage the return to a state of normality. This
also helps entry into the next phase of risk management, such as the reconstruction
process, with a new mind-set.
Each government depending n its institutional structure, and exposure to hazards and threats
has developed specific institutional and governance mechanisms to support emergency and
crisis management. The complexity of novel crises and the increased interconnectedness of our
societies require government to adapt its roles and capacities to meet expectations of citizens.
To this end, the following actions should be considered:
1. The national crisis governance framework should be set up to ensure appropriate
structures and institutional frameworks able to deal with both classis crises and
unprecedented once are in place.
2. Multi-disciplinary expertise should be organized for sense-making before and during crises.
3. Leadership during a crisis is fundamental for restoring public trust and requires developing
professionalism through specialized trainings.
4. The ability to manage large multi-stakeholders and multi-form public/private/NGOs
response networks is a new capability that central government should invest in to
strengthen crisis responses.
5. International co-operation and partnerships can support many functions of crisis
management and should be further strengthened.
Source: Baubion, C. (2013). OECD Risk Management: Strategic Crisis Management
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Bachelor of Science in Criminology
Lesson 16
Dispute Resolution and Crises/Incidents Management
Synthesis
Here are the module’s key ideas:
▪ The term crisis carries many meanings in itself. These meanings guide the crisis managers
and leaders in deciding what to do in crisis situation. Crisis can strike in any organization. It
is important to have a detailed plan of action for different types of crises that may occur.
This plan can make or break the organization in times if a crisis.
▪ Emergency is a serious, unexpected, and often dangerous situation requiring immediate
action. Disaster is a sudden accident or a natural catastrophe that causes great damage
or loss of life. Crisis is a time of intense difficulty or danger.
▪ Crisis management is a process designed to prevent or lessen the damage a crisis can
conflict on an organization and its stakeholders. The purpose of crisis management is to
protect the organization, sector or the stakeholders from damage and prevent or diminish
the negative outcomes of crisis.
Bibliography
Baubion, C. (2013). OECD Risk Management: Strategic Crisis Management
Larsson, J., & Rudwall, P. (2010). Crisis Management – Media’s Perception of crises in
Organizations. Lulea University of Technology. Bachelor thesis Marketing, Department of
Business Administration and Social Sciences. Division of Industrial Marketing and e-
Commerce.
Online References
https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/60813
https://www.nap.edu/read/10655/chapter/6#95
https://www.smartsheet.com/content/crisis-management-guide
https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1029467/FULLTEXT01.pdf
https://www.nato.int/docu/review/articles/2020/02/07/nato-crisis-management-exercises-
preparing-for-the-unknown/index.html
https://websites.fraunhofer.de/CIPedia/index.php/Consequence_Management
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crisis_management
Prepared by:
Dr. FREDDA H. EBANADA
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