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 Bloomsbury New Media Series

ISSN 1753-724X

Edited by Leslie Haddon, Department of Media and Communications, London School of

Economics and Political Sciences, and Nicola Green, Department of Sociology, University
of Surrey.
The series aims to provide students with historically grounded and theoretically informed
studies of significant aspects of new media. The volumes take a broad approach to the sub­
ject, assessing how technologies and issues related to them are located in their social, cultural,
political and economic contexts.
Titles in this series will include:

Mobile Communications: An Introduction to New Media

The Internet: An Introduction to New Media

Games and Gaming: An Introduction to New Media

Digital Broadcasting: An Introduction to New Media

Digital Arts: An Introduction to New Media

 DIGITAL ARTS
An Introduction to New Media

Cat Hope and John Ryan

BLOOMSBURY
NEW YORK • LONDON ♦ NEW DELHI • SYDNEY
 Bloomsbury Academic
An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Inc

1385 Broadway 50 Bedford Square

New York London
NY 10018 WC1B3DP
USA UK

www.bloomsbury.com

Bloomsbury is a registered trade mark of Bloomsbury Publishing Pic

First published 2014

© Cat Hope and John Ryan 2014

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information
storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers.

No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on or refraining from
action as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by Bloomsbury or the author.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN: HB: 978-1-7809-3320-7

PB: 978-1-7809-3323-8
ePub: 978-1-7809-3321-4
ePDF: 978-1-7809-3329-0

Typeset by Fakenham Prepress Solutions, Fakenham, Norfolk NR21 8NN

Printed and bound in the United States of America
 CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ix

1 Introduction 1
What is Digitality? 2
What is Digital Art? 3
Digital Art and its Relatives: Understanding the Typologies 5
New Media Art 5
Electronic Art 6
Computer Art 7
Internet Art 8
Post-Media Aesthetics 8
Behaviourist Art 9
Telematic Art 10
Virtual Art 11
Unstable Media Art 12
Perspectives on Technology, Culture and the Digital Arts 13
Democratization 13
Globalization 15
Interdisciplinarity 17
An Outline of the Following Chapters 19

2 Key Concepts, Artistic Influences and Technological Origins of

the Digital Arts 25
Interaction, Immersion and Interface: Key Ideas forthe Digital Arts 26
The Digital Arts in Perspective: Influential Arc-Historical Contexts 39
Old and New Media: Technological Contexts for the Digital Arts 49
vi contents

3 Dumb Visions and Fabulous Images: Photographic, Drawn and

Moving Image 57
Key Concepts 57
Historical Precedents for Digital Images 59
Hie Challenges and Rewards of Technological Change 60
What is a Digital Photograph? 61
Digital Imagery in all its Dimensions 65
The Moving Image: Video Art, Animation and Cinema 68
Video Art 70
Animation 72
Cinema 74
Installation Art 77

4 Dancing at the Speed of Light: The Digital in Performance 79

Cyberpunks in Cyberspace 80
Theoretical Terms 81
Remediation 81
Abjection 81
Theoretical Considerations 81
History 83
Technology 85
Case Studies 86
Dance and Choreography 86
Theatre and Performance Art 90
Cyborgs, Robots and Bioartists 97
Virtual Reality 100

5 From Scratchy to Glitchy: The Creation, Performance and

Installation of Digital Music 103
A Drastic Change for the Direction of Music 104
What is a Digital Sound? 106
The Tools of Digital Music 110
Composing and Performing with Digital Sounds 112
Digital as a Means: Collecting and Producing 114
Consuming Digital Music 115
 Hie Future Unfolding: Interactivity and Liveness 117
The Fragmentation of Music 118

6 The Possibilities of a Web: Internet Art 125

What is Internet Art? 126
Interactivity, Agency and Community: Theoretical Considerations 128
Performance, Chance and Innovation: A Brief History of Internet Art 134
Browsing, Coding and Networking: The Technology of Internet Art 140

7 I Want it Now: Finding, Downloading and Distributing

Digital Art 147
Finding and File Sharing: Creative Culture in the Digital Era 149
Downloading the Commons: The History of Digital Arts Distribution 159
Distributing the Digital: The Impact of Key Technologies 165

8 Ways of Belonging: Archiving, Preserving and Remembering

Digital Art 171
The Idea of Liveness: Preservation as Theory and Contingency 173
Scoring the Work: Digital Arts Preservation Through Notation
Systems 183
Towards Archival Interoperability: Arts Preservation and Technology 190

9 Conclusion: Hyperreality and the Postdigital Art of the Future 197

Reality and Hyperreality in Digital Art 199
Hyperreality and Postdigital Art 202
New Technological Frontiers and the Future of Digital Art 204
Ubiquitous Computing and Wearable Technology 204
Gaming and Networked Environments 206
Social Media 208
Mobile Telecommunications 210
Open-Source and Wiki Projects 211
Back to Reality: Activism through Digital Art 212
Privacy and Surveillance 213
Political and Social Equity 214
Environment and Sustainability 216
Moistmedia and Living Interfaces 217

contents vii
viii contents

Final Word: Digital Art Communities 218

Annotated Guide to Further Reading 219

Exercises and Questions 225

Bibliography 231

Index 247
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the series editors, Leslie Haddon and Nicola Green, for their editorial
advice and detailed input on chapter drafts. Our appreciation goes to the School
of Communications and Arts (SCA), Western Australian Academy of Performing
Arts (WAAPA), CREATEC Research Centre and Debbie Rodan at Edith Cowan
University for sustained practical support on many levels. Also to Sally Knowles
and the Faculty of Education and Arts (FEA) at ECU for the opportunities they
provided to complete early drafts of individual chapters during writing retreats. We
are particularly grateful for the wonderful contribution made to the final copy by
Linda Jaunzems.
Our sincere thanks goes to Lelia Green for her ongoing mentorship and collegial
support, without which this book would not have been possible. Lelia has continu­
ously and generously supported the authors through thick and thin. We are very

We acknowledge Malcolm Riddoch and Jonathan W. Marshall as valuable early

contributors to the project. Cat Hope personally thanks Karl Ockelford, Luke,
Jazmine, Helen Hope and Lisa MacKinney for their ongoing support and listening.
And finally we thank the artists themselves, and in particular those who have allowed
us to include images of their works.
 I INTRODUCTION

From online information searches and e-commerce transactions to mobile phone

messaging and flash drives, we are immersed in the digital realm on an everyday
basis. Information about the world, encoded in the form of digital data, expands
exponentially. Consider a yottabyte (YB). It is equivalent to all the books ever
written in every language, 62 billion iPhones or one septillion bytes. The American
states of Delaware and Rhode Island, divided into city block-sized data warehouses,
would currently be what is needed to store a single yottabyte using the average
capacity of PC hard drives today. Yet, in the not-so-distant future, a yottabyte
could be contained in a miniscule area no larger than a pinhead. Technologies and
data rapidly evolve and spread out. Through this kind of futuristic perspective, it
could be argued that everything in the natural, material world will soon have a
digital, virtual counterpart, of one form or another, or even be replaced by it. These
counterparts - as digital data - offer not only unprecedented possibilities for science
and technology but also for cultural identity, creative practice and interdisciplinary
thinking.
The proliferation of technologies has greatly impacted the arts, leading to what
artists and critics now call ‘the digital arts’. Artists love to experiment with new
technologies, and they have done so throughout history. In Chapter 1 we explore
existing theoretical perspectives on the digital arts and discuss the spectrum of artistic
approaches that have appeared as digital technology and data continue to progress.
The explosion of new media has revolutionized the production of art - redefining the
nature of arts criticism, creating more complex markets for art and enhancing public
access to the arts. We suggest that an essential first step towards understanding the
digital arts is distinguishing the term from discrete but related art forms, including
new media, electronic, computer, internet, behaviourist, telematic, virtual and
unstable media art. The principal perspectives and contexts explored throughout
the volume are democratization, globalization and interdisciplinarity. Towards the
end of this chapter, we introduce subsequent chapters in the book and explain
key student-focused components, including case studies, reflections, questions and
group exercises. Central to this introductory chapter and others is the idea of digital
art as part of the ongoing continuum of technology that artists have been fascinated
with throughout history — a theme further developed in Chapter 2. But first, we
will talk about how to define digitality - the technological foundation of digital art.

WHAT IS DIGITALITY?
The term ‘digital’ is a ubiquitous part of our vernacular in todays ever more
globalized world. The digital revolution of the 1990s introduced computer power
to the public at an unparalleled rate (Lovejoy et al. 2011: 2). This period entailed
a significant transfer in the production, storage and distribution of data to digital
technologies. Multimedia or hypertext documents combining text, images, sound
and video have become standard. Living in the ‘digital age’ now, we frequently come
across ‘digital technology’, ‘digital information’ and of course, ‘digital art’, but what
does it mean for something — including creative work — to be digital? Indeed, to
understand digital art as a movement, we need to start from the ground floor and
examine briefly the mechanics of digitality. Typically, the digital is defined as new
technology in contrast to older, pre-digital or analogue forms. In digital media,
input data - as light (images), sound (audio) or spatial configurations (text, graphs,
diagrams) - is converted to numerical patterns, which are then processed and manip­
ulated in various ways by a computer’s hardware and software (Lister et al. 2003: 14).
Through digital processing, the physical properties of phenomena become numbers
or abstract symbols.
In this sense, ‘digital’ simply means the ‘assignation of numerical values to
phenomena’ (Lister et al. 2003: 15-16). Hence, ‘digital’ is a mathematical format
and process for storing, transferring and modifying information. Algorithms in
computer software subject the data to numerical processing. For example, digital
image files consist of discrete modular components; assembling these modules into
an image requires a series of mathematical executions (see Chapter 3). The numerical
system behind digitality is binary, employing variations of 0s and Is to produce alter­
nating states that underlie how devices function: for example, off or on, current or no
current. The conversion of data to a binary schema enables the transfer and storage
of information to memory technology (hard drives), digital disks (CDs or DVDs)
or online repositories (file hosting and storage services). The modern mathematical
processes behind digital technology were founded in the work of German mathema­
tician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646—1716), English inventor Charles Babbage
(1791-1871) and in the 1930s, English mathematician Alan Turing (1912-54) (see
Chapters 2 and 6).
When traditional media (e.g. newspapers, video, records) are digitized, they
become dematerialized at the same time. The process of digitization involves the shift
from the physical domain described by physics, chemistry, biology and engineering
to the symbolic domain explored by computer science (Lister et al. 2003: 16). In
other words, the materiality of the original (i.e. paper, magnetic tape, vinyl) is super­
seded by an immaterial binary pattern and, therefore, the original medium becomes
largely redundant. Requiring specialized technology, such as specific software, digital
data (released from their physical media) can be compressed, accessed at high speeds
and readily manipulated (Lister et al. 2003: 16).
Whereas digital media exist in a state of flux, analogue media are comparatively
fixed. Analogue media, including newspapers, photographs, tapes and films, tend to
be associated with technologies of mass production. Yet analogue processes transfer
data to another physical object (an ‘analogue’), such as light, sound or handwriting,
where it is encoded and stored to a physical medium (i.e. grooves on a vinyl record,
magnetic particles on a tape or ink on a sheet of paper). An analogous relationship
is thus forged between the original data and the tangible medium. For instance,
the analogue reproduction of a book employs movable type and ink to produce a
physical imprint of the original on paper (Lister et al. 2003: 15). In contrast, a book
written on a computer undergoes a different process; every letter of the manuscript
generates a binary value in response to the touching of the authors fingers to the
keyboard. The resulting digital document can be exported in various ways (e.g. as an
email attachment, PDF or ZIP file) and eventually published as an e-book without
ever being printed to the traditional, material medium. Electronic broadcasting
media were also historically analogue. For example, the physical properties of images
and sounds were converted to wave forms of differing lengths and intensities, corre­
sponding to the voltage of transmission signals.

Reflection
What are some of the ways that digital technologies have revolutionized your life and the society you live in?
How often and for what reasons do you use digital devices? Can you think of any disadvantages to using ‘the
digital' over ‘the analogue'? We will return to these sorts of questions in Chapter 2.

WHAT IS DIGITAL ART?

‘Digital art’ is a name that shifts in the sands of digitality, culture, history, science
and art. Impossible to define as a single phenomenon, it represents instead a fluid set
of artistic techniques, technologies and concepts - often associated with the history
of the computer. There are a great many names for digital art, some of which are
more current or useful than others. An important first push for students is to become
familiar with the terms in circulation and how they overlap and differ. Indeed, it is
difficult to find an academic commentator who will commit to a straight-forward
definition, but Beryl Graham has come the closest. She defines digital art simply
as art made with, and for, digital media including the internet, digital imaging, or
computer-controlled installations’ (Graham 2007; 93). However, what we now think
of as ‘digital art’ has undergone a multitude of name changes, from ‘computer art’ in
the 1970s to ‘multimedia art’ in the early 1990s to ‘new media art’ more recently. In
many ways, ‘digital art’ is outdated language, subsumed within the category of new
media art by the end of the 1990s.
Nevertheless, the variety of related words in currency demonstrates that digital
art and its naming are ‘characteristically in a state of flux’ (Graham 2007: 106) —
reflecting, in part, the mutability and constant evolution of the technologies used
by artists. The bevy of names (often erroneously used as synonyms for digital art)
includes — in addition to new media, multimedia and computer art — software art,
hypermedia art, emergent media art, unstable media art, electronic art, internet
art, net art, browser art, behaviourist art, cybernetic art, telepresence art, virtual
art, interactive art and participatory art, among others. The meaning of each term
should be considered variable and highly contingent on the historical time frame,
the commentators background (e.g. artist, programmer, curator, archivist or critic)
and the technology explored as a medium by the artist. Furthermore, certain terms
are subsets of the broader practice of digital art; for example, internet art is based
on the internet, browser art makes use of internet browsers and software art involves
computer software in some manner. Other terms, such as behaviourist, interactive
and sound art are more inclusive than ‘digital art’ and encompass a continuum of
analogue and digital art practices, from site-based installation works to internet-based
telerobotics projects. Still, others are period-specific and seem like anachronisms to
us now; for example, ‘net art’ designates the internet art of practitioners working in
the 1990s (see Chapter 6).
Despite the name-game, the tendency to hybridize across media boundaries is
characteristic of digital art, as we will see in Chapter 2. Thus, by shifting between
media and employing a range of techniques, digital artworks eschew categorization
according to their genre or form. Installation, film, video, animation, photography,
internet art, software art, virtual reality projects and musical compositions can fall
under its umbrella (Paul 2003: 70). Rather than venturing definitions, critics tend
to foreground the attributes of digital artworks. For example, Bruce Wands points
to the new forms that emerge out of digital art practices: ‘intricate images that could
not be created by hand; sculptures formed in three-dimensional databases rather
than in stone or metal; interactive installations that involve internet participation
from around the globe; and virtual worlds within which artificial life forms live and
die’ (Wands 2006: 8). As Christiane Paul (2003: 7) argues, digital art comprises a
broad array of practices but lacks a single, unifying aesthetic approach. She makes the
critical distinction between digital technologies as tools and technologies as media
(see Chapter 2). In this book, we use ‘digital art’ to refer to the artistic movement
encompassing a variety of digital practices. In many instances, we also use the
pluralized term ‘the digital arts’ to stress the diversity of art forms and media (e.g.
internet art, software art, telematic art, etc.) included within the singular term. As
we see in the next section, an introduction to digital art is very much an exploration
of terminology in relation to the history of art and technology.

Reflection
Describe a few examples of digital art that you have seen or experienced in the last week, either online, in
public or in a gallery or museum setting. What is distinctive about these digital artworks?

DIGITAL ART AND ITS RELATIVES:

UNDERSTANDING THE TYPOLOGIES
New Media Art
Although new media art’ is often used synonymously with ‘digital art’, ‘computer
art’, ‘multimedia art’ and ‘interactive art’, there are some key differences between these
terms to consider. Understanding what constitutes digital art entails understanding the
way everyday language changes in the context of technology. For instance, the terms
‘digital media’ and ‘digital new media’ have been used to refer to ‘new media’ (Lister
et al. 2003: 14). In the early 1990s, with the release of the first commercial internet
browser and the beginning of the digital revolution, the term ‘new media art’ began to
be used by artists, critics and curators working with emerging technologies (Tribe and
Jana 2006). Indeed, the appearance of new media art paralleled the proliferation of
information technologies. Early new media artworks included interactive installations
exploiting a variety of media, virtual reality experiments, telerobotics pieces and web
browser-based projects, all using the latest digital technologies of the time. Mark Tribe
and Reena Jana define new media art as ‘projects that make use of emerging media
technologies and are concerned with the cultural, political, and aesthetic possibilities
of these tools’ (2006: ‘Defining New Media Art’).
In situating new media art as a distinct movement, Tribe and Jana (2006) distin­
guish between the categories ‘art and technology’ (in reference to the collective
Experiments in Art and Technology founded in 1967) and ‘media art’. On the one
hand, ‘art and technology’ encompasses computer, electronic, robotic, genomic
and biological art involving up-and-coming technologies, but not intrinsically
media-related. On the other, ‘media art’ includes television, video and satellite
art, as well as experimental film and other forms of art that make use of media
technologies that were no longer considered new or emerging by the 1990s. For
Tribe and Jana, new media art represents the intersection of both movements,
but with an emphasis on ‘new’ media technologies: the internet, social media,
video and computer gaming, surveillance systems, mobile telephony, wearable
technology and GPS (Global Positioning Systems) devices. New media artists
critically or experimentally engage with new technologies. However, there are
many art-historical precedents that have shaped new media art, including other art
movements that questioned the relationships between art, culture and technology.
In particular, Dadaism (see Chapter 6), pop art, conceptualism (Chapter 2) and
the video art of the late 1960s, exemplified by the work of Nam June Paik (Case
Study 2.3), have influenced the trajectory of new media art since its inception.
Common themes in new media works include collaboration, participation, appro­
priation, hacktivism, telepresence and surveillance (Tribe and Jana 2006: ‘Themes/
Tendencies’) (see Chapter 2).

Electronic Art
The typology ‘electronic art’ is perhaps the most inclusive for our discussion, aside
from the broad category of ‘art itself. It is also the term that has evolved the most
since its initial historical emergence. Often interactive and participatory, electronic
art incorporates electronic components in the production or display of a work. The
range of electronic technologies is vast, and comprises the internet, computing,
robotics, mobile devices and virtual reality platforms, as well as the ‘old’ media
of radio, teleconferencing, video, television and film. Moreover, dance, music,
performance, writing and installation pieces can be classified as electronic art if
they incorporate electronic dimensions. Encompassing both old and new media,
electronic art should not, by default, be classified as digital art. However, the
adjective ‘electronic’ is often invoked interchangeably by critics in referring to digital,
computer, internet or information-based art. We suggest that it is most instructive
to think of the term ‘electronic art’ as denoting a particular period in the history
of Western art, culture and technology. Indeed, the origins of electronic art can be
traced back to the early to mid-twentieth century when innovators, notably Marcel
Duchamp and, later, Ben Laposky, began to encounter and incorporate technologies
in their works (Lovejoy 2004: 1). Electronic media, such as tape, projections and
the computer, allowed artists to devise new modes of aesthetic representation and
creative possibility. Within electronic art, video art is a central subgenre, especially as
the medium melded over time with television, film and music (Rogers 2013; Rush
2003). Beginning in 1965 with the release of the Sony Portapak, video art demon­
strates how progress in electronic and, later in the twentieth century, digital art has
paralleled developments in technology and science (see Chapter 2 for art-historical
precedents). The practices included within electronic and video art have developed
rapidly since one of the first video artists, Nam June Paik, placed a magnet on top
of a television set to distort the imagery, as discussed in detail in Chapter 2. Named
after the analogue video tape, contemporary video art uses the digital media of
CD-ROMs, DVDs and real-time streaming.

Computer Art
‘Computer art’ is another wide-ranging classification with shifting boundaries.
It encompasses most forms of software, database, internet, browser and game
art, as well as computer music. Broadly defined, computer art takes advantage of
computing technology to create or display an artwork. As a subset of computer art,
computer music refers to compositions that involve computer technologies at any
point in their life cycles, although other definitions are more restrictive (Collins
2009: 2) (also see Chapter 5). According to Dominic Lopes, the two defining charac­
teristics of computer art — interactivity and computing — distinguish it from other
interactive performances and some forms of digital art (Lopes 2010: 52). As Lopes
(2010: 52) further argues, ‘the realms of computer art and digital art overlap. Not
all digital art is computer art — most of its not interactive — but typical computer art
is either made digitally or made for digital display. For other critics, interactivity is
not a necessary component of computer art. Within the umbrella term is included
a range of subgenres, such as software, database and game art, that evolved when
artists began to involve computers in their practices in the mid-twentieth century
(Wands 2006: 164).
Briefly, software art can be defined as ‘creative work that finds its origins in
programmes written by the artist’ (Wands 2006: 164). For some critics, implicit
within this definition is the notion of authorship; the artist-programmer tends to
write the software code, although this is not always the case, as Chapter 3 explains.
In slight contrast, database art often ‘relies on pre-existing, created or real-time
collections of information’ while game art uses ‘commercial gaming software or
incorporates elements of play and role-playing’ (Wands 2006: 164). Rather than
creating code as part of an artwork, database art tends to reinterpret data collections
or engage participants or viewers in the creation of datasets. Hybridity between
aesthetics and technology is characteristic of most computer artworks. In particular,
computer artists are competent with the use and development of software, including
gaming platforms, database programs and computer languages such as C++, Java
and Visual Basic. A prominent example of a computer artwork is Lynn Hershman
Leesons Synthia (2000-2), a sculpture using three-dimensional animation to
represent streaming stock market data. The character Synthia responds according to
market trends, for example, dancing when the stocks are up or chain-smoking when
they drop (Wands 2006: 167).
 Reflection
What do you think it means (or an artwork to be interactive? Have you ever experienced an interactive
artwork? If so, what were some of its characteristics?

Internet Art
As the typologies (i.e. new media, computer, behaviourist, cybernetic, telematic,
virtual, unstable media) explored in this section reveal, there are different ways
to classify and analyse digital artworks. Inevitably, the categories overlap and — as
individual terms - are incomplete descriptions in themselves. A single work (such as
the work Dialogue with the Knowbotic South explored under the heading virtual art’
later in this section) may exhibit aspects of all categories, depending on which of its
components is emphasized. Like computer art’, ‘internet art’ is another example of
an umbrella term for various interrelated digital arts practices. Within internet art
falls a variety of practices (Lovejoy et al. 2011: 7). For example, some software arc
is coded by artist-programmers and made publicly available over networks. Internet
browser-based artworks use software such as Netscape Navigator. Telerobotics works
connect remote places and participants via webcams. Participatory performance
works are created by online visitors. Hypertext poetry projects experiment with
new forms of digital storytelling. Netactivism initiatives exploit the capabilities of
digital networks to question commercial interests in the digital era. Social media
artworks make use of Twitter or Facebook (see Chapter 9). A telling example is
Mark Napier’s net.flag (2002-present), which cuts across several of these categories.
The classification of the work depends on who is interested: artist, audience,
technician, conservator or critic. It is an interactive, browser-based, performance
work with overtones of netactivism. As with most browser-based digital artworks,
net.flag entailed the development of software to accommodate the specific needs of
the project and its long-term conservation (see Chapter 8 for more detail on the
project). Finally, net.flag is an unstable media work necessitating an individualized
conservation plan.

Post-Media Aesthetics
Rather than adopting the typologies of new, old or multi- media art, theorist Lev
Manovich proposes a ‘post-media aesthetics’ (Manovich 2001b). The 1960s and
subsequent decades were marked by the rapid development of novel art forms - for
example, happenings, installations, public works, performances and conceptual art
- all of which called into question the predominance of the traditional medium­
based ‘spatial’ arts of painting, illustration, sculpture and architecture as well as the
‘temporal arts’ of music and dance. The emerging art forms of this period either
combined a range of media (e.g. installation works using painting, sculpture, video
and audience participation) or ‘dematerialized’ artworks altogether through a focus
on the primacy of concepts (see the discussion of conceptual art in Chapter 2).
Post-media art forms interrogated the practices of mass culture and mass distri­
bution, normally associated with old media. Manovich asserts that, with post-media
art, the criteria for discerning between media depends not on the materiality of
the work but rather the manner in which an audience is involved and the space
(i.e. public or private) in which the interaction takes place. Post-media artworks
rupture the conventional linkages between an artwork’s identity and its medium
(e.g. a sculpture in stone, a painting on canvas or a novel on paper). Since the digital
revolution, new art genres — such as net art or computer art — arose from this long­
standing tendency to define an artwork through its medium (Manovich 2001b: 5).
For Manovich, this correlation is a mistake that limits a broader comprehension of
art in the digital era. A post-media aesthetics points to the need for new typologies
to characterize how artworks organize information and human experience of that
information. An aesthetics concerned with user behaviour and data organization
over materiality is not limited through exclusive focus on an artwork’s medium.

Behaviourist Art
An example of Manovich s notion of post-media aesthetics is the category of‘behav­
iourist art’ or ‘cybernetic art’. Proposed in 1966 by artist and theorist Roy Ascott,
these interrelated categories of art draw ‘the spectator into active participation in the
act of creation’ and in which ‘the evolution of the artwork/experience is governed
by the intimate involvement of the spectator’ (Ascott 2001: 97-8). For Ascott,
who is discussed again in Chapter 9, mid-twentieth-century art is characterized
by open-endedness, uncertainty, flux, transition and dialogue with the spectator,
user or participant — irrespective of the particular medium employed by the artist.
Behaviourist art involves the spectator in unprecedented ways, producing artworks
that can be said to exhibit some form of behaviour. Ascott points to a ‘fundamental
behavioural quality’ that distinguishes art of this period from its predecessors (Ascott
2001: 102). He further argues that ‘the vision of art has shifted from the field of
objects to the field of behaviour and its function has become less descriptive and
more purposive’ (Ascott 2001: 97). To be sure, such artworks trigger in spectators
new ways of being and interacting with art and, reciprocally, the spectators instigate
unpredictable behaviours in the artwork. Rather than a fixed object emanating
preconceived ideas, attitudes and values, the work became a ‘matrix’ and ‘catalyst’ for
creative experiences and spontaneous modes of participation.
The mechanism of ‘feedback’ between all constituents of the artwork is essential
to making the ‘artist/artwork/observer’ triad ‘an integral whole’ (Ascott 2001: 98).
Within the dynamic feedback loop of behaviourist works, the experiences of artists
and viewers are no longer clearly demarcated. Ascotts vision of behaviourist art
was influenced ostensibly by the science of cybernetics, founded in the 1940s by
American mathematician Norbert Wiener (Shanken 2002) (also see Chapter 2).
Wiener defined cybernetics as a method of regulating the behaviour of communi­
cation systems through the control of information feedback or interactivity. Early
cybernetic principles identified commonalities between the ways machines and
the human brain process information. In 1956, French-Hungarian artist Nicolas
Schoffer created the ‘cybernetic sculptures’ CYSP 0 and CYSP 1 in collaboration
with engineers from the Philips company. The titles combined the first two letters
of the words ‘cybernetic’ and ‘spatio-dynamique’ (Shanken 2009: 62). Regarded as
the first cybernetic sculpture, CYSP 1 comprised a microphone, photoelectric cells,
a base mounted on four rollers and 16 motor-controlled polychrome plates. The
kinetic sculpture had an electronic brain connected to sensors, allowing the work to
change its overall form in response to variations in light, sound, colour and audience
movement (Shanken 2009: 62). This early interactive robotic sculpture is an example
of Ascotts notion of behaviourist art and demonstrates the use of feedback loops by
artists.

Telematic Art
An extension of behaviourist and cybernetic art, telematic art is regarded as an
evolution of Ascotts experiments in science, technology, art and consciousness from
the 1960s onward. Telematics is defined as the science integrating telecommunica­
tions and computer technologies, resulting in familiar and commonplace modern
technologies, such as email and ATMs (automatic teller machines) (Shanken 2003:
1). Much digital art since the 1990s exhibits features of telematic art, especially
the interdisciplinary synthesis of science, technology and art. Moreover, telematic
artworks frequently take the form of interactive, non-linear, online projects exploring
the fundamental nature of communication through networks (see Chapter 2). French
economists Simon Nora and Alain Mine coined the word ‘telematics’ (or telematique
in French) in their book The Computerization of Society, initially published in 1978
as a policy document presented to the French president at the time. They maintained
that the increasing interconnections between computers and telecommunications
would transform data processing, information science and human experience more
generally (Nora and Mine 1981).
In 1978, around the time of Nora and Mine’s report, Ascott first used the
term ‘telematic art’ as part of Terminal Art (1980), a computer conferencing
project connecting eight artists physically based in the United States and United
Kingdom, including Ascott (Shanken 2003: 62). The teleconferencing project
used the Infomedia Notepad System to allow participants to download and upload
information to a central computer through portable terminals. Although emerging
fully under the banner of telematic art in the early 1980s, the use of communications
technologies by artists can be traced back to Hungarian artist Laszlo Moholy-Nagy
(1895-1946) and his work Telephone Pictures (1922) (see Chapter 6). Like behav­
iourist art, telematic art calls into question the conventional relationship between a
human viewer and an artistic object by creating ‘interactive, behavioural contexts
for remote aesthetic encounters’ (Shanken 2003: 1). As the Terminal Art project
demonstrates, telematic artworks often occur within a global space where partici­
pants in dispersed locations collaborate via electronic networks. Another example
of telematic art is Ascott’s Ten Wings (1982). The project used ARTBOX computer
conferencing to organize the first global throwing of the / Ching or The Book of
Changes, the ancient Chinese divination system dating from the sixth century bce.
Ascott conducted Ten Wings as part of artist Robert Adrian’s The World in 24 Hours
(1982), a telecommunications project connecting artists across the globe. Ten
different participants contributed to a ‘master hexagram’, demonstrating the linkages
between networked communication systems and esoteric divination, in Ascott’s view
(Ascott 2003: 184-5).

Virtual Art
Art historian Oliver Grau (2003: 3) contends that digital art ‘exists in a state of
limbo’. Grau navigates his way through the limbo by investing in the category
‘virtual art’ as a way of speaking broadly about media art (video, animation and
computer graphics), new media art (internet, virtual reality), interactive art,
telepresence art and genetic art (a form of bioart; see Chapter 4). The hallmarks of
virtual art are interface, interaction, immersion and image evolution (Grau 2003:
10). Immersion involves the sensation of being inside a constructed image or reality
which appears to surround and engulf the viewer. In some technological environ­
ments, human subjects lose the sense of separation between themselves and the
simulation (Lister et al. 2003: 387). Like telematic art, virtual art also integrates art
and technology through the use of virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR) or
mixed reality (MR) environments. Grigore Burdea and Philippe Coiffet (2003: 3)
define virtual reality as ‘a high-end user-computer interface that involves real-time
simulation and interactions through multiple sensorial channels’. VR environments
have no real counterparts and are distinguished by human immersion, interaction
and imagination (Burdea and Coiffet 2003: 3). Augmented reality, also known as
enhanced reality (ER) or mediated reality (MeR), incorporates elements that exist in
the material world, thus hybridizing the real and the virtual. Related to augmented
reality is mixed reality (MR), in which digital and physical objects intermingle in real
time and within a shared space. For Grau, the computer has created the foundation
for the emergence of virtual reality as the chief creative medium of our societies.
Computer technologies produce the impression of‘immersing oneself in the image
space, moving and interacting there in “real time,” and intervening creatively’ (Grau
2003: 3). An example of a virtual artwork is the installation Dialogue with the
Knowbotic South (DWTKS) (1994—7) by the Knowbotic Research group, consisting
of Yvonne Wilhelm, Christian Hubler and Alexander Tuchacek. The work entailed
the visualization of scientific data uploaded every three hours from field research
stations in Antarctica to create an abstract, interactive representation of the icy
continent. Visitors could manipulate the data fields by using hand-held electronic
wands in the installation space. An immersive mixed reality environment included
air cooled to the Antarctic readings and pumped into the installation. DWTKS
necessitated computer programming in C++ and Java languages, showing the
synthesis of art and technology that is at the core of Grau’s concept of virtual art.
In particular, the work pointed to questions about representation, simulation and
scientific knowledge.

Reflection
Virtual and telematic art integrate art and technology by creating immersive environments for viewers. What
are some other aspects of immersive environments? How might a virtual environment appeal to all the human
senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste and sound)?

Unstable Media Art

The multi-disciplinary V2 Institute for Unstable Media in The Netherlands was
established in 1981 to stimulate research into experimental technology-driven arts
practices. Capturing Unstable Media (2003) was a project spearheaded by V2 on
archiving and preserving unstable media (Fauconnier and Fromme 2004). Mostly
used by V2 and other digital arts conservation organizations, the term ‘unstable
media art’ reflects, in particular, the perspectives of conservators and curators. This
category (although straying from Manovich’s notion of post-media aesthetics) under­
scores the ephemeral and fragile nature of media art and the unique strategies, such
as scoring and notation, that must be implemented to ensure the future survival of
digital artworks (see Chapter 8). V2 uses the metaphor of the electron to convey the
instability of these works. However, the electron metaphor also expresses the trans­
formative power of digital art to cross categories and to catalyse change within the
arts and society more generally. According to V2, unstable media artworks consist of:

electron streams and frequencies, such as motors, light, sound, video,

computers and so forth. The word unstable is, according to us, more
adequate than electronic, because it refers to one of the most important
 properties of these media, to wit, the rendering unstable of all things social,
political and cultural within our society—the unstable electron as a basic
concept for our society, (cited in S. Wilson 2002: 862)

The emphasis on instability in this category further underscores the difference

between digital works and traditional objects of art (e.g. paintings, illustrations,
sculptures), which are relatively unchanging over time. Exposed to harsh light, high
temperatures or rough handling, a painting will unquestionably deteriorate; but
with proper conservation its form can remain comparatively intact and identifiable
through the ages. In contrast, unstable media works — often based on audience
participation, one-off events and critical concepts — are in states of perpetual flux
and, hence, resist the notion that all artworks are unchanging objects. The ever-
changing nature of some digital artworks poses challenges to conservators who,
instead of conceptualizing works as objects, must think in terms of processes,
happenings and the pervasive importance of novelty.

PERSPECTIVES ON TECHNOLOGY, CULTURE

AND THE DIGITAL ARTS
Digital art includes the principle of change as an artistic idea. However, in addition
to the analysis of the nature of artworks, we can also examine the broader contexts
in which art evolves and in which artists work. In this section, we explore three
themes - democratization, globalization and interdisciplinarity - that can help us
situate digital artworks in a variety of cultural, social, political and intellectual areas.

Democratization
One of the conceptual strands we explore throughout Digital Arts is the perspective
that digital technologies can democratize the arts. The ethos of democratization
includes the belief that every person has the right to engage in the arts. A democratic
view of the arts argues that all individuals should be able to explore their creativity
and appreciate the artistic works of others. Thus, the democratization of art increases
public access and involvement in artworks through a form of‘regime change’ (e.g.
the development of new platforms for interactive art outside of ‘sanctioned’ gallery
or museum spaces). There are, however, a number of interpretations of what democ­
ratization means for the arts and a variety of factors that influence the process.
Art historians and sociologists of art measure democratization in terms of access,
participation, interactivity, reciprocity and decentralization. For example, Paul
DiMaggio and Michael Useem point to the ‘increasing representation of nonelites
among visitors to museums and performing arts events’ as an indication of a growing
democratic environment (DiMaggio and Useem 1989: 166). Improved participation
in the arts counterbalances the historical trend in which involvement in the arts
was primarily the domain of the middle and upper classes. Hence, democratization
is a political and social process that aims to remove barriers to access among rural
communities, the working classes, the disadvantaged and those without university
educations, fostering an ‘elite experience for everyone’ (Zolberg 2003). Enhanced
access to an artistic resource (e.g. a gallery, museum, exhibition, installation, object
of art, creative process, medium or material), along with the right to experiment
and create, are the essential ideals of democratization. One’s involvement in an arts
community (online or virtual, either as an artist or spectator) thus becomes more
central than one’s social, political or economic status.
The democratization of the arts through technology relates to the development of
critical theory to interrogate the social value of old and new media. In the late 1960s
and early 1970s, a call for public participation in democratic processes was based on
the belief that social progress could be fostered through lateral, non-hierarchical and
two-way forms of communication. A radical critique of mainstream media channels
(e.g. television, radio and newspapers) entailed growing support for a new, democratic
media that would involve a broader social and community base. The critique of mass
media was by no means unique to the revolutionary atmosphere of the 1960s. The
Frankfurt School in the 1920s criticized mass media and wanted social and political
communications to operate in a more transparent and accessible manner (Lister
et al. 2003: 43-4). The Frankfurt School was a group of scholars and critics based
in Germany, including seminal philosophers and critics Theodor Adorno, Herbert
Marcuse, Max Horkheimer, Walter Benjamin and Jurgen Habermas. In particular, we
will explore the ideas of Adorno and Benjamin in subsequent chapters. In the context
of World War II and the social upheaval triggered by Fascism, the Frankfurt School
developed critical theory’ through Marxist principles that advocated fundamental
change of the world (activism), as well as critical analysis (scholarship). Frankfurt
scholars argued that the ‘culture industry’ produced passive consumers rather than
engaged, participating and independent citizens (Lister et al. 2003: 386-7). With
this basis in critical theory, throughout the twentieth century, the call to democratize
the media consisted of three aims: (a) the revival of community structures and the
creation of a free public sphere of debate; (b) the liberation of communication from
authoritarian control and threats of censorship; and (c) the experimentation with
new forms of virtual community and the construction of identity as an active and
ongoing process involving the input of the public (Lister et al. 2003: 70).
The democratization of the arts through digital technologies can occur on
multiple levels. Increased public attendance at physical gallery and museum spaces
is but one dimension of a larger and more complex process. The advent of online
platforms, especially evident in browser-based projects such as Olia Lialina’s Anna
Karenin Goes to Paradise (1994-6) (see Chapter 7), means that art can be available
to anyone with an internet connection anywhere in the world and at any time,
24 hours a day. Here, democratization takes shape through the interpretation of
the internet as an artistic medium; artists exploit the inherent possibilities of new
media for increased public involvement. However, new media has made it possible to
transform viewership and spectatorship into engagement and participation, thereby
taking the process of democratization one step further. The public can play an active
and central part in generating form and content. For example, the installation piece
Fractal Flesh (1995) by performance artist Stelarc empowered the audience to affect
the artist’s muscle movements remotely through electrodes connected to the internet
(see Chapters 2 and 4). Audience presence in the artwork becomes integral and indis­
pensable rather than optional or intermittent; the work is the dynamic interaction
between artist, audience, technology and concept. Other digital artworks necessitate
ongoing user input over many years, thus posing certain challenges for the conser­
vation of digital art (see Chapter 8). Furthermore, the digital revolution has granted
users, who would not necessarily consider themselves artists, the tools to explore
creativity on an everyday basis through new technologies. In the world of photog­
raphy, for example, the democratization of art takes place with every digital camera
click, followed by the use of photo touch-up software to fine-tune the composition
before the posting of images to social media websites such as Facebook and Flickr.

Reflection
What conditions might limit the democratization of the arts through digital technologies, as just defined?
Is democratization the same for everyone around the world? How might the process differ from country to
country, city to city, neighbourhood to neighbourhood, person to person, project to project? Can you think of
some specific examples?

Globalization
In addition to democratization as a perspective on technology, culture and the
arts in the digital era, we also refer to globalization as a context in which many
arts practices have evolved in relation to their relevant media (e.g. the internet,
teleconferencing, mobile telephony, social media). Moreover, polycentrism and
decentralization present countervailing perspectives to that of globalization. Both of
these concepts contribute to the dispersion of power and the creation of new forms
of community. In his essay ‘Globalization and (Contemporary) Art’, art historian
T. J. Demos poses a pertinent question for our introduction to the digital arts: ‘How
does artistic practice...define, negotiate, and challenge the cultural, economic and
political forms of globalisation?’ (Demos 2010: 211). If digital art is ‘made with, and
for, digital media including the internet, digital imaging, or computer-controlled
installations’ (Graham 2007: 93), then what is the relationship between art and
the processes of globalization to which such media are inextricably connected?
Classically a contentious theme within political science, economics and commu­
nications theory, globalization can be defined as ‘a dissolving of national states and
boundaries in terms of trade, corporate organization, customs and cultures, identities
and beliefs’ (Lister et al. 2003: 10). One outcome of globalization is an international
economy produced by the activities of multi national businesses, the emergence
of global financial markets and the increasing homogeneity of goods and services
around the world (Lister et al. 2003: 194). Moreover, the emergence of ‘global
culture’ is attributed to globalization and, specifically, the world-wide influence of
the American mass media (e.g. reality television shows, conservative online news
programmes and Hollywood cinema motifs).
New media has contributed to the processes of globalization by facilitating instan­
taneous digital communication that transcends regional or national boundaries. To
conceptualize globalization as the product of digital media, however, invites the idea
of‘technological determinism’ into the debate (Lister et al. 2003: 201). This position
takes a variety of forms and strengths, all of which broadly maintain that technology
underpins the shape of human culture, society, values and practices. The issue of
determinism points to the dynamics between humans and the devices we produce
through our innovation and scientific experimentation. Most of us would agree that
technological conditions affect everyday life and the construction of culture, to some
extent (Lovejoy 2004: 311). On the one hand, ‘weak technological determinism’
concedes that we ultimately control technology, even though technology always shapes
our culture (Feist et al. 2010: 5). On the other hand, a stronger version of determinism
— or what is called ‘autonomous technological determinism’ — asserts that there is the
potential for humans to lose our grip on technology; that is, for our digital devices to
take on an almost Frankensteinian form of liberation from us and to impact the world
in unprecedented and, possibly, harmful ways (Feist et al. 2010: 5). Therefore, one of
the organizing themes for students to consider throughout this book is the relationship
between new media, globalization and the digital arts. We encourage students to
think about the following questions and others that come to mind: How do digital
artists negotiate ‘global culture’ as a progressively more powerful and homogenizing
phenomenon? How are new media tools utilized by artists in ways that call attention to
and invite critiques of globalization? To what extent are the shapes of digital artefacts
(e.g. browser-based artworks or photographic images) determined by technology? Do
the artist and audience ultimately decide the nature of a digital artwork, despite the
important and inescapable influences of technology? And, finally, do artists and their
artworks reflect affirmative, neutral or negative attitudes towards new media?
Globalization brings to the fore the issue of cultural production in the
context of mass culture and mass media. Just as digital artists probe the intrinsic
democratic possibilities of new media, so too do they engage with the global
interactive potential of internet technologies. An alternative way to think about
globalization and its homogenizing effects is through the concepts of polycen­
trism and decentralization. Polycentrism argues that the dynamics between the
global and the local, the centre and the periphery, the north and the south, are
as vital to consider as the broad-scale impacts of globalization and the tradi­
tional geographical centres of economic and cultural power (Western Europe,
the United States and, more recently, parts of Asia). The concept foregrounds
the dynamics between multiple, interrelated sites’, including physical locations,
cultural positions, philosophical orientations or aesthetic ideas (Scholte 2005).
Ella Shohat and Robert Stam propose a polycentric aesthetic’ to encompass a
diversity of ‘sites’ and to call attention to artists and artworks existing at the
thresholds between concepts, discourses and identities (cited in Jones 2011: 169).
A polycentric perspective of a digital artwork examines the multiple positions that
constitute a work - from the physical locations where collaborators are located
to the theoretical, ethical and aesthetic values and modes of the participants. The
‘local’ dimensions of the work (i.e. the contribution of each geographical site to the
artwork as a whole or the technological innovations forwarded by artist-engineer
collectives with specific affiliations) figure into a polycentric interpretation of a
digital artwork. Decentralization involves the decentring of established regimes
(e.g. political, economic and, we argue, aesthetic) and the weakening of the control
mechanisms of authority hubs. The networks spawned by new media have facili­
tated the process of decentring by democratizing access to information (Lister et
al. 2003: 10). In terms of digital art, decentralization provides an illuminating
perspective for analysing works. How does an artwork distribute authorship and
creative authority across a widely based network of anonymous participants? How
does virtual or internet art decentralize the activities of artists, contributors and
institutions in a myriad of ways?

Interdisciplinarity
The third context of the digital arts that we explore, along with democratization
and globalization, is interdisciplinarity. Is a digital practitioner an artist, poet,
scientist, engineer, conservator, or all of the above? This question points to the
hybrid identities of artists and artworks. A term coined by social scientists in the
mid-1920s, ‘interdisciplinarity’ is the convergence of knowledge disciplines. The
perspective reflects a broader momentum during the twentieth century to resolve
the ‘two cultures’ (i.e. art vs science) dilemma in which the disciplines (e.g. the
arts, humanities, biological sciences, engineering, etc.) were thought to limit the
possibility of knowledge integration. Addressing concerns over specialization, inter­
disciplinarity entails the use of more than one discipline in an artistic practice. Its
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region and parallel to it, is underlaid by Potsdam sandstone; and the
remainder of the CO., comprising a belt 3 to 20 mi. wide bordering
upon the St. Lawrence, is underlaid liy the caleifcrous sandrock. The
primitive ])(irtion of the co. is generally elevated and considerably
broken. Its soil is light and sandy; and in some parts are extensive
sand plains, entirely unfit for agricultural purposes. A considerable
portion of the co. is covered with drift deposits, wliich go far to
neutralize the effect of the underlying rock upon the character of the
soil. In this region the intervales along the streams are usually fertile
; but the whole is best adapted to grazing. Magnetic iron ores
abound in the s. part; but they have never been examined or
worked to any considerable extent, owing to tlieir remoteness from
settlements.^ In Kossie rich veins of lead have been found and
extensively worked f and the rich specular iron ore found along tht!
w. border of the co. and in the adjacent portions of Jcfl'erson, lies
lietween the gneiss and sandstone.' The sandstone region is level or
gently undulating, broken in some places by disrupted masses of the
underlying rock. In this region are numerous quarries, from which
are obtained sheets of sandstone of 2 inches to a foot in thickness
and of almost any desirable size. This stone acquires hardness by
exposure and is indestructible by atmospheric agencies. The soil in
this region is usually thin, but fertile, and is derived principally from
drift. The caleifcrous sandstone region commences as a narrow strip
on the St. Lawrence, in the N. part of Hammond, and continually
widens to the e. border of the CO. The soil, consisting of drift and
marine clay, is usually very productive. 1 Tliis CO. included the " Tm
Towns;" andOro:it Trncts Xos. II and HI 1)1 MiK-onib'K IMircliu^e
were provieioiinlly anncxetl, and DOW ftirni pnrt of tho CO. 2 ThcHo
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ST. LAWRKXCE COUNTY. 673 Diiirying and stock raising are

the branches of agriculture most extensively pursued.* Grain is also
cultivated to some extent.'^ Fruits are not extensively cultivated.
Manufactures, consisting of iron,' castings, lead,* lumber,^ and
articles of wood,® are carried on. Commerce to some extent is
carried on by means of the St, Lawrence and the various railways.
The chief works of internal improvement in the co. are the
Ogdensburjrh K. R., extending from Ogdensburgh to Kou?es Point,
on Lake Champlain;^ the Potsdam k Watertown R. K,,* forming &
connection with the 0. R. R. on the x. and with the W. & R. R. R. and
N. Y. Central on the s. Improvements have been made by the State
in the navigation of several of the rivers, for the pur pose of tloating
down logs from the s. forests.^ Daily lines of steauiboats connect
Ogdensburgh and other points on the river with Montreal and with
the various ports on Lake Ontario. The county seat is located at the
village of Canton,'" on the P. & W. R. R., 18 mi. s. e. of
Ogdensburgh. The courthouse, jail," and clerk's office are in
separate buildings, situated adjacent to each other. The co.
poorhousc is situated on a farm of 130 acres 1 mi. w. of Canton
Village.**^ Sis newspapers are now published in the co. ; 3 at
Ogdensburgh, 2 at Potsdam, and 1 at Canton." 1 This CO. stands
first in the State in the value of Its stock, amount of pasturage and
meadow, and anions the first in tlie amount annually produced of
spring wheat, potatoes, peas, and majile sjug-ir. 2 The in:irine clay
deposits producefinecropsof winter wheat. 3 Furnaces are or have
reCfntly been in operation at KosHie, Wegatt'liif. FuIIersville, and
Brasher Iron Works. The supply of ore is inexhaustible, and large
quantities of iron are amiually mad". * The Rossie Lead Mines are
now worked by an Knj^lish company. Lead has alyobeen found in
several tjUit-r localities iu the co. i * The princip.il lumber operation.-
* a-re carried on on the Kacket River. Since 1851, 10 gang flawniills
have been built within 17 mi. In 1^65 it was estimated that 120,'hj()
logs were worked up. 6 Diiisistiiig of shingles, staves, lath, heading,
boxes, doors, sash and blinds. 7 OpeuKl to Ogdensburgh Oct. 1,
1850. 8 Opened through the co. Aug. '23, 1S55. 3 These
improvements have been made on tbc Indian, Oswegatchie, Ilacket.
and Grass Rivers. w The county sejtt was first located at
Ogdensburgh. but was removed to Canton in 182.S. The first courts
were behl in the stone barracks, w. of the Oswegatchie : and a
bomb-prixtf magazine ailjacent was used for a jail. The firt^t
courthouse stood on the site recently purchased by Goveruuient f'lr
a custondiouse. The tirstco. officers were Xathan Ford. First Jtufge :
Alex. Turner and .Toseph Edsall, Judges; Stillman Foote aud John
Tibbetts, Assist. J Wft id's ; Tlios. J. Davies, Sheriff: Lewis
lI;isbrouck, Co. Cl-^k : and Matthew Perkins, Surrogate. The present
courthouse was located by Joseph Grant. Geo. Braytou, and Jt)hn E.
Kinman. commissioners from Oneida co. ; and the buildings were
erected under the supervision of Ansel Bailey, David C. Judson. and
Asa Sprague, jr. The records of the suj)ervisor8 previi>us to 1814
were lost in a fire at Ogdensburgh in l.s;]9. 11 The jail is a miserable
building, poorly adapted to the pur^ po^es fur which it was erected.
12 This institution yields an annual revenue of about $1,000. The
average number of inmates is about l')0. The supplies are fnrni.-'hed
by contract. The poorhouse is deficient iu necessary conveniences
for the health and comfort of its inmates, '3 At Ogd-Tisbnrgh the
following papers have been published : The Palladiuin was begim in
1810 by Kip i Strong, sold in 1812 to John P. .Sheldon, and
continued to 1S14. The St. Lawrence Ga^eUe was begun in 181.^
by D. R. Stracban and V. 11. Fairchild. In 1830 it was bought by
Preston King, au'l united with Tlie St> Lawrence Republican,
removed to this place from Canton, and continued by him till 18.33.
It wjisaiierward published by Ilitrhcoi-k.Tillotson &. Still\vell, and is
noW published by James k Uopkins. The XortMrn Light was begun
July 7. 1S;U, by W. R. Rogers, as an anti-masonic org;ui. In 1?S34 A.
B. James became its publit-her, and changed it to Th^ Times: and at
the end of the 4th volume it was enlarged, anil called The
Ogdeusburr/ft Times. In 1837 Dr. A. Tyler became associated with
James, and the title was changed to The Times and A(lverti~-:er. In
March, 1844, it was transferred to H. G. Foote and S. B. .Seeley, and
changed t-i The Frontier Si'litineL In June, 1847. Mr. Foote changed it
to The Ogdfnshurgk SentineU under which name it wa^ published
by Stillman Foote until 1858, when it was merged iu tlie Paily
Journal. " The MeUoroV'giail Register was comnience5. by Wm.
Veaton and K. M. Hulbrook. aud continued H years. The lioys' Daily
Journal wn>i htr^uti Mayl,ls55. by H. U.Jame?, J. \V. Hopkins, and
C. Foster. As lads belonging tothe Ogdensburgh Academy, they had
previously issued the Slorning Glory and Young America. In 1857
Foster withdraw, and the name was changed to The Daily Jonrnnl ;
the paper is ulill issued. The Wet'kly Journal is made up from the
daily. Neither of the publishers is of HtC'- (IH.jS.) The St.ltav^rciice
Democrat was commenced at Canton in the fall of IS.-5 by 11. C.
Simpson ; and wju* afterward continued at that place by John F.
.■Imes. It ia published by Abbott & O'Brien. At Potsdam the
following have been issued; — The Potsdam Gmette was begun Jan.
13, 1810, by F. C. Powell, and continued till April, 1823. The
Potsdam American was commenced by F. C. Powell iu Jan. 1824.
from the old Gazette press, and was continued by Powell i
Reddington till April, 1821*. In May of Iho same year it was revived
as The Herald, and published as an anti-masonic organ till Ang. The
St. Lawrftiee Rfpubliain was begun in 1.N26 by W. il. Wyman. and
removed to Canton in 1^27. The Day Star was published G months
in 1827 by Jonathan Wallace. The Patriot was commenced in April,
183-, by Wm. Hughes, and published one year. The Northern
Cabinet wjis removed from Canton in 1845; and from the same olfice
was issued The Repository in lS4(j. semi-mo., made up of the literary
matter of The Cabinet. This latterwas sold to Wm.L. Knowles, aud
changed to The St. Laivrence Mercury in 1848. W. II. Wallace
became proprietor in 1850; and IL C. Fay in 1851, who changed it to
TJte St. Lawrence Journal. It was continued till July, 1852, when it
was united with The Courier. T}i£ Potsdam Courier was begun in
1851 by V. Ilarrlnglon. and continued till July. 1852, when it was
united with Iho Journal, and issued as The Potsdnin Conrit-r nnd hed
by IL C. Fay & Brother. The Philomathmn was begun in 1S52, and a
few numbers were issued by stuf tlie St.I-awrenco Aciuiemy. The
ElemenUtry'liipuihant wjis begun in 1852, an4l a few numbers issued
from The Journal office. The IVorthern Frecmnn, removed
fromOouvemcnr iu 1850, is still |)ublisheil by I»oty &. linker. The
EiV-augellcnl Herald, mo., was liegtin In IS.5Gby Jos. A. Livingston.
Piintellowing have been published :— Tlte Canton Adrrrtis^r and St.
iMtvrenee Ufpubliran, removed from Potsdam in IS27. was
pni>lishe«i hen- by Preston King till 1830. when it was RMmned tn
ngden-«bnrgh. The Northern Tth'graph was lK*gnn in 1832 by C. C.
Bill. It was sn si)ld to Orlando Spiires. and changed to The Cant'vn
Demorrot, and continueil a shurl time. The Luminary of the Nt/rth,
U-gnn iu July, lo^, was published a short time. The St. Lawrence
Democrat was begun in Sept. 1&40, by K. A. Barber, anri coutirmery,
n^mi-mo., was begun Jan. 2. 1K43. by Chaa. B^jyuton, and in 1845
n> moved to t'otj-dam. The Engineer was issued in 1S44 by Cbas.
Boyutoa.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 17.06%
accurate

574 ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY. The first white settlement in

this co. was made by Francis Picquet, a Frcnoh Suljiltlaii, who
established an Indian mission at the mouth of the Oswoj^atehie in
1749 and styled it "Xa Presentation.^*^ In 1759 the first island
below Ogdensburgh, 3 mi. down the St, Lawrence, was taken pes*
session of by the French and strongly fortified." It was named Fort
Levi ; and here the lasi French resistance was made against the
English, in 1760. Baring the Revolution it was the rendezvous of
scalping parties of tories and Indians, who harassed the frontier
settlements on the Mohawk and Hudson. Two expeditions were
fitted out against this place during the Revolution ; but the English
held possession of the fort at Oswegatchie until 1706, wlicn it was
surremlered under the provisions of Jay's Treaty.^ The Oswegatchies
collected by Picquet were removed, in 1793, from the vicinity of
Johnstown, U. C, to a point opposite, on the s. shore, known as
Indian Point. In 1807 they removed to St. Regis and elsewhere.*
The CO. includes the tract known as the " Ten Towns/'^ Tract No.
II,® of Macnmli's Purchase, containing 821,870 acres. Tract No.
III,^ of the same purchase, containing 640,000 acres,* a small
portion located by Revolutionary land warrants,* and the islands in
the St. Lawrence.^^ The first settlement under State authority was
made at Ogdensburgh, in 1706, by Nathan Ford, agent of Samuel
Ogden, Before 1800, small beginnings had been made at Lisbon,
Madrid, and Massena. The '* 'fen Toivns" were opened for
settlement, under the original purchasers, M'ithin the next 5 years,
and the adjacent parts of the Macoml) Purchase soon after. At the
commencement of the War of 1812 there were about 8,000
inhabitants in the Co., thinly scattered over nearly the whole territory
now settled. Great alarm was felt along the whole frontier, and many
families left the river towns. It soon became the theater of stirring
military events, and various expeditions were planned and attacks
made on both sides of the border." At the close of the war the co.
rapidly filled up with an immigration chiefly from Vt. and the other
New England States. The completion of the Erie Canal chocked the
growth of the co, by opening to emigration the more fertile lands of
the West. The price of wild lands greatly fell, and many visions of
innucnse wealth were blighted. For the last twenty years a steady
and healthy improvement has been going on, which has been
greatly increased Ity the lines of railroad completed through it.^'*'
In 1887-40 the whole frontier was greatly excited by the *' Patriot
The Inquirer and Tariff" Advocate, a rampaiprn paper, was iaaued
from The Cabinet pii-Hs in 1S44 l»y Cliiis. Uoynlon. Tht Canton
MWldy Citizen wuh bi%uu .Ian. l,lSoli, by J. S. Sar(;eaut. Hini
cnntiniH'd 4 weeks. Th« Canton liahprndeni was R-niovi-d from
Mndrid in 1853, and pllblislif^J by O. L. Hay. It \va>< hdoii
diHcontiniied. The S<> Lawrence Plain Denier w;is iM't'un in 1855
by ii. Yonng America is now pnblishod by C. W. Amos. Tlic itlher
papfii* in the ro, hiivo bcrii — The Nort/in-n Xetv Ihrhcr, bfjinn April
1', 1849, at Oouvcrncur, by Wm. Gooilricb and M. V. Wilson ; and
issued u liltlu more than one year. The St. Lawrence Advertiier was
bcj^un in 1850, at Gouvornour, and II few nuniberH iH^nod. Z/(e
/^6'>iTr was commenced in .Inly. 185'i, at Gouvernour, by M.
Mitc'hel. It was succcfded by The St. Lawrence Prtf Pms, bt-pun in
lSo:i by J.J. Emme8,and afterward pnbliHhed by (1. K. Lyiimn. It
wa.s removed to OKdt'nsburgh in the fall of X'SlA and united with
The Sentinel. The Prnftrexfive Afje was begun in Juno. 1855, at
Oouvomeur, by O. D. Greenfield. It was removed to Potsdam in isr.fi,
and changed to The Norlliern Freeman. The True Hfmocrat was
begun in May, ISi.o, at Mailrid, by M. F. Wilnon anil O. L. Kay. In irs
2d year it beoanio TheOilumbinn lndrj)fndent ; wao roiitiinh'il 1 yr..
wlit-n it was removed toCantonandcliaiiKedti' the Canton
Independent, ' Tliln place became a French military utation, anil a
maK«'/.ino for HnppIyinE expeditioim went to their h. w. post**;
Hnon tho approach of Ivord AinherHt iulTftO. thn fort at the mouth
of the OHWegatchlo was ribiindnned. The inland was Invuflted on
the IKth of Aug. I'pon Gallop Uland the FngliNh found a nuiiil>er of
Hcnlp«. which ho exaHpenited them that they imrned the chnpwl
and liouKe;*, the rnlnn of which ar Hlilt visible. The batteries opened
on the '^.'Id, and on tho 2.'.lh the place, under Pourhnt.durrendentl.
TheKngllnh nanH-tl thef.irtretw. Fort Fredi-rlck Aupittu"*. On their
voyage down the river from tlilH place to Mnntn.'al, the F.ngllNJi lo-
4t In the rapidfi 4't hate-iux. 17 whab-lwati*, iind K4 men. The
Iwland wna wrnpled but ft nhort (hue, and the workw mutn M\ Into
rulus.— A'hoj'j Journal: Munlc't Uutt.; Memoirof J'buchot; KtUrick**
Ilitt. * These Indians claimed large tracts of land and leased them to
parties from Canada, who cut oft" the most valuable timber and
committed other wasteful depredations. ft The " Ten T>nvns" were
sold at auction by tlio htnd conimis* cioners in 1TS7, in quarter
sections, except .Madrid and Oswegatchie, which were sold in
8(juare miles, lu each town a mile square was reserved for literature,
and another for tho gospvl and schools. ^ The original townships in
this tract were named as follows : — 1. Sherwood; 2. Oakham; 3.
Mortlako; 4. IIa»ewood; 5. Janestown; 6. Pierrefield ; 7. (.iranshnck:
8. IIoUywixKl ; 9. Kildaro; 10. Matildavale; 11. Wick; 12. lUvei-sdale;
13. Cwkham; 14. Oidiarineville; 15. Islington ; 10. Chesterfield ; 17.
Grange; 18. Crumack. ' The original townships of this tract were
named ns follows: — 1. llummoud; 2. Soinerville; 3. De Witt; 4. Fit-/,
William: 6. Ballybeen; (i. Clare; 7. Killarney ; S.Edwards; It.
Sarahsburgh; 10. Clifton ; 11. 1'ortaferry; 12. Scriba; 13.Chaumont;
14. IHoomfiebi; 15. Kniilyville. ** These tracts were conveyed to
Dan'l McCormack by patent in 1795-9S. c The town of Massena
comprises this portion of Ibo co. 10 The islands were sr»ld in 1S23.
11 A regiment of militia was stationed at Ogdensburgh during tho
summer of 1S12. In July, 1K12. a fUvt of tl Kclujoners — catight at
Ogdensburgli by tho war — attempted to reach the hike, but were
intercepted : 2 were burnetj, and the rest hastened back. On the last
day of Jvily a bloodless engagenu'nt t»>ok place betw^-en the
American schooner, Julia, and the llritlrho railroads.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 17.42%
accurate

ST. LAWK EX CE COUNTY. 575 War.'' The battle of AViiuliiiill

i*(iiiit, the most niemorable event of that ill-concerted movement,
was fought within si^ht of O^deiishurj^h, in Nov. l^'^S.^ The U. S.
Collection Dist. of Os-\vej:iitehio vras establinheil March *J, IcSll, an,
by Tate, Chafe<^ A Co., and the place named *' Tut'fiUe." It waa
more generally known ns " CViw^m Falls" until th» p. o. wm
eMablishcd in 1851. Tho present name was deriveil from H. Van
Bunssclaor, who laid out tho village in 164t>. 1* Daniel \V. Church,
the pionwr millwriphtof tho co., ere<'tod tho first mill here, for S.
Foote. iu PSOI. The hnn>tn<-r uf that year was very sickly; and in
May the father of S. I'ii.Im ilird of tho smallpox and "was buried in a
bark coflln. Wm. Darker taught the first school, in 1804. Tho first
birth waa a daughter of L. Johnson. 17 The census reports 9
churches: 2M. E., Dap., Univ., ProUE., (Grace C.,) Wcs. Meth., Cong.,
F. W. Bap., and K. C.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 24.63%
accurate

570 ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY. The late Gov. Silas Wright

settled in Canton Village as a lawyer in 1819, and continued to
reside here until his death, Aug. 27, 1847. COliTOK' — was formed
from Parishville, April 12, 1843. A .small part was annexed from
Parishville in 1851. It is a long, narrow town, lying s. e. of the center
of the co. and extending to Hamilton co. on the s. Its surface is
broken and hilly ; and it is nearly all covered with forest. It is crossed
by the Racket, Grass, and Oswegatchie Rivers. In the central and s.
part.s are numerous small lakes, the principal of which is Cranberry
Lake. The extreme N. part only is iiihabiteil. The principal business is
luuiboriug. t'Olton (p. v.) is an important lumber station upon Racket
River, near the N. w. corner of the town. Several extensive gang
sa\vmills were erected here in 1850-52; but the business has been
partially suspended. An extensive tannery for the manufacture of
sole-leather was built here in 1857.^ Pop. 379. South C'olton is a p.
o. at Three Falls. The first settlement was begun in 1824, at Colton
Village." There are a M. E. and a Univ. church in town, both built in
1852. DE KALiB' — was formed from Oswegatchie, Feb. 21, 1805. A
part of Do Pcystcr was taken off in 1825, and a part of Ilermon in
1830. It lies on the Oswegatchie, w. of the center of the CO. Its
surface consists of broken ridges of white limestone and gneiss with
narrow valleys between them. The soil is excellent and is generally
under a good state of cultivation. I>e Kalb^ (I'-^'O '3 situated on
the Cswegatchie, near the center of the town. Pop. 120. RichVlllc"
(p. V.) is situated on the Oswegatchie, in the s. w. corner of the
town. Pop. 250. East Dc Kalb is a p. o. and station on the P. & W. R.
R. Coopers Falls is a hamlet. The first settlement was niado in 1803,
under Judge William Cooper, of Cooperstown, as agent. The first
settlers were principally from Otsego co. There are 5 churches in
town.' DE PEY.STER'— was formed from Oswegatchie and De Kalb,
March 24, 1825. It lies on the s. shore of Black Lake, N. w. of the
center of the co. Its surface is broken in the s. by the parallel
primitive ridges, and is level in the N. The principal streams are the
Oswegatchie, on the N. border, and Beaver Creek, on the s. Moon
Lake lies in the s. part. The soil along the lake is veiy fertile, in the
center of average fertility, and in the s. it is light and sandy. The "
Old State lioarj," the first traveled route through this part of the co.,
extended through this town. D© Peystcr Corners (De Peyster p. o.)
is a small village. Edenton is a p. o. The first settlement was made in
the fall of 1802, by Sam'l Bristol and others.' The census reports 2
churches; a M. E. and a Cong. EDWARDS'" — was formed from
Fowler, April 7, 1827. A part of Ilermon was taken off in 1830, and a
part was annexed from Ilermon in 1850. It lies on the Oswegatchie,
s. w. of the center of the co. Its surface consists of ridges of the
primitive formation and the narrow valleys between them. The soil is
generally a light, sandy loam, and in the valleys' is very productive;
but the town is best adapted to grazing. A large number of minerals
arc fouml among the primitive rocks." Edivai'ds (p. v.) is situated on
the Oswegatchie. Pop. 350. tioudi Edwards'' (p.v.) contains a grist
and saw mill and several mechanic shops. The first sottlement
commenced along the St. Lawrence Turnpike, in 1812." Several
Scotch families came into town in 1817. There are 5 churches in
town.'* FIXE" — was formed from Russell and Picrrepont, March 27,
1844. It lies in the extreme s. 1 Named from .TesHo Colton IliEloy.
an oarly settlor. It em* brncef* the townships ()f " .^/irrifoorf."
"7/((r''H>o«/," "Oranxhuck," nnil •• M'ltil/Javalf" or No«. 1, 4, 7, and
8 of Great Tract No. II, Mneonili'H I'lirchiwe. * This establishment
employs abont 25 men. 8 Amonf; the lirst settlers were Asahel
l.ymftn, Abel Brown, Wm. Iliilhirrl. Iliinice llartleld. and Sam'l
I'artrlilse. Miss Young taucht the first sehcK.l. in W26. The first death
wa* that of a child of Jns. Drown, in 1H29. * Nameii in honor of
Baron Do Kalb. It originally embraced No. 7 of the " TVn Trmmi." 6
Oripinallv named '• IPiT/iVim^/own.** 0 Alxiut .11) families came in
the first year. iSalmon Rich, .Tons. Ilaskins. and Sol. Pratt were
amonR the tlr^it settlers of Ilichville. In 1S04. The llrst child liorn
whs .lebinl Diniick ; the first nmrriace, that of Klislia Ptla Will, y; and
tlie flntt dt-atli. tliitt of (leorp* Cowdrey. Itela Willis tiiii;rlit the first
school at I)e Kalb. and .los. Knetdand at HIeliville. Wm. Cooper built
the first hotel, in l«l)3, and the Hrst mills, at CiK>per8 Falls, In wnt. '
Bap. and Con(r. at Riehvillo, Presb., M. K., and Uidon (M. E. aud
Bap.) at Kast De Kalb. » Named from Fr«lerick Do Poyitcr. of New
York, formor proprietor. Mr. De P. gave tbo town 43on to assist in
hnildlnfta nnion church and townhonse: and he also caustnl a bell to
bo cast, with an appropriate inscription for its nso. c Among the first
settlers were Thos. Wilson. Joseph Bonnd, Sam'l Barnard. Or.sm.
Iclwbod Arnolil. Hold. Ilili. Fnsi. R. I'lympt.iTi, David Day, Rufns
Washhnrn. and Smith Stillwell. Bela Willis taught the first bcbool and
waa tlio first local preacher. i» Named from Kdwanl Mcrormark,
brother of Iho proprietor. It embraces most of No.fi of llreat Tract
No. III. u Among these are iron ore, micji, Ronsselaerilo, florpentino,
and tonrroalilie. u U>cally ktiown as «*.v/»it/'ri//.'." from Klijah
Shnir. who opened (he fii-st store in 1S'J6. Frr^nwrnhiiith^in the R.
poit, was the seat of a large fiirnm-e ilostroye
The text on this page is estimated to be only 19.09%
accurate

ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY. oTT part of the co. Its surface is

elevated and broken, and its soil is a moderately fertile, gravelly
loam. It is drained hy the Oswegatchie ami its branches. It is
principally a wilderness, the settlements being confined to the x,
part. Iron ore is found in town. FiiiC is a p. o. in the n. There is no
village in town. The first clearing was made in 1823, by Elias Teall.*
FOW£iER- — was formed from Kossie and Russell, April 15, I81G.
The townships of Edwards and Fitz William (now a part of llermon)
were annexed from Russell in 181
The text on this page is estimated to be only 23.06%
accurate

578 ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY. UER]»IO.\'— was formed

from Edwards and De Kalb, April 17, 1830, and named "Depaii." The
name wa-s changed Feb. 28, 1834, and a jiart was annexed to
Edward.s in 1850. It lies in the primitive region, s. w. of the center
of the co. The sui-face is generally rolling, but broken and hilly in the
s. part. Elm and Cedar Creeks are the principal streams. Trout and
Clear Lakes lie near the s. border, and Gardners Pond near the
center of the town. The soil is generally a sandy loam interspersed
with tracts of sand, and is best adapted to grazing. Ilcrmon (p. v.) is
situated on Elm Creek, in the n. e. corner of the town. Pop. 340.
lUarshvillc is a hamlet, 1 mi. s. of Ilernion. The first settlement was
made by Jas. Taylor, and a few others who came soon after him,
previous to 1812.^ The town did not begin to be settled rapidly until
1822-25. Rev. Mr. 'Wriglit was the first preacher.' IIOI'KIi\TOX'— was
formed from Massena, March 2, 1805. Eussell was taken ofi" in
1807, ParisliviUe in 1818, and a part of Lawrence in 1828. It lies
along the E. border of the CO., and is the second largest town in the
State. Its surface is level in the n., but broken and hilly in the s. It is
crossed by the St. Regis and Racket Rivers; and in the central and s.
parts are several extensive lakes, the principal of which is Tuppers
Lake, on the lino of Franklin co. The whole town is a wilderness,
except the extreme N. part and a small tract upon Tuppers Lake.
The soil is a fertile loam in the N. part. Ilopkinton {p. v.) contains
about 20 houses. i\iclioIville is a small village on the line of Lawrence
and mostly in the latter town. Fort Jacktioii, in the n. part, on St.
Regis, is a hamlet of a dozen houses. The first settlement in town
was made by Roswell Hopkins, in 1802.* In 1814 a party of British,
consisting of 30 men, under Maj. P. W. De Haven, visited this town
and captured a large amount of flour belonging to the U. S., which
was here stored in a barn.' In the spring of 1858 a company
consisting of 13 families located in the vicinity of Tuppers Lake, with
the design of forming an agricultural settlement.' The township of
Mortlake, or No. 3 of Tract II, has been called " Atherlon," but it has
yet no legal organization. There are 4 religious societies in town.^
L,.tWRE]VCE'— was formed from Ilopkinton and Brasher, April 21,
1828. It lies on tlie E. border (jf the CO., n. of the center. The
surface is very level, and the soil is a fertile, sandy loam underlaid by
Potsdam sandstone. It is drained by St. Regis iind Deer Rivers.
Liil^vrflicevllle (p.v.) and IVortll Lia'tvrencc (p. v.) are villages upon
Deer River, each with a pop. of about 220. Tlic latter is a station on
the Northern R. R. H'icliolvillc,"' (p.v.,) on the line of Ilopkinton,
contains about 200 inhabitants. The first settlement began in 1806."
Since the completion of the r. r. this town has rapidly increased in
population. The Quakers held the first meeting in 1808. There are 7
churches in town.'-' l.ISIIO\ — was formed March G, 1801." Madrid
and Oswcgatchie were taken off in 1802, and Canton iu 1^05. It lies
upon the St. Lawrence, N. w. of the center of the co. Its surface is
level or gently undulating. It is drained by Oreat and Little
SuckerCreeks, and several smaller streams. Its soil is a light but
fertile loam underlaid by calciferous sandstone. The town includes
Gallop" Island in the river. LiNbun Center (p.o.) is a stationon
theOgdcnsburghR.R.,andcontain8 about a dozen houses. FlackTllle'^
(P-O-) is a hamlet, on the Ogdensburgh & Ciuiton Road. Red Mills'"
(Lisbon ]>. o.) is a hamlet, on the river, opposite Gallop Island. This
town was tlic first one organized iu the co. The first settlement was
made by Wm. O'Neal, in 171)0. Alex. J. Turner came in as agent in
Feb. ISOO." He was from Salem, N. Y., and induced many families »
Numed from Scripture. It embnicca ^'FiU TriRiam," or No. 9of Qrcnt
Tract No. HI, Macomb's rurclioso, and partA of otbur tnwuNblpH. >
Among tbo early noltlfTH were Ooo. Davis, IMiilomon Stuart, JaA.
Farr, Ariui luman, and Ittifurt liopkiriH. William D. Moore tauiilit tlic
lirst Bcliool, iu 1817. Tlio llret deatli wiu that of TIioK. Farr. » TIht.'
are 3 riiiircbi'« in town ; M. K.. Ilap., and Christian. * Nani"'d from
Ito^w.-li Iloplcln^, tlie ll^^t s<'ttler. It emlimcc« the town-'hipft of
"OiAVidMi.'' •* Jfwf/tiAv," "JamfilowTi," ■' l\rrctjifld^' *' Iloltyivottd,"
" Kildnrf," " Jtirrrt'luti'*' and " hlingtnn" or N.«. 2. 3, 6, <1, S, 9, 12,
and 15 of Oreat Tract No. II, Macomb's Pureluiw. ^ Mr. llnpklnH
l)ou)i:bt a part of Islington. Among tbe oarly settlors wiTK .I(M-l anci
Haniuoi fl8ton, fur its lum* ber. Tho settlement was made under tbe
auspices of this Company. s Cong.. Bap., M. E., and F. W. Dap. •
Named from Wm. I*awrence. of New York, proprietor. It embraces
■* C/ifsUrfiddy" or No. 16 of Grwit "Tract No. U, Mftcomb's
Purchase. »o Named fivtm E. S. NicIioK an ogent of tho pr\»prictor».
u Mr. Brewer, a sulHigent.cunie iu as early aa Isul ; J. and S. Tyler, A.
Saunders, A. Chandler. J. Allen, and J. ond J. Pierco c.'iine in isa7.
Kphraim Martin liuilt the first sawmill, In ISOi); Miss S. Tyler taught
the first school, in ISIU. " 2 Coiig., 2 .M. E.. 2 Ilap.. and F. W. Iliip. "
It originally contaim-d the whole territory of tbo " Ten Ihwtis" It now
includes No. 5 of tbo " Tai Jbwru.*' 1* I'ronounce*! "Oal-loo" Islant).
" Named from .lohn V. Flack, first p.m. 1* Namwi from tho color of
the mills erected by Daninl W. Churrh for the proprietor. Stephen
S'an llenssehior, in l^oj. " An»ong tbe first settlers wero Peter Sharp,
I'eter Ilinnon, J.jhn TililKls, Iteuljeu Turner. Wm. Shaw, l^'Uiuel
Iloskins. Wm. Lyttle, James Aikeus, BenJ. Stewart, Matthew I'erklus,
Wessoa
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accurate

ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY. 579 to remove from Washiugton

co. A fatal epklcmic provaileil in town in 1813. In the fall of 1813 a
small party of dragoons stopping at the village were surjirised by the
Canadians ; one wa.s t^hot, anotlier wounded, and two or three
were taken prisoners to Canada. Tlii-rc are G churches in town.'
LiOriSTlLliE- — was formed from Massena, April 5, 1810. A part of
Norfolk wa.s taken off in 1823, and a part of the same town was
annexed in 1844. It lies upon the St. Lawrence, in the N. E. part of
the co. The surface is level. Grass llivor, the principal stream,
liowin<' centrally through the towu, affords a water-powtT at the
village. The soil is a fertile, sandy loam, underlaid by calciferous
sandstone. L.ouisvilIe,^ (p. o.,) on Grass River, and L,oui!«vlIIc
L,au(IiMg, (p. o.,) on the St. Lawrence, are hamlets. The water-
power at the former place haa been somewhat improved ; and the
latter ))lacc is a landing for the American line of steamers. The iirst
settlement was made by Nahiuu ^\'ilsoa and Aaron Allen, in 180U.'
The growth of the town was checked by the war; but it soon
revived. There are 2 churches in town; M.E. and Union. MACOMB' —
was formed from Gouverneur and Morristown, April 3, 1841. A snuill
tract was annexed from Hammond in 1842. It lies upon the 8. shore
of Black Lake, in the w. part of the CO. Its surface is broken by
ridges of gneiss and white limestone parallel to the lake. Fish and
Birch Creeks are tlie principal streams. Pleasant and Yellow- or
Ilickeys Lakes are hue sheets of water, with rocky shores, in the
central part of the town. The soil is a light, sandy loam. The ridges
are often without vegetation, but the valleys are fertile. Several
valuable minerals arc found in towu." Macomb, (p. o.,) on the " Uld
Ulate Road," and Popes Mills, (p. o.,) on Fish Creek, are hamlets. The
first settlements were made upon the " Old Htntc Itoad," aliout
1805-00.' Timothy Pope made tlie first improvement at Popes Slills,
in 181G. There is 1 church (M. E.) in town. MADRID' — was formed
from Lisbon, March 3, 1802, and Potsdam was taken off in 180(i. It
lies upon the St. Lawrence, E. of the center (jf the co. The surface is
level or gently undulating. It is watered by Grass River, and by Great
and Little Sucker, Brandy, and Trout Brooks. Upon both the St.
Lawrence and Grass Rivers are rapids, from which are derived an
immense amouut of water-power. The soil is a light, sandy loam,
generally fertile. Wadd jlig^toil^ (p. v.) is situated upon the St.
Lawrence, opposite Ogdens Island and the " Rapide Flat." The rapids
at this place impede the river luivigation, but furnish an abundance
of water-power.'" The eutire fall is 11 ft. Pop. 705. Columbia Tillage
(Madrid p.o.) is situated at the falls of Grass River, 1 mi. from the R.
R. station. It is a place of consideralile business. Pop. 300. Cbases
Mills (p. o.) is a new settlement, upon Grass River, on the lino of
Louisville. The first settlement was made along the St. Lawrence, in
1798, under Joseph Edsall, agent of the proprietors." In Jan., 1814,
a party of Canadian militia, under Capt. Sherwood, crossed the St.
Lawrence at Point Iroquois and nuirched to Columljia Village,
pressed teams, and carried off a ([uantity of merchandise which had
been captured upon bateaux on the preceding Oct. There are 9
churches in town.'" MASSEIVA"— was formed March 3, 1802.
Hopkinton was taken off in 1805, Stockholm in 1800, Louis\-ille in
1810, and Brasher in 1825. It lies upon the St. Lawrence, in the N.
e. corner of the CO. The surface is generally level or gently
undulating. The principal streams are the Grass'* and Racket Rivers,
which flow through the town in parallel channels 1 to 2 mi. apart. Its
soil is a productive, gravelly and sandy loam. Massena (p. v.) is
situated up:s. iJr. Jos. W. Smith, the first physiciau in the co., sotttcd
here in 1S0:J and remiiiiu'd two years. 1 Cong.. A.W). Kef. Prcsb.,
M.E., Wes. Meth., Ref. Proab., and Pint. E. (.St. Luke's.) 2 It
comprises the greater part of No. 1 of tlie " Ten Vnmts" ^ Locally
known as '* MUi^rsvilt)\" from Kev. Levi Miller, of
Turin.whocamehereiwapeiitofMcVickar, the proprietor, in 1S23. *
.Vliiuug the early settlers were .John Wilson. Lyman Bostwick, Elislia
\V. Barber, and Griflln Place. The first child born was a son of Nahnni
Wilson : and the Iirst death, that of Pliilo Biirber. Klislia Barber taught
the first school, and X. W'ilsou kept the first inn. !> Named from
Alex. Macomb, the great land speculator. 0 Among these are lead,
mica, copper pyrites, and blonde. Stock companies have been
ongagtid quite extensively in lead mining at -Mineral Point, on Black
l^nke. and elsewhere. ■ Among the first settlers were l«am'i Bristol,
Rutus Washburn, Sam'l and K. Wilson, and .Sam'l Peck. « It
embraces No. 4 of the ■■ Tm Tnwm," and is abont 10 mi. sq. »
Named from Joshua Waddington, proprietor. Fonnerly railed "
flami/l.". Incorp. April JG, 1S30. A furnace, supplied with liog ore,
was established here in lS3-i ; but it was abandoned .:j ; - J >. A
tract of 1,1.15 acres on the shore opposite the island. together with
the island and water-power, were convcyeti in ISll to .Foshna
Waddington and Tlios. L.and D.nvid A-Ogden. 1" In l.S(JS-l 1-15-
acts were i.asM-d I.i improve llie navigation at this place, and a lock
was bnlll lor ibe iias-sage of small Uuilsu Among tlie early settlers
were Jnlin SliariMi. Barton KdsatI, John Tultle, liiig. Barllelt. (Icidfrey
Myers, Benj- Canipbell. and E. Dimirk- Dorothy Fields taught the first
school ; Si'th Roberts built the first mills, at Columbiu Village, in IMB.
Mills wero built at AVaddiiigton in l,^o;i-o4. ■2 2 Cong., 2 M. E.,
Univ., Bap-, Prot. E-, (St. I'aul's,) Asso- Kef-, and R- 0. " Named from
Marshal Massena. of the Fnnch army. 1* This stream near its month
is liable to a sudden n'versal of its current by the d.imming up of the
rft. Lawrence by Ire In severe cold weather. These back currents
have been felt at Mas«ena \'illage; and no bridges have I n made to
stand below the lower mills. The water lias been known Ut rise l&ll.
in M many minutes, and to attain a maxirouiu height of i^ ft. The
lower dam is built to ri-sist the current both ways. 16 These springs
are saline and slllphiirous. CapL John Polly built the hrst public house
hen), in ls::2- A s|utcluuj bricit hotel was erecte^l in IS4.S, for the
accommodation of Ihows who resort hero for health or pleasure.
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580 ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY. lies upon the Racket, about

one mi. distant from Massena. Pop. 120. It is a favorite summer
resort. Ulassena Center (p. v.) contains about 25 houses, and Racket
River (p. v.) about 20. By the treaty of 1790, a mile square at the
mouth of Grass River was reserved by the St. Regis Indians; and
most of the other hinds in the town were located on Revolutionary
land warrants before the sale of the rest of the co. Before the treaty
the Indians issued unauthorized leases to different parties; and
hence arose much annoyance from conflicting claims.* The first
improvements were made on Grass River, un land leased of the
Indians, in 1792. The first settlements on Revolutionary grants were
made in 1798, by Amos Lay and others.^ In 1812 the U. S.
Government erected barracks here, which were occupied 3 months
by militia. In Sept. 1813, a party of C^^nar dians burned the
barracks and carried away several prisoners. There are 5 churches in
town.' MORRISTOWW*— was formed from Oswegatchie, March 27,
1821. A part of Hammond was taken off in 1827, and a part of
Macomb in 1841. It lies between the lower end of Black Lake and
the St. Lawrence. Its surface is gently undulating, rising from either
side toward the center, Chippewa Creek, flowing though the center,
is the principal stream. The soil is a gravelly loam and generally
fertile. HIorristOYTii (p. v.) is situated upon the St. Lawrence. Pop.
254. Kdirardsville^ (p. 0.) is a small village on Black Lake, at which
point a ferry has been established. Ri'ier Hill (p. 0.) is a hamlet.
David Ford — as agent of Gouverneur Morris, the proprietor — made
the first settlement on the site of the village, in 1799.^ John K.
Thurbur and Henry Ellenwood made the first improvement in the
vicinity of Edwardsville, in 1810. In 1817-18 several English families
located at a place still known as the " English Settlement." There are
7 churches in town.*' IVORFOLH. — was formed from Louisville and
Stockholm, April 9, 1823. A part was annexed to Louisville in 1844.
Its surface is moderately uneven. Racket River, the principal stream,
flows diagonally through near the center of the town, and affords a
large amount of water-power, partially improved.^ The soil is
generally fertile, resting upon drift deposits of gravel and marine
clay, and all umlerlaid by calcifcrous sandstone. The E. part is sandy;
and a swamp lies between the Racket and Grass Rivers. IVorfolk (p.
v.) is situated upon Racket River. Pop. about 200. It has
manufactories of lumber, shingles, and articles of wood.
Rayiiioudville^ (p.o.) is a small village on the Racket, below Norfolk.
The first settlement was made by Erastus Hall, in 1809, at
Raymondsville.*° The Racket was formerly navigated, to some
extent, as far as this place. There are 4 churches in town."
OSWEClATCJilE'^— was formed from Lisbon, March 3, 1802. De Kalb
was taken off in 1806, Gouverneur in 1810, Morristown in 1821, and
a part of Be Peyster in 1825. The surface is level or gently
undulating. Oswegatchie River, the principal stream, affords water-
power at Heuvelton and at Ogdensburgh, which is available most of
the year. The soil is a tine quality of gravelly loam, and is under a
good state of cultivation. OgUensburgli^" (p. v.,) situated upon the
St. Lawrence, is one of the largest and most important villages in
Northern New York. It is the w. terminus of the Ogdensburgh R. R.,
and stands at the foot of sloop navigation upon the great lakes and
St. Lawrence River, giving to it important commercial advantages. A
limited amount of manufacturing is also carried on, chiefly on the w.
side of the Oswegatchie. It contains the depots and buildings of the
Ogdensburgh R. R., — among the finest in the co., — an academy,"
a townhall," U. S. customhouse,^® and an armory." Pop. Jan. 1858,
7,308. Heuvei1 Most of the viihifible timbor wa« Mtolcn beloro
BctUfmcnt. * Among thi^ fli-pil si-ttlors wi'n> Miiimi A'ictory. Calvin
IMuinloy. Bliss Hoif^iiipton, Klijuh Bailey, David Lyttle. Soth Hfiad.
mid LeoDitrd Hcrrick. Gilbert Koiid taught the first school, in 18it;i.
Amabel Fuuchor was a Ics^eo of the first mill, under tho lodiauH. >
2 Cong.. Bap., M. K., and R. C. * Natn»l from Oouvornenr Morris,
principal propriotor. It originally embraced the towuship of **
JIaffue," or No. 9 of tho * Loailly known as tho " Narrmva" Named
from Jonathan S. Edu'ardH, the first postmastor. On curly niapH it
was marked '"Muri/sfrtirfffi." <^ Arnold Smith and Tliomas Xlill wore
firf. .Stowe. and Milo Browur. The first death was that of K. Judson,
in 1S13. The flrst clearing at Norfolk Village was made for I.i< Kay.
in 1S1 1 ; and tho fimt settlement wa« begun by Kuiwell Atwut^-r,
In 1810. A furnace waft built at tliu village iu 1825, and supplied
with bt'g ore. It was burned in 1S44. n M. E., Prot. E., and Pivsb., at
Norfolk, and Presb at Baymondsvillo. I- Pronounced Oswe-gotch'ee ;
named from the river. It embraces most of No. 8 of tho *' Ten
7bJ^•^Jf." '3 Named from l^am*l Ogden, the first proprietor.
Ineori>-ln 1S17. The unsd htm from realizing. 1* Tlds academy now
forms an incorporate part of the puMic eclucational system of the
village. The si-hools are all gnuK-d, and the pupils are advanced,
according to attainment, fmni llio I>rimary schools to the conipleto
academic courso. Tho acaden^y receives the inc(*me from tla- ferry
at tliis place. In lHf>7 thero Wire 7 schoolliouses and IK teachers.
Tin* averago number of pupils on the rolls was 1^28. and avi-rage
daily attendance 765. i» By special act of 1858 a town hall was
erected, at an expense of $U».000, on the corner of AVashington
and Franklin Ms. W The cnrnerstone of tho old French Mission house
Is placed over one of its entrances. " An appropriation of $110,000
was made in 1867 for a custombouse, p. o., and U. S. oourlrtmrn. It
is to Iw erected ou the 6ito of tho old courthouse, corner of State
and Knox 8ta.
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ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY. 581 ton' (p. V.) lies upon the
Oswegatchie, 7 mi. above Oj^dcnsburgh. It has a limited amount of
manufactures. Pop. 300. Black Lake is a p. o., in the s. w. part of the
town. The early history of the town has already liein noticed.- The
first improvement, after Ogdensburgh was abandoned by the British,
was made in 1790, by Nathan Ford,' and it soon became a place of
commercial importance. The war checked the prosperity of the
place, and after the return of peace business revived slowly. The
opening of the Welland Canal and completion of the Ogdensburgh K.
R. greatly increased the trade and added to the i)opulation of
Ogdensburgh.* The completion of the (J rand Trunk Railway through
Canada has in some measure checked its growth, by diverting
business into other channels. The first religious meetings were held
while it was a French, and afterward a British, post. The census
repiIIVJI.,lLE«— was formed from Ilopkinton, April 15, 1818. Colton
was taken off in 1843, and another part of Parishvillc annexed to it
in IJSol. It lies upon St. Regis River, s. E. of the center of the co. Its
surface is level in the .v. and considerably broken in the s. Tho soil is
a deep loam in the N., but in the s. is light and sandy. A large
portion of the town is yet a wilderness. I'ai'lKll ville (p. v.) is situated
upon the w. branch of St. Regis River. Pop. 230. It has a limited
amount of manufactures.' ParisUlill*' Center, in the .\. part, is a
hamlet. Daniel Hoard settled in 1810, as agent for the proprietors."
During the war the settlement was greatly increased by immigrants
from tho frontier towns. The census reports 4 churches.'
PIERKEPOaJT'"— -was formed from Russell, April 15, 1818. A part of
Fine was taken off in 1844. It occupies a hing, narrow strip s. of the
center of the co. The surface is quite broken. The three branches of
Grass River, e. branch of the O.swegatchie, and Racket River are the
principal streams. The soil in the n. is well adapted to grazing, and
that in the s. is light and sandv. Settlements are confined to tho x.
part. Magnetic iron ore and other valuable minerals are found in
large quantities. Pierrcpont (p. o.) is a small village upon the hills,
near the center of No. 3. Ea$«t Pierrepont" (p. v.) is situated on
Racket River. Pop. about 100. Flavins Curtis settled upon the line of
Canton in 1800-07. The principal settlement coniniencets have been
made to work some lead mines. The town is thinly settled. Pi (cairn
and East Pltcairn are p. offices. Settlement was begun in 1824 by
immigrants from i'otsdam." There is no church in town. POTSO.IBI'^
— was formed from Madrid, Feb. 21, 1800. It lies on Racket River, n.
e. of the center of the co. Its surface is rolling; and its soil is a deep,
rich loam. The streams are Racket River, aflTording a large amount
of water-power, and Grass River, with a limited amount. Lumber and
articles of wood are largely manufactured. There are extensive
(piarries of sandstone above the village.'* This is the leading
agricultural town in the co., and every part is under improvement.
Potsdam" (p. v.) is located upon Racket River, e. of the center of the
town. Tho river is here divided b\' islands and broken by rapids, and
furnishes an extensive water-power. Pop. in 1st and 4th election
districts, 2,123. It has a considerable amount of manufactures, and
1 N'nmed from Jacob Van Ileuvcl, who invested a large Bum in a
ruinous attt'mpt to esUlblisli business hero. 2 See p. 574. 3 .Among
the first settlers were Ezra Fitz Randolph, Thom.is » Cong.. M. E.,
Wca. Mcth., and Hup. >o .Named from Iloz.ekiah I!. I'icrreponl, of
Bmokl.vn, proprietor. It embraces the townchil'fi of "Chaumoiit," '*
Oi/Um,^* Clure." and a part of ■' De M'lll." or Xo». 13, 10, 0, and
3of Great Ijee. John Lyon. John King, IjOni-t iIa.sbrouck. Stephen
Sloossen, 1 Tract No. Ill, of Macomb's I*iirchHSO. and Powell Davis.
The first school was taught by Richard Hub- u Sometimes called ••
r.)j-« .l/.;/.<," from Ganlner Cose, who bard, in 1S09. < ,\ marine
railway, constructed here in 1853, baa been of great service to the
interests of navigation. 6 ?, >I. K., 2 Presb., Univ., tuitarian, Bap.,
Cong., Prot. E., and K. f. ^ Named frrm David and Geo. Parish,
proprietors of Xo. 13. It embraces the most of '* (hOitirinrvilU" and "
Wick,'* or Nos. 1:J and 11 of Great Tract No. II of Macomb's
I'urcbase. ' Tlie river here descends 125 ft. within a mi., furnishing
an Rbundance of water-power. •* .\monj; the early settlers were
I.nke Brown. Isaac Tower. II. Shattuck. and Levi Sawyer, who came
in aliout ISll. During ham and Caroline Picking this and the
succeeding ve.ir the prnpriet'TS caused a road to be 1 16 It
embraces No. .3 of the " T'-n Tnwnx" opened to Carthage, and'mills.
a distillerv, lupteLand forge lobe '• From these quarries the city of
Haniillon.CW,. is supplied built. The first birth was in the familv of
Luke Ilromn, in 1612. with llagging. The stone also is an ex.vllent
building matw Harriet Bronson taught the first school, in the barn of
Mr. Uoard. | rial. " lucorp. March 3, Uil. settled here and built mills in
1S17-22. It has a largo gang sawmill and a starch factory. 12 Among
the early settlers were David Denton, Pet, R. Leonard, Jos,
Matthews, and Ebeniz-T Tui-i'er. 1* Named from .loseph I'itcairn.
propri'-lor. It embraces tho township of •' ftrt.i/erry, " or .No. 11 of
Great Tnicl No. I II, Macomb's Purchase. 1* Among the earlv settlers
were NbIIi'I Dickinson and sons. Levi Oleason, Nathan C, Scovll. and
.lames Stn^eler, Caroline Dickinson lauglil the first 8cli.s.l, The first
birth was in the familv of N, C, Scovil : the first marriage, that of
Ausou Bing*
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