Table of Contents

1. Introduction to physics
2. Measurement
3. Introduction to Force
4. Density and Relative Density
5. Sinking and Floating
6. Mechanical properties of matter
7. Pressure
8. Linear Motion
9. Work, energy and power

3RD Edition – 2025

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Author: Geofrey M Idebe
Title of the Book: Physics Classical Note for CSEE – Form One
ISBN: 978 – 9912 – 9834 – 0–3
Third Edition: 2025

Contacts info:
Phone: +255 688 082 089
Email: [email protected]
Mwanza – Tanzania

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any
means, recording, photocopying or otherwise without the prior
written permission of the Owner

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 Preface
 Physics Classical Note for CSEE has undergone a great deal of
improvement since its second publication (2024). It has become so
popular among the CSEE students in such a way that most of the
candidates go through this book before appearing for the Examination.
 You must have already gone through second edition of Physics Classical
Note for CSEE (2024). We hope that you liked the book. We are happy
to release the revised edition of Physics Classical Note (2025). This
new edition is competency based on the latest revised syllabus
prescribed by the ministry of education, science and technology
 Several new diagrams have been incorporated in this edition in order to
facilitate the understanding of the subject matter. Many examples from
daily life are given to make the topics relevant and interesting.
 In each chapter of this book, sufficient exercises (class Activities and
Self Assessment) are given at the end of each sub – topic and at the
end of each topic respectively.
 Finally I must express my thanks to teachers and students who have
kindly read parts of the manuscript and sending their valuable
suggestions. Further suggestions for more improvements to come of
this book will be gratefully acknowledged

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 Chapter: 01
Introduction to Physics
 Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through space
and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. OR;
 Physics is the branch of science which deals with the study of matter, energy and the
mutual interactions between them.
 It involves the study of physical and natural phenomena around us. Examples of these
phenomena are formation of rainbow, occurrence of eclipse, the fall of things from up to
down, volcanic eruption, the cause of sunset and sunrise, formation of shadow and many
more.
 The term ‘physics’ is derived from the Ancient Greek word i.e. ‘Physikos’
meaning ‘knowledge of nature’. And a person who study physics is called physicist

Science and technology

 Science refers to the process of exploring new knowledge methodically through
observation and experiments.
 Examples of branches of natural science include Biology, Chemistry and Physics
 Technology refers to the process of applying scientific knowledge in practical
applications for various purposes. Development of Physics as one of the branch of science
makes significant contributions in the field of technologies. For example, inventions of new
technology such as television, computers, cell phone, advanced home appliances, nuclear
weapons, etc.

Branches of Physics
 Mechanics – is a branch of physics that deals with the motion and force that produces
motion.
 Optics – This is the study of physical properties of light.
 Atomic Physics –This is the study of atoms specifically the electrons and its properties.
 Acoustics–It deals with how sound is produced, transmitted ,received and controlled
 Thermodynamics. It deals with heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work
 Biophysics–It deals with the study of biological phenomena and problems using the
concept of physics
 Nuclear Physics. The study of forces ,structure and behavior of atomic nuclei
 Astrophysics(Astronomy) .It deals with the study of celestial bodies in the universe
 Electromagnetism –This is the study of electrical and magnetic fields as two aspects of
the same phenomenon.
 Geophysics – This is the study of physical properties of the earth.
 Electronics –This is the study of the flow of electrons in a circuit.

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Relationship between Physics and other subjects
1. Chemistry
 Physics has helped in explaining forces within atoms and therefore atomic structure. It is
this structure of the atom that then determines the reactivity of the atom as explained in
chemistry.
2. Biology
Since biology is the scientific subject, which involves living and non-living things, which may be
micro and macro organism, it uses application of physics. For example,
 The knowledge of lenses in physics is used in making microscope used in the study of cells
in Biology. Physics formulae are used in calculation of magnification by microscopes.
3. Mathematics
 Physics is directly related to mathematics because the description of nature becomes easy
if we have the freedom to use mathematics. In physics, we use mathematical techniques
like algebra, trigonometry, and calculus. Thus mathematics is a language of physics.
Without knowledge of mathematics, it would be much more difficult to discover, understand
and explain the laws of nature.
 Therefore; Physicists should master mathematics in order to solve physics problems that
may involve calculations
4. Physics and astronomy
 Physics is used in the design of instruments like space telescopes, these instruments are
then used in Astronomy for studying the celestial bodies like planets, stars, galaxies e.t.c
5. Meteorology
 Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere to understand and predict weather and climate.
 Meteorologists use physics principles to observe, explain, and forecast our weather. They
often focus on atmospheric research or operational weather forecasting. They also study
how the atmospheric and weather conditions affect the earth and its human inhabitants.
 Meteorologists use the instruments like rain gauge and wind vane which are designed and
constructed by using the physics knowledge to measure rainfall and wind direction
respectively
 Also, Meteorologists use Barometer which designed and constructed by using physics
principles to measure the atmospheric pressure

Importance of Learning Physics

 It enables us to answer many questions concerned with physical properties of matter
 It enables different people to acquire skills that required in different professions. For
example, engineering, teaching and architecture
 It enables us to acquire knowledge and skills used in designing and manufacturing of
different items which are useful in our daily life. For example Generators, motors, cranes, etc
 It enables us to enjoy since we study practically (Physics is fun)
 It helps us to understand the working principles of domestic appliances such as electric iron,
electric fan, television, electric heater, electric cooker, e.t.c
 It helps us to answer different questions like why the sky is blue, how rainbows form, or how
airplanes fly.

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Applications of Physics in Real Life
1. It is applied at home
 All tools and machinery: such as Crowbars, Hammers, door handles, cutlery, hinges, car
jack, pulleys, tillage implements etc made by knowledge of physics
 Electrical appliances: such as cooker, iron, heater, electric lamps, washing machine etc
made by knowledge of physics
2. It is applied in Medical field
 Like other scientific fields, medicine also benefits from physics. There are many medical
devices and technologies that depend on the uses and principles of physics in their work.
and the most important of these applications are:
 The following are some of the most important medical technologies and devices that rely on
the principles of physics:
(i) X-ray Imaging. X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation. They are used in
diagnostic imaging to create images of the internal structures of the body, helping to
identify fractures, infections, and tumors.
(ii) Computed Tomography (CT). CT scans combine X-rays and computer processing to
create cross-sectional images of bones and soft tissues inside the body. Multiple X-ray
images taken from different angles are reconstructed into a 3D image, providing more
detailed information than regular X-rays.
(iii) Ultrasound. Ultrasound technology uses high-frequency sound waves to create
images of the inside of the body. It’s commonly used for monitoring pregnancies and
examining organs like the liver, kidneys, and heart. The sound waves bounce off
tissues and are reflected back, creating an image based on the time it takes for the
echoes to return.
(iv) Radiation Therapy (Radiotherapy). This treatment uses high doses of radiation to kill
or damage cancer cells. The physics of radiation interactions with atoms in tissues are
applied to target and treat tumors with precision.
(v) Endoscopy. This technique uses a flexible tube with a camera and light (endoscope) to
view the inside of the body. It relies on the principles of optics, light transmission, and
sometimes fiber optics to allow doctors to see and diagnose problems in organs like the
stomach, intestines, and lungs.

3. It is applied when manufacturing different equipments of source of energy

 Batteries and generators provide electrical energy
 Bulbs they provide light energy. Speaker gives us sound energy
4. It is used in transportation
 By understanding the fundamental principles of motion, gravity, and energy, we have
developed advanced transportation systems that allow us to travel across land, sea, air,
and even into space. All vessels used in transportation is a result of concept of physics.
 For example cars, ships, aeroplane, trains etc
5. It is used in Communication
 Without physics, wireless communication, satellite networks, and the internet would
not exist. Understanding electromagnetism, wave propagation, and signal processing
is essential for advancing modern communication technologies. All Devices used in
communication systems is a result of concept of physics.

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  Examples of communication devices based on physics concepts are telephones,
modems, television, cables, etc
6. It is applied in entertainment
 Physics enable people to enjoy a variety of leisure activities as is evident in photography,
digital appliances, exercise machines and other sport equipment.
7. It is applied in Industry
 Physicists have been able to come up with tools and process that have resulted in advanced
technological equipment and new discoveries.
8. It is applied at schools
 Instruments and apparatus used at school laboratories are made from the application of the
knowledge and skills acquired in Physics

Theories and Principles of Physics

 Physics is built upon a foundation of theories and principles that describe, explain, and
predict natural phenomena. These concepts are derived from observations,
experimentation, and mathematical analysis, forming the basis for our understanding of the
universe.
Basic principles of scientific investigations
 The basic principles of scientific investigations form the foundation of the scientific method,
guiding researchers in conducting systematic, reliable, and objective experiments. These
principles ensure that scientific findings are accurate, reproducible, and contribute
meaningfully to the body of knowledge.

The concept of scientific investigation (scientific procedure)

 Scientific method is a set of techniques used by scientists to investigate a problem/answer
question. OR;
 The scientific method is a combined method, which consists of theoretical knowledge and
practical experimentation by using scientific instruments, analysis and comparisons of results,
and then peer reviews.

Basic steps of a scientific investigation

 The following are steps followed when carrying out a scientific investigation

1.Problem Identification.
 Problem identification is the first step in any scientific investigation. It involves observing a
phenomenon, event, or situation that raises questions. This step sets the stage for all
subsequent scientific inquiry and ensures that the investigation focuses on a specific issue.
 Example of observations are;
(i) A ball rolling on a flat surface eventually comes to a stop.
(ii) Watching an apple falling from a tree
 Example of questions rise from the given observations are;
(i) Why does the ball stop rolling if no one touches it?
(ii) What causes the apple to fall from the tree?"
 Thus the questions above may lead to an investigation into the effects of friction and
Newton's laws of motion.

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2. Formulation a testable hypothesis
 A Hypothesis is an idea or a guess to explain a specific occurrence, natural event, or
particular experience based on prior observation.
 It allows you to make a prediction. Scientists predict what will be the outcome.
 It outlines the objectives of the experiment, the variables used, and the expected outcome
of the experiment. The hypothesis must be either falsifiable or testable. It also answers
the previous question.
 A hypothesis needs to be testable by gathering evidence. A hypothesis needs to be
testable to perform an experiment, whether the evidence supports the hypothesis or not.
NB:
In science, a hypothesis is never "proven" through a single experiment. Multiple experiments
are necessary because there are various factors, such as human errors, that can affect the
outcome of an experiment. These errors and other factors contribute to the need for repeated
trials and validation before drawing definitive conclusions.
3. Performing an experiment (Test your Hypothesis)
 Your experiment tests whether your prediction is accurate and thus your hypothesis is
supported or not. It is important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test
by making sure that you change only one factor at a time while keeping all other conditions
the same.
 A fair test in scientific experimentation consists of three key variables that must be carefully
controlled and considered:
(i) Dependent variable; A variable which changes if the experimental condition changes.
For example, the dependent variable is the time it takes for the pendulum bob to
complete a given number of oscillations. As the length of the pendulum changes, the
time it takes to complete the oscillations would change, making it the dependent
variable.
(ii) Independent variable: A variable which does not change even when the experimental
condition is changed. For example in the pendulum experiment, the length of the
pendulum is the independent variable.
(iii) Controlled variable; This is a variable that is kept constant during an experiment. For
example, the number of oscillations is a controlled variable.
 You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first results
were not just an accident.
4.Data collection and analysis
 During the experiment, you collect data by making observations and measurements. This
data should be recorded systematically and accurately.
 After collecting data, you analyze it to determine whether it supports or refutes your
hypothesis. This may involve statistical analysis or other methods of data interpretation.

5.Data presentation and interpretation

 After the data collection, you can present the data by using charts, graphs and
mathematical formulae to show the result.
 After the data representation, you can interpret the data to understand the meaning of the
data.

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6. Drawing a conclusion
 Based on whether or not their prediction came true, scientists can then decide whether
the evidence clearly supports or does not support the hypothesis.
 If your hypothesis was supported, you may propose additional experiments to further
validate your findings. If your hypothesis was not supported, you may revise it and repeat
the process.
7. Reporting Results
 Finally, If the results are clear, scientists write up their Findings and Results to share
with others through scientific journals, presentations, or other means. This allows other
scientists to review and replicate your experiments, further contributing to the scientific
knowledge base
The following diagram shows a Scientific method flow chart

Significance of the Scientific Procedure

 It is essential in many sectors, such as social sciences, empirical sciences, statistics,
biology, chemistry, and physics. It can be used in the laboratory.
 Scientific methods lead to discoveries, innovations, and improvements in various disciplines.

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  The scientific method can be used to solve scientific problems, explain the phenomena of
the study, and find and test solutions.
 Scientific methods guarantee that the findings are based on evidence, making the study
reliable and replicable and allowing research to occur objectively and systematically.

Scientific theory
 In physics, a theory is a mathematical framework that provides an explanation for natural
phenomena and predicts outcomes that can be tested and validated through experiments.
 A good theory must not only explain existing observations but also offer testable predictions,
which can confirm or refute its validity.
 Examples of theories in physics include Newton's theory of gravity, Einstein's theory of
relativity, and quantum theory. In this part we shall discuss on the theory of gravity and its
effects to human beings.

Theory of gravity
 The theory of gravity explains how objects with mass experience an attractive force
toward one another. This force is known as the force of gravity.
 According to the theory of gravity, the more massive an object is, the stronger its
gravitational pull, that is why all objects on the earth’s surface are attracted toward the
earth because the earth is more massive than other objects. This force acts over any
distance, though it weakens as the distance between two objects increases.

Significance of the theory of gravity

(i) It explains the arrangement and motion of planets, moon, and other celestial bodies in the
solar system and beyond
(ii) It provides the basis for space exploration and satellite technology
 Understanding gravitational forces allows scientists and engineers to design spacecraft
trajectories, enabling successful missions to the Moon, Mars, and beyond.
 Satellites rely on gravity to maintain stable orbits around the Earth. Whether for
communication, weather forecasting, or GPS, the functioning of satellites depends on an
understanding of gravity and orbital dynamics.
(iii) It influences our daily lives, from walking on the earth’s surface to the launching of
spacecraft into space
 Gravity keeps us grounded, preventing us from floating off the Earth’s surface. It also
influences our balance and the way we walk or move.
 From a dropped pen to a falling apple, gravity governs the motion of everyday objects,
ensuring they fall to the ground and not into space.
(iv) It helps to understand the tides and earth’s motion around the sun
 The gravitational pull of the Moon and, to a lesser extent, the Sun, causes the periodic
rise and fall of ocean tides. The Moon's gravity pulls on Earth’s water, creating a bulge
that results in high and low tides.
 Gravity is also responsible for Earth's orbit around the Sun, which determines our
seasons. The Earth’s elliptical orbit and the Sun’s gravitational pull ensure a consistent
cycle of seasons, which is crucial for life on Earth.

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Laws of Physics
 In physics, a law is a scientific statement or mathematical relationship that describes a
physical phenomenon or process that consistently occurs under specific conditions in
nature. Laws are generally based on repeated experimental observations and have been
tested and verified through experimentation over time.
 Examples of laws in Physics are the Hooks law and the law of floatation
Hooke’s Law
 Hooke’s Law governs the elastic behavior of materials, particularly springs, and explains
the relationship between force and displacement within the elastic limit.
 It states that; the force 𝑭 required to extend or compress a spring by a distance 𝒙 is directly
proportional to that distance, as long as the deformation (extension or compression) is
within the elastic limit of the material.
The Law of Floatation
 The law of floatation explains why objects float in liquids and forms the basis of buoyancy,
describing how the weight of the displaced liquid equals the weight of the floating object.
 It states that; a floating object displaces its own weight of fluid in which it floats
Principles of Physics
 In physics, a principle refers to a fundamental concept or rule that provides an explanation
of how a specific physical phenomenon occurs.
 It is often used to describe the underlying mechanism behind certain natural processes and
is based on fundamental truths that have been observed and tested over time.
 Examples of physics principles are Pascal’s principle, Archimedes principle and the
principle of conservation of energy.
Pascal’s principle
o Pascal's Principle is crucial in understanding how pressure works in confined fluids. It
demonstrates the uniform distribution of pressure and serves as the foundation for many
technological applications, particularly in hydraulic systems.
o By exploiting the equal transmission of pressure, engineers have designed devices like
hydraulic lifts, presses, and brakes that are essential to many industries.
o Pascal's Principle states that; “When pressure is applied at any point on the surface of a
fluid contained in a closed container, the pressure is transmitted undiminished to all parts of
the fluid and to the walls of the container”
Archimedes Principle
o Archimedes' Principle is a fundamental concept in fluid mechanics that explains why objects
float or sink when placed in a fluid. It provides a clear understanding of buoyancy, which is
the force that determines whether an object will float or sink in a fluid
o The principle states that; “Any object partially or totally immersed in a fluid experiences
an upthrust which is equal to the weight of the fluid”
o This principle applies to both completely submerged objects and objects floating on the
surface of the fluid.

Principle of conservation of energy

o The principle of conservation of energy is one of the most fundamental principles in
physics, and it plays a crucial role in understanding how energy behaves in different systems.
It is central to nearly every physical process we observe in nature.

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o The principle states that; “energy cannot be created or destroyed, but only transformed
from one form to another”.
o The total energy in an isolated system remains constant”

Class Activity – 1
1. Define Physics.
2. How can differentiate between science and technology?
3. Define the following terms (a) Matter (b) Physicist
4. Mention and explain the branches of science.
5. How does Physics help in everyday life of an individual?
6. What are the career opportunities of a physicist?
7. Mention four transport vessels that relay on the laws of physics
8. Mention any two forms of energy and explain how they are useful in everyday life.
9. How does studying physics contribute to other fields?
10. Why is physics important to our everyday life?
11. How does energy shape the surroundings of man?
12. Match the items in the table below
Item A Item B
(i) Physics A. Deals with study of living things
(ii) Chemistry B. Deals with behavior of matter
(iii) Astronomy C. The study of the atmosphere to understand and
(iv) Biology predict weather and climate.
(v) Geography D. Study of man and his environment
(vi) Meteorology E. The scientific study of celestial bodies, such as
stars, planets, moons, galaxies e.t.c
F. Study of matter in relation to energy
13. How does physics help address global challenges like climate change?
14. What do you understand by the term scientific investigation?
15. Define the term experiment as applied in scientific investigation.
16. What do you understand by the term hypothesis as applicable to scientific investigation?
17. A group of students are observing a plastic bottle containing water. They realize that when
the bottle is punctured and squeezed, water squirts from all holes with the same pressure.
Suggest and state the principle related to this observation.
18. What is a hypothesis in scientific investigation?
19. What is the purpose of writing a conclusion after conducting an experiment?
ANS: The purpose of writing a conclusion is to summarize the results of the experiment,
explain whether the hypothesis was supported or not, and discuss the implications of the
findings.
20. What should you do if the results of an experiment do not support your hypothesis?
21. During an activity in class, each student stretches a helical spring and observes its
behavior upon releasing.
(i) What behavior did they observe?
(ii) What Principle of physics does the phenomenon obey?
22. What do you understand by the term “controlled variable”?
23. Why is it important to conduct multiple trials in a scientific experiment?
ANS: It is important to conduct multiple trials to ensure the results are reliable and
reduce the chance of errors. Repeating the experiment helps to confirm that the results
are consistent.

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 Chapter 02:
Measurement
 Measurement is the process of assigning numbers to observations or events, OR;
 Measurement is the processes of comparison of the given physical quantity with the known or
standard quantity of the same nature (kind).
 Measurements of physical quantities are expressed in terms of units, which are standardized
values. For example, the length of a race, which is a physical quantity, can be expressed in
units of meters (for sprinters) or kilometers (for distance runners).
 Without standardized units, it would be extremely difficult for scientists to express and
compare measured values in a meaningful way
Physical Quantities
 Physical quantity is a property of a material that can be quantified by measurement.
 There are two types of physical quantities namely, Fundamental quantities and Derived
quantities
Fundamental Quantities
 Are the basic physical quantities which cannot be expressed in terms of any other physical
quantities. These are length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, luminous intensity and
amount of substance.
Fundamental Quantities and their SI Unit
Quantities SI unit Unit symbol
Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second S
Electric current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole mol
Luminous intensity Candela Cd

Vector and Scalar quantity

 The physical quantity can further be divided into either scalar or vector quantity
 Scalar Quantities are defined as physical quantities that have magnitude or size only.
 Examples of scalar quantities are mass, speed, distance, time, energy, density, volume,
electric current, power, work and so on.
 Vector quantities are those physical quantities that have both magnitude and direction
 Examples of vector quantities are displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force,
weight, etc.

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Measurement of Length
 Length – Is the distance between two points
 The SI unit of length is metre (m).
 It is measured by metre rule, tape measure, Vernier calliper and micrometer screw gauge
 The equivalences of length are given below as follows:
1 kilometer (km) = 1,000 meters (m) 1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters (cm)
1 meter (m) = 1,000 millimeters (mm) 1 centimeter (cm) = 10 millimeters (mm)
1 meter (m) = 1000000 micrometer (𝝁𝒎)
1 meter (m) = 1000000000 nanometer (𝒏𝒎)

Basic equipment/ Apparatus and their uses

 Basic instruments used for measurement in physics includes rulers, calipers, and
micrometers for measuring accurate lengths, also balances and stop watch for measuring
mass and time respectively.
Ruler
 A ruler is a measuring instrument used to determine the length or distance of objects
 A ruler is a measuring instrument used to determine the length or distance of objects.
 It is commonly marked with units of measurement, such as centimeters (cm), millimeters
(mm), or inches (in).

Classification of rulers
(i) Rigid rulers
 These are solid and inflexible rulers made from sturdy materials that do not bend easily.
Commonly made of wood, metal, or hard plastic.
 They are used for measuring straight lines or distances on flat surfaces. Also are used in
technical drawing, construction, and engineering where precise measurements are
required.
 Common types include meter ruler, 50 cm ruler and 30 cm ruler
 Metre rule is a mainly wooden graduated in 100 centimeters or 1metre. The accuracy of
meter rule is 0.1 cm or 1.0 mm.

(ii) Flexible rulers

 These are rulers made from materials that can bend without breaking, allowing them to
measure curved or uneven surfaces.
 They are typically made of soft plastic, fabric, or flexible rubber.
 They are most used for measuring curved or irregular surfaces.
Tape measure
 A tape measure is a flexible measuring tool used to measure the length, width, or height of
objects. It is made of a long strip of marked material, such as plastic or metal that can roll up
for easy storage.

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How to measure distance with meter rule
 Distance is measured starting from the zero reference mark of the meter rule to any required
length. The measured distance or length is read and recorded.
 The reading should be perpendicular to the mark on the scale of a meter rule otherwise the
parallax error occurs which could cause incorrect readings.

How to measure distance of an object using a damaged meter rule

(a) The ends of the ruler get damaged with use and its zero mark may not be visible.
(b) To measure the length of an object with such a ruler, the object is placed close to a specific
marking on the ruler and positions of both ends of the object are read on the ruler. The
difference between the two readings gives the length of the object. In the figure shown below,
the reading on ruler at the end P is 1.0cm and at the end Q is 4.5cm. So the length of the
pencil PQ is 4.5 - 1.0 = 3.5cm.

Calipers
 Callipers are precision measuring instruments characterized by two adjustable arms
or jaws designed to measure the dimensions of an object, such as its length, width,
thickness or diameter
Types of calipers

Digital caliper
 A digital caliper is a tool used to measure the size of objects with great accuracy. It shows
the measurement on a small digital screen, making it easy to read
Parts of a Digital Caliper
 Jaws: Large jaws are used to measure the outside of an object (e.g. the width of a box).
Small jaws are used to measure the inside of an object (e.g., the diameter of a hole).
 Depth Rod at the end of the caliper used to measure how deep a hole is.
 Digital Screen which is used for displaying the measurement as numbers, so you don’t
have to read a scale.

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  Buttons (ON, OFF, ZERO, and UNIT SELECTOR): ON/OFF used for turning the caliper on
or off. Zero buttons is used for resetting the reading to zero before you start measuring. Unit
selector is used for changing the measurement units (e.g., millimeters or inches).

Steps to follow when reading a Digital Caliper

(i) Place the object between the Jaws: Open the calipers and carefully position the object
between the inside or outside jaws (depending on the type of measurement—external or
internal).
(ii) Close the Jaws gently: Close the jaws around the object so they make contact without
applying too much pressure.
(iii) Read the Display: Look at the digital screen of the caliper. The numbers on the screen will
directly show you the measurement, making it easy to read without interpreting any scales.

Vernier Caliper
 Vernier Caliper – Is an instrument used to measure length to the nearest accuracy of
0.01cm. This means the that the smallest distance that a vernier calliper can measure is
0.1mm or 0.01cm
 It is used to measure lengths to the range of 1.0 cm to about 12.0 cm

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 Functions of main parts of a vernier caliper
Part Function
Outside jaws To measure the length of a rod, diameter of a sphere and outer
dimensions of an object (e.g, external diameter of a hollow cylinder)
Inside jaws To measure the internal dimensions of an object (e.g, internal diameter
hollow cylinder or pipe).
Strip To measure depth of an object (e.g,. a beaker or a bottle).
Main scale To measure length correct up to 1 mm
Vernier scale Helps to measure length correct up to 0.01mm
Locking screw To ensure that the reading does not change while the scale is being read

Scale of Vernier Calliper has two scales

(i) Main (Fixed) scale
 The main scale is a fixed scale on the caliper and is typically graduated in millimeters or
centimeters, depending on the unit of measurement.
 Each division on the main scale represents a specific measurement unit, and it provides the
whole number part of the measurement.
(ii) Vernier scale
 The Vernier scale is a secondary scale that slides parallel to the main scale. It has a series
of divisions that are slightly smaller than those on the main scale. Vernier scale gives
reading in hundredth of a centimeter (0.01cm) or thousands of millimeter (0.001mm)
 The zero (0) point on the Vernier scale corresponds to a specific point on the main scale,
ensuring alignment during measurements.
Alignment:
 To read the Vernier scale, align the zero (0) point of the Vernier scale with the closest point
on the main scale.
 Look for the first line on the Vernier scale that aligns perfectly with a line on the main scale.
This indicates the fraction or decimal part of the measurement.
Steps to follow when reading a Vernier Calliper:
 Close the jaws of the vernier caliper and look out for the zero error. Before measuring,
ensure that the caliper is correctly calibrated. Close the jaws fully, and check if the zero marks
on the main scale and vernier scale align. If not, you may need to recalibrate or adjust for zero
error.
 Place the object to be measured between the jaws. Place the object into the correct place for
measuring by using the inside jaws, outside jaws or tail as shown in the above diagram
 Read and record the reading of the main scale mark directly to the left of the zero mark on the
vernier scale.
 Read and record the reading of the vernier scale at the point where the main scale and the
vernier scale coincide. Multiply the reading of the vernier scale by the accuracy of the vernier
scale which is 0.01cm.
 Add the result of Vernier scale reading to the main scale reading to get the final answer which
is the reading of the vernier calliper.
That is, total reading = Main Scale Reading + Vernier Scale Reading
 Consider the figure below shows Vernier calliper with a vernier scale on the sliding secondary
scale. On the vernier scale the zero line provides the reading before the decimal point (12

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 mm), while the non-zero line (3) that aligns most closely with a line on the major scale
provides the reading after the decimal place. This totals a measurement of 12.3 mm.

Worked Examples
1. From the fig below, determine the total reading of the object.

Solution:
Give: Main scale, m.s = 3.3cm , Vernier scale, v.s = 4 x 0.01 = 0.04cm
∴ 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝟑. 𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟒 𝒄𝒎
2. Determine the diameter of the object that is placed between the jaws of the vernier caliper.

Solution:
Give: Main scale, m.s = 11 cm , Vernier scale, v.s = 6 x 0.01 = 0.06cm
∴ 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝟏𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟔 𝒄𝒎
3. What is the reading of the vernier calliper as shown in the figures below?

Reading of main scale = 8.8 cm

Reading of vernier scale = 5
Reading of vernier scale x accuracy of vernier calliper = 5 x 0.01 cm = 0.05 cm
Add the result of step III and step I to get the total reading = 8.8 + 0.05 = 8.85 cm
4. From the fig below, determine the diameter of the object.

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 Solution:
Give: Main scale, m.s = 8.9cm , Vernier scale, v.s = 4 x 0.01 = 0.04cm
∴ 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝟖. 𝟗 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟒 𝒄𝒎
5. What is the significance of the design of the vernier caliper and its readings when
measuring the depth of the beaker, and how does the alignment of the vernier scale
divisions with the main scale affect the accuracy of the measurement?
ANS:
 The design of the vernier caliper, specifically its depth probe, is crucial for accurately
measuring the depth of objects like a beaker. This design ensures that the probe can
extend into narrow spaces and make direct contact with the bottom surface, providing
precise depth readings.
 The alignment of the vernier scale divisions with the main scale is crucial for
achieving accurate and precise measurements. The vernier scale is designed to
subdivide the smallest unit of the main scale into finer increments (the least count or
vernier constant). When a specific division on the vernier scale aligns exactly with a
division on the main scale, it indicates the fractional part of the measurement beyond
the main scale reading. This alignment eliminates ambiguity and ensures that even
minute measurements are captured with accuracy, significantly reducing errors caused
by estimation or human oversight.
6. A vernier caliper is used to measure the thickness of a metallic sheet. The main scale
reading is 5.2 cm, the vernier constant is 0.02 mm, and the 3 rd vernier scale division
coincides with a main scale division. Determine the precise thickness of the sheet,
assuming no zero error.
ANS:
Main scale reading (MSR) = 5.2 cm = 52.0 mm
Vernier scale reading (VSR) = 3 × 0.02 mm = 0.06 mm
Total reading = MSR + VSR = 52.0 mm + 0.06 mm = 52.06 mm
7. In a scenario where a thin metallic strip on a vernier caliper descends from the upper edge
to the lower edge and makes contact with the surface of a beaker, the main scale displays
a reading of 6.4cm, with a vernier constant of 0.1mm, and the 4 th vernier scale division
aligns precisely with a main scale division. Determine the precise depth of the beaker,
assuming there is no zero end error.
ANS:
Main scale reading = 6.4 cm
Vernier scale reading = 4 × 0.01 cm = 0.04 cm
Total reading = 6.4 cm + 0.04 cm = 6.44 cm
∴ The precise depth of the beaker is 6.44 cm.

Vernier Callipers are used to;

 Measure diameter of a small spherical/cylindrical body,
 Measure the dimensions of a given regular body of known mass and hence to determine its
density; and
 Measure the internal diameter and depth of a given cylindrical object like
beaker/glass/calorimeter and hence to calculate its volume.

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Micrometer Screw Gauge
 Is an instrument used to measure the length to the nearest accuracy of 0.001cm or 0.01mm
 It is used to measure the diameters of wires and ball bearings
 It can measure small lengths up to about 2.5 cm
 The accuracy of a micrometer screw gauge is 0.01mm or 0.001cm. This means that the
smallest distance that a micrometer screw gauge can measure is 0.01mm or 0.001cm. see
the figure below

Functions of main parts of a micrometer screw gauge.

Part Functions
Ratchet Knob Is used to secure the object firmly between the anvil and spindle, otherwise
the instrument could be damaged or give wrong reading. The manufacturer
recommends 3 clicks of the ratchet before taking the reading.
Sleeve To mark main scale and base line
Thimble To mark circular scale.
Main scale To read length correct up to 1mm
Circular scale Helps to read length correct up to 0.01 mm.
Anvil The fixed measuring surface against which the object to be measured is
placed.
Spindle The cylindrical component that moves when the thimble is rotated. This will
touch the object to be measured and fix it.
Lock Nut Is used to ensure that the thimble does not rotate while you take the reading
U – frame It provides a basic structure of a micrometer on which the stationary anvil at
one end and movable spindle slide outward or inward through the other end
of the U-frame.
Scale of Micrometer Screw Gauge:-
(i) Main scale (mm)
 The main scale of a micrometer is calibrated in mm. The calibrations of the main scale of
micrometer screw gauge vary depending on the range of measurement that the micrometer
screw gauges are meant to measure. I will not centre on the main scale.

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(ii) Thimble scale
 The vernier scale has 50 equal divisions. Each divisions is obtained by dividing 5 by 10. The
vernier scale move a distance of 0.5mm along the main scale when it makes 1 revolution by
turning round once. One division on the vernier scale equal to 0.5/50 which equal to 0.01mm
on the main scale.

Steps to follow when reading a Micrometer Screw Gauge:

 Check for zero error. When using Micrometer Screw Gauge, we have to first check for zero
error. This is to check whether zero mark on thimble scale coincides with datum line on
the main scale and reading on main scale is 0 when we are not measuring anything (anvil is
in contact with spindle). For reading on zero error, we have to read it from thimble scale.
 Place the object between anvil and spindle, and turn the thimble until the anvil and spindle
grip the object. Then turn the ratchet knob until a "click" sound is heard. This is to prevent
exerting too much pressure on the object measured.
 Read and record the main scale reading at the edge of the thimble.
 Read and record the thimble scale mark that coincides with the datum line of the main scale.
Then multiply the reading of the thimble scale by the accuracy of the thimble scale which is
0.01mm
 Add the result of the main scale reading to the thimble scale reading to get the actual
measurement of the micrometer screw gauge, ie,,,
Total reading = 𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 + 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒎𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈.
 Consider the figure below shows a micrometer screw gauge, where by the main scale
reading is 4.5mm while the thimble scale mark that coincides with the datum line of the
main scale is 0.22mm. Therefore, the actual measurement is then the sum of main scale
reading and thimble scale reading, i.e. 4.5 + 0.22 = 4.72mm

Worked Examples
1. Calculate the total reading for the micrometer screw gauge instrument in the below diagram

Solution:
Given: Main scale, m.s = 9 mm
Thimble scale, v.s = 39 x 0.01 = 0.39mm

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 ∴ 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝐌𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐞 + 𝐓𝐡𝐢𝐦𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐬𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐞 = 𝟗 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗 = 𝟗. 𝟑𝟗 𝒄𝒎

2. From the fig below, determine the diameter of an object.

Solution:
Given: Main scale, m.s = 9.5mm = 0.95cm ,
Thimble scale, v.s = 31 x 0.001 = 0.031cm
∴ 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟏 𝒄𝒎
Precaution to be taken when using the screw gauge
 The spindle and anvil are cleaned with a tissue or cloth, so that any dirt present will not be
measured.
 The thimble must be tightened until the first click is heard.
 The zero error must be checked and recorded.
Uses of micrometer screw gauge. It is used to
 Measure diameter of a given wire,
 Measure thickness of a given sheet; and
 Determine volume of an irregular lamina

Limitation of using Micrometer Screw Gauge

(i) Micrometers are typically designed to measure small dimensions, such as the thickness or
diameter of wires, small parts, or machine components. The measuring range of a standard
micrometer usually extends from 25 mm to 50 mm or 0-25 mm, which makes it unsuitable
for larger objects.
(ii) Micrometers are not equipped to measure depths or internal dimensions (such as the
inside diameter of a hole or the depth of a cavity)
(iii) Micrometers apply a clamping force to the object being measured. For soft or fragile
materials (like rubber, soft metals, or plastic), this force can deform the object, leading to
inaccurate measurements.

Class Activity – 2:1

1. What is the function of the ratchet knob in a micrometer?
2. What is the smallest possible reading (in cm) of a vernier caliper? [ANS; 0.01 cm]
3. Briefly explain how would you measure the diameter of a wire using a micrometer?
ANS: Place the wire between the spindle and the anvil, turn the ratchet until the wire is
secured, and then read the measurement from the sleeve and thimble.
4. What is the smallest possible reading (in mm) on the thimble scale? What is the biggest
possible reading?
ANS; The smallest possible reading on the thimble scale is 0.01 mm, while the biggest
possible reading is 0.49 mm.
5. What is the difference between a micrometer having 100 divisions and one with 50 divisions?
ANS:

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  A micrometer with 100 divisions offers finer precision (0.005 mm) compared to one with
50 divisions (0.01 mm).
 The micrometer with 100 divisions allows for more granular measurement, while the one
with 50 divisions measures larger increments.
 Micrometer with 100 divisions is used for highly precise measurements, whereas that
with 50 divisions is typically used when slightly lower precision is acceptable.
6. What is the correct reading for the micrometer screw gauge shown in the figure below?

Solution:
Given: Main scale, m.s = 2.5mm = 0.25cm ,
Thimble scale, v.s = 38 x 0.001 = 0.038cm
∴ 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟖 𝒄𝒎
7. What is the reading shown from the parts of diagrams of a micrometer screw gauge
[ANS: 5.92mm, 5.81mm,7.24mm,5.61mm]

8. Where on the vernier calipers would you read to obtain the vernier scale reading?
ANS; The vernier scale reading is obtained from the reading on the main scale that has
an alignment of the scale lines of the main scale and vernier scale.
9. Describe in steps how you would measure the length of a pencil using a metre rule.
Draw a diagram if necessary.
10. You are measuring the diameter of a small steel rod. The main scale reading is 5 mm, and
the thimble scale aligns perfectly at 28 divisions. Calculate the diameter of the steel rod.
[ANS; 5.28mm]
11. Name the instrument which is commonly used to measure the mass of a body. State
how is it used?
12. Read the figure below and answer the following questions

(a) Identify the instruments

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 (b) Name the parts labeled J,K,L, M and N
(c) State the function of the instrument
13. Where on the vernier calipers would you read to obtain the main scale reading?
ANS; The main scale reading is obtained from the reading on the main scale that is at
the immediate left of the zero on the vernier scale.
14. Explain how you can use a vernier caliper to take reading
15. Explain how you can use micrometer screw gauge to take reading
16. You are measuring the diameter of a small steel ball using a vernier caliper. The main scale
reading just before the zero of the Vernier scale is 1.2 cm. The 6th line on the Vernier scale
aligns perfectly with a line on the main scale. Calculate the diameter of the steel ball.
[ANS; T = M.S + V.S = 1.2 cm + 6x0.01cm = 1.26cm]
17. In a vernier calliper, there are 10 divisions on the vernier scale and 1 cm on main scale is
divided in 10 parts. While measuring a length, the zero of the vernier scale lies just ahead of
1.8 cm mark and 4th division of vernier scale coincides with a main scale division. Find the
value of the length [ANS; T = M.S +V.S = 1.8 cm + 0.01 x 4 = 1.84cm]
18. Find the total reading from the given figures below
(ANS: (a) 0.256cm, (b) 12.27 cm, (c) 0.297 cm, (d) 3.36 cm)

19. State the functions of main parts of a vernier caliper

20. State the functions of main parts of a micrometer screw gauge.
21. How do you ensure accurate measurement when using a ruler?
22. Change the 500cm into:- (a) kilometer (b) m (d) mm
23. What happens if you apply too much force when using the micrometer screw gauge to
measure the wire?
ANS: If you apply too much force, you may compress the wire, leading to an inaccurate
reading. It is important to stop turning the thimble once the ratchet stop clicks to apply the
correct, even pressure.
24. Explain why it is advised to start at the mark beyond 0cm when taking a measurement
using a meter ruler
ANS: It is because the zero mark of the ruler may not be exactly aligned or may be worn out.
Starting at a small mark, such as 1 cm, helps to avoid errors caused by a damaged or unclear
zero mark.
25. How does estimated length and measured length differ
ANS:
 Estimated length refers to an approximation of the length of an object based on visual
judgment, experience, or rough calculation. It is not based on precise measurements
using specific tools.
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  Measured length is the actual length determined by using a specific measuring
instrument, such as a ruler, caliper, or measuring tape. The measured length is
obtained through a formal process that includes direct contact with the object and
precise scale divisions.
Mass
 Mass – Is the quantity of matter in a substance.
 The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg).
 It is measured by beam balance.
 Other units of mass are milligram, gram, tones etc
 Their equivalence: 1t = 1000kg 1kg = 1000g 1g = 1000mg
Types of Beam Balance
Lever arm balance (uses the principle of moments to measure the mass)
 A lever arm balance is used to measure the mass of objects by comparing the weight of the
object to known reference weights using the principle of moments
 It is used in laboratories to measure masses of objects or substance

Working of lever arm balance

 A lever arm balance works based on the principle of moments. The object to be measured
is placed on one side of the beam, and known (standard) weights are placed on the other
side. When the beam is horizontal and balanced, the moments on both sides are equal,
allowing you to determine the mass of the object, i.e, When the beam is level, the mass of
the object is equal to the sum of the standard weights.

Triple beam balance (uses the principle of moments to measure the mass)
 A triple beam balance is used to measure the mass of objects by comparing the mass of an
object to the calibrated sliding weights on the three beams.
 It is also used in laboratories to measure masses of objects or substance

Working of triple beam balance

 A triple beam balance has three beams, each with a sliding weight (rider). You place the
object on the pan, and then adjust the riders on each beam until the pointer lines up with
the zero mark on the scale. The sum of the values indicated by the positions of the riders
on the beams gives the mass of the object.
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Digital balance
 A digital balance is used to measure the mass of substances or objects with high precision
and accuracy. It measures the mass to an accuracy of the thousandth (0.001g) of a gram.
 Because of their precision and ease of use, digital balances are commonly used to measure
mass of objects in the laboratory

Measuring mass using a digital balance

 Turn on the balance and wait for it to stabilize. Ensure the balance reads zero. If not, use the
tare function to reset it. Place the sample or object you want to weigh on the pan. Wait for
the reading to stabilize and then record the displayed mass.
NB;
Mass should not be confused with weight, here are some points which make the differences
between mass and weights
Mass weight
Is the quantity of matter in an object Is a force of gravity on an object
It is constant It varies with environment
It is a fundamental quantity It is a derived quantity
Its SI unit is kilogram (kg) Its SI unit is Newton (N)
It is measured by beam balance It is measured by spring balance
Is a scalar quantity Is a vector quantity

Measurement of time
 Time is a measure of the interval between two events, or the period within which an event
takes place.
 It is measured by using clock or wristwatch or stopwatch
 The SI unit of time is second (s)
 Seconds further break down into numerous segments to make it easy to calculate time.
𝟏𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆 = 𝟔𝟎 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔
𝟏 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓 = 𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔
𝟏𝒅𝒂𝒚 = 𝟐𝟒 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔 = 𝟖𝟔, 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔
𝟏 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓 = 𝟑𝟔𝟓 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔 = 𝟖𝟕𝟔𝟎 𝒉𝒓𝒔 = 𝟓𝟐𝟓, 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒔 = 𝟑𝟏, 𝟓𝟑𝟔, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔

 For small units of time, Seconds break down into the following
𝟏 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔 (𝒎𝒔) = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝝁𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒏𝒔
𝟏 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔 (𝝁𝒔)
𝟏 𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔 (𝒏𝒔)

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Stopwatch
 Stop watch – is a device that is held in the hand to show the time elapsed. It has a display
that shows the time elapsed since the stopwatch was started.
 The primary function of a stopwatch, whether digital or analog, is to measure the amount of
time that has elapsed from the time it is started to when it is stopped. It is typically used for
timing events such as races, experiments, or any activity where time is a critical factor.
How to use a stop watch
To use the buttons on the stopwatch:
(i) Set the stopwatch to the time you want to track.
(ii) Start the stopwatch by pressing the “start” button.
(iii) Stop the stopwatch by pressing the “stop” button.
(iv) Record the time the stopwatch was running by looking at the display.
Types of Stopwatch
 Analog stopwatch
 Digital stopwatch
N.B: Digital stopwatch is more accurate than analog stopwatch.
Ways of reducing errors during measurement
 Taking several readings and then find the average
 Avoiding parallax error by positioning the instrument properly on the table with eyes
perpendicular to the scale. This technique is crucial for obtaining accurate measurements,
especially when using devices like rulers, calipers, or thermometers.
 Adjusting instruments to eliminate zero error: Some instruments, like vernier calipers or
balances, may have zero errors if they do not read exactly zero when they should. Adjusting
or calibrating the instrument to eliminate this error ensures that your measurements are more
accurate, with no systematic deviation at the start of each measurement.

Class Activity – 2:2

1. How does
(a) A triple beam balance work?
(b) A lever arm balance work?
2. Explain how would you use a triple beam balance to measure the mass of calorimeter?
3. How does a digital stopwatch differ from an analog stopwatch?
4. What are the common applications of a stopwatch in the laboratory?
5. Explain how would you use a stopwatch in recording time
6. Convert the following time into minutes
(a) 2 hours (c) 4 weeks
(b) 3 days (d) 5 seconds
7. Convert the following time into seconds
a) 10 milliseconds c) 5 hours
b) 300 microseconds d) 2.75 minutes
8. How many grams are there in 5milligrams of sugar?
9. How can you differentiate between mass and weight?
10. What is the difference between a beam balance and a digital balance?
ANS: A beam balance uses a mechanical lever to compare masses, while a digital balance
uses electronic sensors to provide a numerical mass reading
11. What units are commonly used to measure mass?
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12. How is mass measured in the laboratory?
13. Convert 50kg into the following
(a) Grams (b) milligrams (c) Tonnes

Delivered Quantities
 Are the physical quantities which are expressed in terms of the fundamental quantities
 Examples are speed, area, density, volume ,weight ,pressure etc
 The derived quantities can be obtained in two ways;-
(i) Many derived quantities are calculated using specific mathematical relationships
based on fundamental quantities. For example;
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
Speed is derived from distance and time using the formula; 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

Force is derived from mass and acceleration using Newton's second law,
𝒊. 𝒆 , 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 × 𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔
Density is derived from mass and volume using the formula; 𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
(ii) Some derived quantities are determined through experimental methods
Measurement of Volume
 Volume Is the quantity of space that an object occupies.
 Its SI unit is cubic meter (m3). Other units of volume are Cubic centimeter (cm 3), milliliter
(𝒎𝒍)and litre (𝒍)
 Whereby; 1 m3 = 1000L 1L = 1000 cm3 1L = 1000 ml 1L = 1dm3

Measurement of Volume of Liquid

 Litre is the standard unit used for measuring the volume of liquids.
 Burette , Pipette, measuring cylinder are examples of the instruments or apparatus used to
measure the volume of liquids
 During measurement the eye should be in the same line with the meniscus of the liquid
 Meniscus – is the curved shape of the top surface of a liquid in a cylinder or tube; it should be
read at the bottom of the concave shape for most liquids although some such as mercury
have a convex shape (read the top of the meniscus when it is convex)

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Measurement of volume using a measuring cylinder
 The measuring cylinder are used to measure the volume of a liquid, ranging from a few
milliliters to hundreds of milliliters
 Measuring cylinders come in different sizes and are typically made of glass or plastic.
 Measuring cylinders are graduated from bottom to top, allowing precise measurements of
liquid volumes.
 The figure below shows an example of a measuring cylinder

 To measure the volume of a measuring cylinder, make sure you place it on a flat surface,
ensure the liquid is at eye level and then read the volume at the bottom or at the top of the
meniscus depending to the type of liquid being measured.
Measurement of volume using a burette
 A burrete is a vertical cylindrical piece of laboratory glassware with a volumetric graduation on
its full length and a precision tap or stopcork on the bottom.
 A burette is used to dispense a specific amount of liquid reagent with high precision, making it
an essential tool in experiments where accurate volume control is crucial, such as in titrations
and other quantitative chemical analyses.

 In using a burette the following steps are to be followed

(i) Pour the liquid into the burette carefully, using a funnel if necessary and make sure that it
does not pass the 0 mark at the top. Note down this volume as 𝑽𝟏
(ii) Note down the value of the amount of liquid you require to use, say 𝑽 and add it to 𝑽𝟏 to
get 𝑽𝟐 𝒊. 𝒆, 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽
(iii) Open the tap and let the liquid run until the level of the liquid reaches 𝑽𝟐
(iv) Subtracting 𝑽𝟏 from 𝑽𝟐 to get 𝑽 i.e, 𝑽 = 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏

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Measurement of volume using a pipette
 A pipette is a laboratory instrument commonly used to transfer or measure small amounts of
liquid from one container to another.
 It is typically a cylindrical glass or plastic tube open at both ends, and it works by creating a
vacuum to draw the liquid into the tube.

 Sometimes, a flexible rubber bulb is attached to one end of the pipette to aid in drawing liquid
from a container, as illustrated in the figure below.

Volume of a solid regular object

 Regular object is the object with known shape.
 For example, cylinder, rectangular prism, cube etc.
 The Volume of an object is given by; 𝑽 = 𝑨 × 𝒉
Whereby:
A = area of a regular object h = height of a regular object
The following are formulas of Volume of some regular objects
Objects Figure Volume
Cube
𝑽 = 𝒘 × 𝒃 × 𝒉
= 𝒘 × 𝒘 × 𝒘
= 𝒘𝟑

𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒘 = 𝒉 = 𝒃

Rectangul
ar prism 𝑽 = 𝒘 ×𝒃 ×𝒉

Cylinder 𝑽 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉

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 Sphere
(𝒉 = 𝒓) 𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟑
𝑽=
𝟑

Class Activity – 2:3

1. Calculate the volume of cylinder whose radius and height are 5 cm and 14 cm respectively.
Given that π = 3.14. (ANS: V = 1099 cm3)
2. Calculate the volume of a solid metallic sphere whose radius is 9cm [ANS; 3052 cm3]
3. A cuboid with length 3cm, width 4cm and height 10cm is made from wood. What is the actual
volume of the cuboid [ANS; 120 cm3]
4. Calculate the volume of rectangular block of sides 15cm, 8cm and 7cm [ANS; V= 840 cm3]
5. How are derived quantities different from fundamental quantities?
6. How can the volume of a regular object be determined?
7. A cylindrical container has a diameter of 10 cm and a height of 12cm. calculate its volume,
given that 𝜋 = 3.14. [ANS; 𝑽 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉 → 𝑽 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒉 = 𝟗𝟒𝟐 𝒄𝒎3]
8. The volume of the brick is given as 60cm3. Given that its length and width are 6cm and 4cm
𝑽 𝟔𝟎
respectively, calculate its height [ANS; 𝑽 = 𝒍 × 𝒘 × 𝒉 → 𝒉 = = = 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒄𝒎3]
𝒍×𝒘 𝟔×𝟒

Volume of an irregular object

 Irregular object is the object with unknown shape.
 For example, stone, human body etc.
 The volume of irregular object is obtained by displacement method or immersion method

Displacement Method
 Volume of irregular object is based on the principle that when an object is completely
submerged in water it displaces a volume of water equal to its own volume.
 The volume of irregular object can be measured by using:
(a) A Graduated cylinder
(b) A Eureka can or overflow can

Graduated Cylinder
Suppose you want to measure the volume of a small stone. The following steps are necessary:-
 Fill a graduated cylinder to known mark (let it be 600ml)
 Carefully measure the initial volume of water (𝑽𝟏 )
 Gently lower the stone into the water as shown in the figure below
 Measure the final volume of water (𝑽𝟐 )
 Lastly find the difference between the final and initial volume of water .This gives the volume
of a stone. That is VSTONE = V2 – 𝑽𝟏
(OR; when using the figure below; 𝑽𝑺 = 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏 = 𝟖𝟎𝟎 − 𝟔𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒎𝑳)

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Using Eureka Can (Over flow can)
Consider the following steps:-
 Fill the overflow can with water up to the level of the spout as shown in the figure (i) below

 Tie the irregular solid (stone) with a string

 Gently drop the irregular solid into water using a string. See figure (ii) above
 The irregular solid (stone) will displace some water which will be collected in the beaker
 Transfer the displaced water into a graduated cylinder
 Measure the volume of water, which is the volume of irregular solid

Worked Examples
1. When an irregular solid was immersed in 65cm 3 of water the water level rises to 81cm3. What
was the volume of the solid?
Solution: Volume of the solid, V = V2 – V1 = 81 – 65 = 16 cm3
2. A student submerges an irregular piece of clay in water and notices that it displaces 125 𝒎𝑳
of water. The clay is then reshaped into a cube. What is the length of one side of the cube?
ANS; 𝒍 = 𝟓𝒄𝒎
Determination of Volume of Gas
 The volume of gas is obtained by measuring the volume of the container into which it is put
 There are two practical methods for determining the volume of a gas, which is typically equal
to the volume of its container
(i) From its dimensions . If the container has a regular shape, such as a cube, cylinder, or
rectangular box, the volume can be calculated directly from its geometric dimensions.

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 (ii) By filling it with water. This method is suitable for containers of any shape. Fill the
container with water completely, and then measure the volume of water using a graduated
cylinder or any other measuring tool. This volume corresponds to the volume of gas the
container can hold.
𝑻𝒉𝒖𝒔; 𝑽𝑮𝑨𝑺 = 𝑽𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑻𝑨𝑰𝑵𝑬𝑹

Sources of errors
 An error in measurement refers to the difference between the measured value and the true
or accepted value of a physical quantity that is being measured or observed
 Errors usually arise due to several reasons as listed below;
1. Faults during manufacture – Inaccuracies can originate from defects in the manufacturing
process of the measuring instrument, affecting its reliability.
2. Damage during use – Instruments can become damaged through rough handling,
exposure to extreme conditions, or wear and tear over time. This damage can alter their
accuracy and lead to measurement errors.
3. Poor storage – Improper storage conditions. For example; high humidity, extreme
temperatures, or exposure to dust can affect the calibration and functionality of measuring
instruments, resulting in errors.
4. Human factors – errors can arise when an experimenter does not take readings from an
instrument properly. The three common errors due to improper reading of an instrument are
parallax error, zero error and instrumental error

Parallax error
 This occurs when the observer's eye is not positioned directly perpendicular to the measuring
scale, causing the measurement to appear different from different angles.
 For example; when measuring liquid in a graduated cylinder, if the observer's eye is not
directly perpendicular with the meniscus, the reading may appear higher or lower than the
actual value. See the figure below

 To minimize parallax error, ensure that your eye is directly in line with the reading point on
the scale OR; your eye must always be placed vertically above the mark being read.
 For liquids in a graduated cylinder, your eye should be level with the meniscus.
 Also, make sure the measuring tool (e.g., a ruler, graduated cylinder, or balance) is placed on
a level surface to prevent tilting, which could alter your line of sight.

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Zero error
 Before taking any measurement, the pointer or gauge should be aligned with the zero mark on
the scale. If it is not, the measurement will include an offset error (zero erro), resulting in
inaccurate readings. Thus; Zero error is the error that occurs when a measuring instrument
does not read zero when it should, indicating a deviation from the true baseline.
 For example; if a vernier caliper shows a reading when its jaws are fully closed, this indicates
a zero error, and all future measurements need to be adjusted accordingly by either adding or
subtracting this value.

Types of zero error

(i) Positive zero error
 This occurs when the instrument shows a reading above zero when there is no input.
 If the instrument has a positive zero error (reading starts above zero), all measured values
will be higher than the actual values. See figure (b) below

(ii) Negative zero error

 This occurs when the instrument shows a reading below zero when there is no input.
 If the instrument has a negative zero error (reading starts below zero), all measured
values will be lower than the actual values. See figure (c) below

 For example;
(i) On a weighing scale, if the reading shows 2 grams when nothing is placed on it, it has a
positive zero error. Thus, all measurements will be 2 grams heavier than they truly are.
(ii) On a thermometer, if it shows −𝟐°𝑪 when in an environment at 𝟎°𝑪, it has a negative
zero error. Thus, all measurements will be −𝟐°𝑪 lower than the actual values
 To minimize zero error, the instrument should be adjusted to read zero as shown in
figure (a) above. The pointer can be adjusted to read zero. The adjustment is often done
using an adjustment knob or screw. If it is a digital instrument, reset the reading to zero
using a tare or zero button to ensure accurate measurements.

Zero error for Vernier caliper and micrometer screw gauge

 If the zero on the vernier scale is to the right of the main scale, then the error is said to
be positive zero error and so the zero correction should be subtracted from the reading
which is measured.
 If the zero on the vernier scale is to the left of the main scale, then the error is said to
be negative zero error and so the zero correction should be added from the reading
which is measured.

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  If the zero marking on the thimble is BELOW the datum line, the micrometer has a
positive zero error. Whatever reading we take on this micrometer we would have to
subtract the zero correction from the readings.
 If the zero marking on the thimble is ABOVE the datum line, the micrometer has a
negative zero error. Whatever readings we take on this micrometer we would have to add
the zero correction from the readings.
𝒊. 𝒆, 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝑶𝒃𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 ± 𝒁𝒆𝒓𝒐 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓

Instrumental error
 Instrumental error refers to inaccuracies in measurements caused by the measuring
instrument itself. These errors can arise from various factors, including imperfections in the
design, calibration issues, wear and tear, and environmental factors (such as extreme
temperatures, moisture or dust).
 To minimize instrumental error, make regular maintenance, calibration, and proper care to
extend the life of instruments and get accurate measurements

Class Activity – 2:4

1. How can the volume of an irregular object be measured?
ANS:
The volume of an irregular object can be measured using water displacement. The object is
submerged in water, and the increase in water level indicates the volume of the object.
2. How would you determine the volume of an irregular solid using the water displacement
method?
3. Why is the water displacement method used to measure the volume of irregular solids?
ANS: It is difficult to calculate the volume of irregular solids mathematically, so submerging
the object in water and measuring the change in volume gives a direct way to measure the
volume.
4. How can you avoid parallax errors when measuring a length with a metre rule?
5. Upon closing the jaws of the vernier caliper without any object between them, you notice the
zero mark of the Vernier scale is to the right of the main scale’s zero by 0.02 cm. When
measuring a wire thickness, the main scale reads 0.5 cm, and the 8th line on the Vernier scale
aligns with the main scale. What is the correct thickness of the wire? [ANS; 0.56 cm]
6. Before starting your measurement, you notice that when fully closed, the thimble scale’s zero
mark is 2 divisions below the sleeve’s baseline. You measure an object, and the main scale
reads 3 mm, with the thimble scale at 15 divisions. What is the object’s corrected
measurement? [ANS; 3.15mm – (+ 0.02mm) = 3.13mm]
NB; +0.02 mm error. It means that all measurements taken by the vernier calipers will be
larger by 0.02 cm
7. Upon inspection, the micrometer shows a negative zero error of 5 divisions when fully closed.
You measure a metallic sphere, and the sleeve indicates a reading of 4 mm, with the thimble
at 22 divisions. Determine the sphere’s accurate diameter.
[A; 4.22mm –(– 0.05mm) = 4.27mm]
NB; – 0.05 mm error. It means that all measurements taken by the vernier calipers will be
smaller by 0.05 cm.
8. Before measuring an object, you notice that the zero on the Vernier scale is slightly to the left
of the main scale’s zero by 0.03 cm (negative zero error). The object’s measurement shows a
main scale reading of 2.5 cm and the 10th line on the Vernier scale aligns with the main scale.
What is the object’s actual size? [A; 2.5 cm + 10x0.01 cm + 0.03cm = 2.63 cm]

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9. You are measuring the length of a pencil using a vernier caliper and observe a positive zero
error of 0.01 cm. The main scale reading is exactly at 7.5 cm, and the 15th line on the Vernier
scale matches up with the main scale. Calculate the pencil’s accurate length.
[A; 7.5 cm + 15 x 0.01 cm – 0.01 cm = 7.64 cm]
10. How do you take a measurement if the ruler is damaged at the zero mark?
ANS: If the zero mark on the ruler is damaged, you can start measuring from another clear
mark, such as the 1 cm mark, and subtract that value from your final measurement. For
example, if you measure starting from 1 cm, subtract 1 cm from the total length to get the
correct measurement.

Importance of Measurement
 It is used in architecture and engineering for designing of bridges, flyovers and other
structures
 It is used in school to determine the number of students
 Measurement for length are used for fitting clothes in the fashion industry
 In trade – exact quantities for export or import are to be known
 Helps to identify the space occupied by substance
 Helps us to know the rate of working
 Helps us to identify the size of substance
 It helps in decision making
 Measurement is used in buying and selling of goods (fruits, vegetables, cloth, etc.).
 It is also used while cooking and making food items.
 It is important for doing scientific experiments.

Class Activity – 2
1. What do you understand by the term derived quantities of measurement?
2. Mention at least 10 derived quantities of measurement.
3. Define the term volume of a substance
4. Calculate the volume of a cube of sides 2 cm. [ANS: 8cm3]
5. What is the volume of an irregular solid immersed in 50 cm 3 of water contained in a beaker if
it raises the water level to 57 cm3 [ANS: 7cm3]
6. A student repeatedly measures the mass of an object as 49grams, while the actual value is
52 grams. What conclusion can be drawn about the accuracy of the student’s measurement?
7. A beaker contained 100 cm3 of liquid. A 25 cm3 pipette was used twice to transfer the liquid to
another beaker. What is the volume of the liquid left in the original beaker? [[ANS: 50cm3]
8. The actual diameter of a lead ball is 3.21mm. Determine the reading that would have been
obtained if;
(a) A micrometer screw gauge was used
(b) A vernier caliper was used
ANS:
(a) A micrometer screw gauge typically has a least count of 0.01 mm. The reading on the
micrometer screw gauge would be rounded to the nearest 0.01 mm. Therefore, the
reading obtained would be 3.21 mm, rounded to the nearest 0.01 mm, which is 3.21 mm.
(b) A vernier caliper typically has a least count of 0.1 mm. The reading on the vernier caliper
would be rounded to the nearest 0.1mm. Therefore, the reading obtained would be 3.2
mm (rounded to the nearest 0.1 mm)
9. What is the volume of the irregular solid if when immersed in 200 cm 3 of water contained in
the measuring cylinder raises the level of water to 225 cm3? [ANS: 25cm3]

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10. A rectangular block measures height 1.00cm, width 2.50cm and length 4.00cm.
(a) What instrument was used to measure the sides of the rectangular block?
(b) Calculate the volume of the rectangular block [A: ruler, 10.00cm3]
11. Why do we need to measure things?
12. Suppose a teacher asks you to determine the mass of water in a measuring cylinder. How
would you do it using a digital balance?
13. Imagine you are using a digital balance to measure the mass of a metallic ball. What is the
unit of the reading on the electronic balance? [ANS: grams (g) or kilogram (kg)]
14. A physics student obtained the following results for the diameter of the same wire from an
experiment; 0.35mm, 0.36mm and 0.34mm. calculate the diameter of the wire
𝟎.𝟑𝟓+𝟎.𝟑𝟔+𝟎.𝟑𝟒
ANS: diameter of the wire = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝒎𝒎
𝟑

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 Chapter: 03
Introduction to Force

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 Chapter: 4
Density and Relative Density

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 Chapter: 05
Sinking and Floating
Concept of sinking and floating

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 Chapter: 06
Mechanical Properties of Matter

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Chapter: 07 – Pressure

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 Chapter: 08
Motion in a Straight Line
Concept of Motion:
 When an object moves from one place or point to another place or point, it is said that the
object is in motion. For example falling of leaves from a tree, blowing of air, running of a dog,
running of a boy, flying of a bee, running of a vehicle, etc.
 In the universe everything is moving whether it is a star or a meteor. Our earth is moving
around the sun, the moon is moving around the earth, and even the sun is moving in the
galaxy.
 Therefore; Motion is the process of continuously changing in position of an object with time
from one place to another.
 If an object does not change its position with time, with respect to its surrounding, then it is
said to be at Rest.
 The motion of an object along a straight line is known as Rectilinear Motion. For example;
motion of a cyclist along a straight road, motion of a train on track, freely falling body under
gravity etc.
Terms used to describe Motion
 Distance and displacement
 Speed and velocity
 Acceleration and Retardation
Distance and displacement
Distance
 The distance that an object travels is the length of the path that the object takes from the
starting point of its motion to the endpoint of its motion.
 Distance is represented by letter s
 The distance is a scalar quantity.
 The SI unit of distance is Metre (m). Other units are Centimeter (cm), and Kilometer (km)
 The figure below shows the distance between two points(AB)

Displacement
 Is the distance moved by an object in a specific direction.
 It is a vector quantity.
 The SI unit of displacement is metre (m). Other units are centimeter (cm), and kilometer
(km)
 The diagram below shows the distance in a particular direction between the two pints.

NB;

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  Although the distance traveled by an object and its displacement can be measured using
the same units, such as kilometres or metres, the displacement must always have its
direction specified too.
 Furthermore, distances are always positive, while displacements involving motion in a
straight line (one-dimensional motion) can be positive or negative.
Worked examples

1.Halima runs twice round a field track of length 500m.

(a) What distance does she covers?
(b) What is her displacement from the starting point?
ANS;
(a) Total distance covered = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 + 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎
(b) Total displacement = direct distance from initial position to final position = 0m
2. John travels 250 km to North but then back-tracks to South for 105 km to pick up a friend.
(a) What is John’s total distance?
(b) What is John’s total displacement?
ANS:
(a) Total distance travelled by John = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝒌𝒎 = 𝟑𝟓𝟓𝒌𝒎
(b) Total displacement = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 – 𝟏𝟎𝟓 = 𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝒌𝒎
3. A car moves 80km due north and the suddenly changes its direction and moves another
60km due east. Determine
(a) The total distance covered
(b) The displacement of the car
ANS:
(a) Total distance covered = 𝟖𝟎𝒌𝒎 + 𝟔𝟎 𝒌𝒎 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝒌𝒎
(b) The displacement of the car.
Consider the figure below

From; Pythagoras theorem; 𝒊. 𝒆, 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 = 𝒄𝟐

𝟖𝟎𝟐 + 𝟔𝟎𝟐 = 𝒄𝟐  𝒄 = 𝒔 = √𝟖𝟎𝟐 + 𝟔𝟎𝟐 = √𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒌𝒎
4. An object moves along the grid through points A, B, C, D, E, and F as shown below.
The side of square tiles measures 0.5 km.

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 (i) Calculate the distance covered by the moving object.
(ii) Find the magnitude of the displacement of the object.
ANS;
(i) Total distance covered = 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑩𝑪 + 𝑪𝑫 + 𝑫𝑬 + 𝑬𝑭
𝒔 = 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟓 = 𝟔. 𝟓𝒌𝒎
(ii) Magnitude of displacement of the object = distance between Initial point A to final point F
Then; the distance AF can be calculated by applying Pythagoras’s theorem to the triangle
AHF as shown in the figure below

̅̅̅̅𝟐 = 𝑨𝑯
𝑨𝑭 ̅̅̅̅𝟐 
̅̅̅̅̅𝟐 + 𝑯𝑭 ̅̅̅̅
𝑨𝑭𝟐 = (𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟒)𝟐 + (𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟑)𝟐 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓
̅̅̅̅
𝑨𝑭 = √𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒌𝒎

Differences between Distance and Displacement

Distance Displacement
The complete length of the path between It is the shortest distance between the final
any two points is called distance. and initial position of the object’s motion.
Distance is a scalar quantity as it only Displacement is a vector quantity as it
depends upon the magnitude and not the depends upon both magnitude and
direction. direction.
Example; 10km Example; 10 km North
Distance can only have positive values. Displacement can be positive, negative
and even zero.
The distance travelled by the body can be Displacement can never be greater than
more than or equal to displacement. the distance travelled by the body.

MWL GEOFREY M IDEBE (0688/0673 – 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 45

Although they have many differences, they also have a few similarities. The following are
the most common similarities.
(i) Both distance and displacement have the same SI unit, the meter (m).
(ii) Both require a reference point from which they can measure.
(iii) They are equal if the body moves in a straight line and would be even better if they
move only in one direction.
(iv) The dimensions of both are the same.
Class Activity – 8:1
1. A car moves 8km due South and then suddenly changes its direction and moves another 6km
due west.
Determine;
(a) The total distance covered [ANS; 14 km]
(b) The displacement of the car [ANS; 10km]
2. What are the differences and similarities between displacement and distance
3. The displacement of an object for a round trip between two locations
A. Is always greater than zero. B. Is always less than zero
C. Is zero D. Is not zero E. Can have any value
4. If a person walks 10 meters forward and then 10 meters back, what is the distance and
displacement? [ANS; distance = 10 + 10 = 20m, displacement = 10 – 10 = 0m]

Speed and Velocity

Speed
 Speed –Is the distance moved per unit time. OR Is the rate of change of distance.
 The speed is represented by letter v.
 It is a scalar quantity.

𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒔
Speed (v) = =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝒕

 The SI unit of speed is Meter per Second (m/s). Other unit used is kilometer per hour
(km/h)

Velocity
 Velocity – Is the rate of change of displacement
 It is a vector quantity.
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒔
 Velocity (v) = =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝒕

 The SI unit of velocity is Meter per Second (m/s). Other units used is kilometer per hour
(km/h)
NB: 10 m/s = 36 km/h
NB:
 Initial velocity is the velocity of the body at the starting point of observation.
 Final velocity is the velocity of the body at the ending point of observation.
𝒖+𝒗
 Average velocity is the mean of initial and final velocities. → Va =
𝟐

MWL GEOFREY M IDEBE (0688/0673 – 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 46

  OR – Average velocity is the ratio of the total displacement to the total time.
𝒔
Average velocity, 𝑽𝑨 =
𝒕
 Uniform velocity – is the type of velocity in which the rate of change of displacement with
time is constant.
 Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of the body at an instant of time.
Worked Examples;
1. What is the average speed of an athlete who runs 1500 m in 4 minutes?
ANS: given; 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒎, 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝟒𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒔 = 𝟒 × 𝟔𝟎 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝒔
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎
Therefore; Average 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = = = = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓𝒎/s
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟒×𝟔𝟎 𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝟏
2. A car has a velocity of 72km/h. How far does it travel in minute?
𝟐
𝟏
ANS: 𝒗 = 𝟕𝟐𝒌𝒎/h = 𝟐𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒕 = 𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟔𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎𝒔
𝟐
𝒔
From; 𝒗 =
𝒕
 𝒔 = 𝒗𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎
∴ Displacement = 600m

3. An object travelled 20 m to the right in 4 s and then 12 m to the left in 3s, for its total motion.
What was its average speed and its average velocity.
Data given
(a) Total distance traveled, s = 20 m + 12 m = 32 m
Total time, t = 4s + 3 s = 7 s
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟑𝟐
𝑨𝒗𝒆. 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = = = 𝟒. 𝟓𝟕 𝒎/𝒔
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟕
(b) When the object is moving to right its displacement is positive and when to the left its
displacement is negative
Total displacement (s) = 20 + -12 m = 8 m
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟖
𝑨𝒗𝒆. 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒 𝒎/𝒔
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟕

4. A bus increases its speed steadily from 20m/s to 30m/s in one minute
𝟐𝟎+𝟑𝟎
(a) What is its average speed during this time? [A: 𝑨𝒗. 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = = 𝟐𝟓m/s]
𝟐
(b) How far does it travel while increasing its speed? [A: s =Av.sp × 𝒕 =25×60=1500m]
5. A car is moving around a circular racing track takes 120 s to do a lap of 8km. What is the
(a) Speed of the car
(b) Velocity of the car
ANS:
𝒅 𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎
(a) 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = = = 𝟖𝟎𝒎/s
𝒕 𝟏𝟎𝟎
(b) Since the car is moving around a circular track and returns to its starting point, the
𝒔 𝟎
displacement after one complete lap is 0. Therefore; 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = = = 𝟎𝒎/s
𝒕 𝟏𝟎𝟎

6. A truck travels a distance from A to B at a speed of 40km/h and returns to A at a speed

of 50 km/h, calculate the average velocity of the whole journey:
ANS;
From;
 Since the truck has returned to its original position, the total displacement = 0m
 Time taken, T = 2t

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 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒙+(−𝒙)
 Therefore; 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝒗𝒂 = = = 𝟎𝒌𝒎/h
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝟐𝒕
Differences between Speed and Velocity
Speed Velocity
It is the rate of change of distance It is the rate of change of distance moved in a
specified direction
It is a scalar quantity. The speed does It is a vector quantity. The velocity tells us
not tell us the direction of motion. the speed as well as the direction of motion
The speed is always positive since The velocity can be positive or
direction is not taken into consideration. negative depending upon the direction of
motion.
Example; 100km/s Example 100km/s East
After one round in a circular path, the After completing each round in a circular
average speed is not zero. path, the average velocity is zero.
Class Activity – 8:2
1. A bus travels 240 km in 5hours. What was the speed of the bus? [ANS: 48km/h]
2. A train moves with a uniform velocity of 36km/h for 10s. Calculate the distance travelled
ANS: 100m
3. (a) Why does the average speed of a car which travels 600m in 30 s differ from its actual
speed?
(b) Calculate the average speed of the car in (a)
ANS:
(a) A car's actual speed can differ from its average speed because a car's speed is rarely
constant. For example, stopping at traffic lights reduces your speed to zero meters per
second temporarily. These stationary periods increase the overall travel time, thereby
lowering the total average speed compared to moments when the car is in motion.
(b) Average speed = 20m/s
4. A ball is dropped from a height of 20m above the ground. It hits the ground in 2s and
bounces back up to a height of 12.7m in 1.6s .What are its average velocity
(ANS: 2.03 m/s)
5. A 100m runner finishes the race in 10s. What is her average speed? (ANS: 10 m/s)
6. A body covers a distance of 480 m in 6sec. Calculate its speed.(ANS: 80 m/s)
7. Give an example of motion in which average speed is not zero, but average velocity is
zero.
8. The speed of a car is 72 km/h. Express it in m/s. [ANS; 20m/s]
9. An object starts from rest and takes 2hours to cover a distance of 160 km. How fast is the
object moving? [ANS; 80km/h]
10. A train takes 2h to reach station0 B from station A, and then 3h to return from station B to
station A. The distance between the two stations is 200 km.
Find;
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟐𝟎𝟎+𝟐𝟎𝟎
(a) The average speed [ANS; 𝒗 = = = 𝟖𝟎𝒌𝒎/h]
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟐+𝟑
(b) The average velocity of the train
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟐𝟎𝟎−𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟎
[ANS; 𝒗 = = = = 𝟎𝒌𝒎/h]
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟐+𝟑 𝟓
11. A car moving on a straight path covers a distance of 1 km due east in 100 s.
What is
(a) The speed and [ANS; 10m/s]

MWL GEOFREY M IDEBE (0688/0673 – 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 48

 (b) The velocity of car? [ANS; 10m/s due East]
12. What are the differences and similarities between speed and velocity
13. A runner moves 80 meters east and then 100 meters west in 20 seconds. What are the
speed and velocity?
ANS:
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟖𝟎+𝟏𝟎𝟎
 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = = = 𝟗𝒎/s
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝟐𝟎
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟖𝟎−𝟏𝟎𝟎
 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = = = −𝟏𝒎/s (to west)
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝟐𝟎
NB;
 A body is said to be in a uniform motion if it travels in a straight line covering equal
distances in equal intervals of time. Here, the rate of change of its velocity remains constant.
 A body is said to have a non-uniform motion if its velocity changes by unequal amounts
in equal intervals of time. Here, the rate of change of its velocity changes at different points
in time.
Acceleration and Retardation
Acceleration
 Acceleration – Is the rate of change of velocity.
 It is denoted by small letter “a”
𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚−𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒗−𝒖
𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕

𝒗−𝒖
∴ 𝒂=
𝒕

 Its SI unit is metre per second square (m/s 2)

 Uniform acceleration is the type of acceleration in which the rate of change of velocity is
CONSTANT. (that is; Uniform acceleration occurs when an object undergoes equal
changes in velocity at equal time intervals)
 When the change in the velocity of a body in equal interval of time is not constant, then the
acceleration is called non-uniform acceleration (Variable acceleration).
 Average acceleration. It is the change in the velocity divided by the time-interval during
which the change occurs.
𝒗𝟐 − 𝒗𝟏
𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏
 Where, 𝒗𝟐 is velocity at time 𝒕𝟐 and 𝒗𝟏 is velocity at time 𝒕𝟏.

Retardation (Deceleration)
 Is the rate of decreasing of velocity.
 It is referred as negative acceleration.
 Uniform retardation is the one in which the rate of decreasing of velocity does not change
NB:
 When a body starts moving from rest its initial velocity become zero, u = 0m/s2
 When a body is brought to rest by the application of brakes its final velocity, v = 0m/s 2
 When a velocity of a moving object increases its acceleration become positive
 When the velocity of a moving object decreases its acceleration become negative
 When a body is moving with a uniform velocity its acceleration becomes zero, a = 0 m/s 2
MWL GEOFREY M IDEBE (0688/0673 – 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 49
Worked Examples
1. A car travels at 36km/h and accelerates uniformly to 108 km/h in 10s. Find its acceleration
ANS: Given; 𝒗𝟏 = 𝟑𝟔𝒌𝒎/h = 𝟏𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝒌𝒎/h = 𝟑𝟎𝒎/s, t = 10s
𝒗 −𝒗 𝟑𝟎−𝟏𝟎
Therefore; acceleration is 𝒂 = 𝟐 𝟏 = = 𝟐𝒎/s2
𝒕 𝟏𝟎
2. A train slows from 20m/s with a uniform decoration of 3m/s 2. How long will it take to reach
5m/s?
ANS: Given; 𝒗𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗𝟐 = 𝟓𝒎/s 𝒂 = −𝟑𝒎/s2, t = ?
𝒗 −𝒗 𝒗 −𝒗 𝟓−𝟐𝟎 −𝟏𝟓
From; deceleration, 𝒂 = 𝟐 𝟏  𝒕 = 𝟐 𝟏  𝒕 = = = 𝟓s
𝒕 𝒂 −𝟑 −𝟑
3. An object is moving at 15 m/s to the right after 8 sec later it is moving at 5 m/s to the left,
what was the acceleration of the object?
Solution
Initial velocity, u = +15 m/s
Final velocity, v = -5 m/s
Time taken, t = 8s
Acceleration, a =?
𝒗–𝒖 −𝟓 – 𝟏𝟓 𝟐𝟎
∴ 𝒂 = = = − = −𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎/𝒔 2
𝒕 𝟖 𝟖
4. A car is moving with a velocity 20 m/s. The brakes are applied to retard it at a rate of 2 m/s2.
What will be the velocity after 5s of applying the brakes?
Solution
Initial velocity, u = 20 m/s, Final velocity, v =?
Time taken, t = 5s Retardation, a = –2m/s2
𝒗–𝒖
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎; 𝒂 =
𝒕
 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟓 × 𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒎/s

Acceleration Retardation
If the velocity of a body increases with If the velocity of a body decreases with
time, it is called acceleration. time, it is called retardation.
As it is increase in velocity per second so it As it is decrease in velocity per second so
is positive acceleration. retardation is negative acceleration.

Class Activity – 8:3

1. A car brakes and slows down from 20 m/s to 5 m/s in 3 sec. find its acceleration
(ANS: a = - 5 m/s2 )
2. A car is moving in a straight line with speed 18 km/h. It is stopped in 5s by applying the
brakes. Find;
(i) The speed of car in m/s, [ANS; 5m/s]
(ii) The retardation and [ANS; −𝟏𝒎/s2]
(iii) The speed of car after 2s of applying the brakes. [ANS; 3m/s]
3. Starting from rest, a sports car accelerate to a velocity of 96 km/h in 16 sec. find its
acceleration (ANS: a = 1.67 m/s2)
4. A car travels at 10 m/s and increase its velocity to 30 m/s in 10 sec. find acceleration of the car
(ANS: a = 2 m/s2)
5. A car travels at 45 m/s and decreases its velocity uniformly to 20 m/s in 5 sec. find acceleration
(ANS: a = -5 m/s2)

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6. A car with a velocity of 90km/h under uniform retardation and brought to rest after 10s.
Calculate its acceleration (ANS: a = -2.5m/s2)
7. A body starts from rest and acquires a velocity 10 m/s in 2s. Find its acceleration.
[ANS: 5m/s2]
8. A car starting from rest acquires a velocity of 180 m/s in 0.05 h. Find the acceleration.
ANS; 1m/s2
9. An object moves with constant speed in a straight line. Which of the following statements must
be true?
A. No force acts on the object.
B. A single constant force acts on the object in the direction of motion.
C. The net force acting on the object depends on the value of the speed.
D. The net force acting on the object is zero.
E. The net force acting on the object cannot be determined.
10. A body is moving vertically upwards. Its velocity changes at a constant rate from 50 ms-1 to 20
ms-1 in 3 s. What is its acceleration? [ANS; –10m/s]
11. Bus X travels a distance of 360km in 5 hours whereas bus Y travels a distance of 476km in 7
hours. Which bus is faster?
12. In a race, cars travelled 200 times a around a field track with a length of 1km.
(a) At the end of the race, what is the distance travelled by the winner? [ANS; 200km]
(b) What is the winner’s displacement? [ANS; 0km]
(c) If the winner completed the race in 3hours, what is his/her average speed
[A; 66.67km/h]
(d) What is his/her average velocity? [ANS; 0km/h]

Determination of velocity and acceleration of a body using a ticker Tape Time

 The ticker timer is simply a piece of apparatus that we use to measure time. When you
work out the speed of an object you need to know how far it goes in a certain time.
 A ticker tape timer consists of an electrical vibrator which vibrates 50 times per second.
 This enables it to make 50 dots per second on a ticker-tape being pulled through it.
 The time interval between two adjacent dots on the ticker-tape is called one tick. One tick
is equal to 1/50 s or 0.02 s. The distance between two adjacent dots on a ticker-tape
represents the displacement of the object in a tick
 We have to count the number of SPACES and not the number of dots themselves to
measure the time taken. The first dot at the direction of movement is the starting dot.
 If the object moves quickly, the dots are far apart. If the object moves slowly, the
dots are close to each other. And if the tape is pulled through at a steady speed the dots
remain the same distance apart.

MWL GEOFREY M IDEBE (0688/0673 – 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 51

  Now let us assume, we give the trolley in figure above a push down the plane. This will
give us a tape of the trolley’s motion similar to the tape in the diagram below:
 A paper tape is driven through a ticker timer connected to a mains supply of known
frequency e.g 50Hz by a trolley running freely on an inclined plane as shown above.
 After the trolley has reached the end of the run way, the tape is removed and marked
every after 5dots.The first mark made is the zero time.

 The time t between n spaces is calculated from;

𝟏 𝒏
𝒕 = 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 × 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒄 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆  𝒕 = 𝒏𝑻 = 𝒏 × =
𝒇 𝒇
 The speed or velocity at different intervals is determined by measuring the distance 𝒅𝟏
𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐
and 𝒅𝟐 covered in those times , thus 𝒗𝟏 = and 𝒗𝟐 =
𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟐
 The acceleration of the body is therefore determined as follow;
𝒗𝟐 −𝒗𝟏
𝒂= , whereby; 𝒕𝟑 = total time taken to cover the distance d 1 and d2
𝒕𝟑 −𝒕𝟏

Worked examples;
1. Below is a tape printed by ticker- tape timer vibrating at 100Hz. Find the time taken to print
these dots.

ANS;
𝟏 𝒏
From; 𝒕 = 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 × 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒄 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆  𝒕 = 𝒏𝑻 = 𝒏 × =
𝒇 𝒇
𝟏 𝒏 𝟏
𝒕 = 𝒏𝑻 = 𝒏 × = = 𝟏𝟎 × = 𝟎. 𝟏𝒔
𝒇 𝒇 𝟏𝟎𝟎

2. You are given the ticker tape in the diagram below. If the ticker timer had a frequency of 4Hz
find the acceleration of the tape.

ANS;
Given; 𝒇 = 𝟒𝑯𝒛, 𝒔 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒎
NB;
The big, fat first mark shows that the tape started from rest, 𝒊. 𝒆, 𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎/s
𝟏 𝒏
From; 𝒕 = 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 × 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒄 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆  𝒕 = 𝒏𝑻 = 𝒏 × =
𝒇 𝒇
𝟏 𝒏 𝟒
Therefore total time taken between A and E, 𝒕 = 𝒏𝑻 = 𝒏 × = = = 𝟏𝒔
𝒇 𝒇 𝟒
𝟏 𝟏
From; 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕 𝟐
→ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 = 𝟎 × 𝟏 + × 𝒂 × 𝟏 → 𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 m/s2
𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
3. A ticker – tape is moved through a ticker timer for 5 seconds. If the timer is operating at 25Hz
(i) How many dots would have been printed on the tape? [A:125 dots]
(ii) What kind of motion does the tape represents.

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 ANS: the tape represents linear motion
4. A ticker tape timer makes 40 dots in 1 second. The results of an experiment to find the
average speed of a toy car is shown below

What is the average speed of the toy car?

1 0.6
Answer: total time = x 10 = 0.25 s, speed = = 2.4 m/s
40 0.25
5. Diagram below shows a strip of ticker tape that was pulled through a ticker tape timer that
vibrated at 50 times a second.

What is the
(a) Time taken from the first dot to the last dot?
(b) Average velocity of the object that is represented by the ticker tape?
[AN: (a) t =15x0.02=0.3s, (b) v = d/t =15/0.3 =50cm/s]

Class Activity – 8:4

1. The distance between the 15 th dot and 18th dot is 10cm. If the ticker timer is vibrating at 20Hz.
Calculate the
𝒏 𝟑
(a) Time taken, [ANS; 𝒕 = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝒔]
𝒇 𝟐𝟎
𝒅 𝟎.𝟏
(b) Average speed; [ANS; 𝒗 = = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝒎/s]
𝒕 𝟎.𝟏𝟓
2. The tape shown in the diagram below was made by a trolley moving with a constant
acceleration. If the frequency of the ticker – timer is 100Hz, find the acceleration in m/s2

ANS: 𝒂 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎/s

Position – time graphs

Displacement, velocity and acceleration can be represented on a graph.
Distance (displacement) time graphs
 A distance – time graph is a graphical representation of how far a body has traveled in a
specified amount of time. It is used to depict the relationship between distance and time,
where distance is plotted on the 𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 and time is plotted on the 𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔.
 See the figure below showing a constant speed on a distance – time graph;

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  The graphs below show the distance (displacement) – time graphs for various types of
body motion.

The following are the points concluded from the distance-time graphs above.
 When a body is at rest, then the graph is parallel to the axis where time is plotted.
 When the motion of a body is uniform, then the distance-time graph is a straight line.
 The slope of the distance-time graph is equal to the speed of the body.
 The slope of the straight-line graph is constant regardless of the chosen interval. This
implies that an object moving uniformly will always move at the same speed.
 The speed increases as the graph become steeper.
 A negative gradient or slope means the body is returning to the starting point.

Velocity – Time Graph

 The variation in velocity of an object with time can be represented by velocity – time graph.
In the graph, time is represented along the 𝒙 − axis and the velocity is represented along
the 𝒚 −axis. If the object moves at uniform velocity, a straight line parallel to 𝒙 −axis is
obtained.
 Consider the graph shows the velocity – time graph for a car moving with uniform velocity of
40 m/s. (the uniform velocity is represented by the horizontal line AB)

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  We know that the product of velocity and time gives displacement of an object moving with
uniform velocity.
 The area under the velocity – time graph is equal to the magnitude of the displacement.
 So the distance (displacement) 𝒔 covered by the car in a time interval of 𝒕 can be expressed
as 𝒔 = 𝑨𝑪 × 𝑪𝑫 = 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝑨𝑩𝑪𝑫 (shaded region)
NB;
 Consider a body starts moving from rest and accelerates uniformly to a velocity, 𝒗 after
time, 𝒕𝟏. It then moves with this velocity for time, 𝒕𝟐 and then comes to stop after another
time, 𝒕𝟑.
 The above information can be represented on the velocity time graph as shown.

Deduction from velocity time graph

(i) If the shape of the graph can be broken into simple geometric shapes, the total area under
the line can be calculated by adding the areas of those shapes.
(ii) The area under a speed-time graph is the distance. Speed cannot be negative, and neither
can the distance. This is because speed and distance are scalars.
(iii) The area under a velocity-time graph = Total displacement travelled by a body.
Velocity can be negative if an object is moving backwards. The displacement can also be
negative. An area beneath the 𝒙 −axis has a negative value. An area above the 𝒙 −axis
has a positive value. Be careful when calculating the total displacement, when summing the
displacements remember to include the + and − signs of the displacements

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 (iv) The positive slope of the velocity time graph represents uniform acceleration where the
object is speeding up at a constant rate. While the negative slope represents uniform
Retardation (deceleration) where the object is slowing down at a constant rate.

The graphs below show the velocity – time graphs for various types of body motion.
(a) A body moving with uniform retardation.
(b) A body moving with variable velocity
(c) A body moving with uniform velocity
(d) A body moving with uniform acceleration

(e) A body moving with variable acceleration

(f) A body fall freely
(g) A body projected vertically upwards

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Acceleration time graph
 In this graph, time is represented along the 𝒙 − axis (horizontal axis) and the acceleration
is represented along the 𝒚 −axis (vertical axis)
 If the graph is a horizontal straight line above or below the time axis, it means the object
is experiencing uniform acceleration (a constant acceleration). Where by above the axis,
the acceleration is positive and below the axis, the acceleration is negative.

 If the graph has a slope, this indicates changing acceleration. A non-horizontal line
means that the acceleration is varying over time.
 Whereby a positive slope means the object is experiencing increasing acceleration. And
negative slope means the object is experiencing decreasing acceleration.
From the graph above;
 In the region 1, represents the acceleration-time graph for a body moving with uniform
acceleration. For example, a body falling freely under gravity moves with a uniform
acceleration of 9.8 ms-2 (or nearly 10 ms-2).
 In the region 2. If the body is moving with a uniform velocity, the acceleration is zero.
Hence, acceleration-time graph in such a case is a straight line coinciding with time axis.
An example of a body moving with uniform velocity is a car travelling on a straight and flat
road with a constant speed of 80 km/hour
 In the region 3, represents the acceleration-time graph for a body moving with uniform
retardation (deceleration). An example of a body moving with uniform retardation
(deceleration) is a car coming to a stop when the driver applies the brakes.

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Worked Examples
1. A car travel with uniform velocity of 30m/s for 5 second and then comes to rest 10 second
with uniform deceleration.
(a) Draw a velocity-time graph of the motion.
(b) Find the total distance travelled.
(c) Find the average velocity.
Solution:
(a) velocity-time graph of the motion

(b) Total distance travelled, s = Area under the graph = Area of fig. A + Area of fig.B
𝟏
𝑺 = (𝟑𝟎 × 𝟓) + × 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 + 𝟏𝟓𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝒎
𝟐
(c) From velocity time graph
Total distance, s = 300 m
Total time taken, t = 15 s
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒔 𝟑𝟎𝟎
∴ Average velocity = = = = 𝟐𝟎 𝒎/𝒔
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝒕 𝟏𝟓

2. (a) A body at rest is given an initial uniform acceleration of 8.0 m/s2 for 30s after which the
acceleration is reduced to 5.0 m/s2 for the next 20s. The body maintains the speed attained
for 60s after which is brought to rest in 20s. Draw the velocity – time graph of the motion
using the information given above.
(b) Using the graph, calculate the;
(a) Maximum speed attained during the motion
(b) Average retardation after the body being brought to rest
(c) Total distance travelled during the first 50s
(d) Average speed during the same interval as in (iii)
ANS;
(a) First find the velocity of a body attained in 30s
𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟎 + 𝟖 × 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝒎/s
Then find the velocity when the body decelerates to 5m/s2
Here, 𝒖 = 𝒗 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎m/s, thus; 𝒗′ = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎 + (−𝟓 × 𝟐𝟎) = 𝟏𝟒𝟎𝒎/s
Therefore, the following is the velocity – time graph of the whole motion of a body

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 (b)
(i) The maximum speed attained, 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟎 + 𝟖 × 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝒎/s
(𝒗−𝒖) 𝟎−𝟏𝟒𝟎 −𝟏𝟒𝟎
(ii) Retardation, 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕  𝒂 = = = = −𝟕𝒎/s2
𝒕 𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟎
(iii) Total distance during first 50s = Area of figure OBCG = Area of OBH + Area of BCGH
𝟏 𝟏
 Distance = × ̅̅̅̅̅ 𝑶𝑯 × ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑩𝑯 + (𝑪𝑮 ̅̅̅̅ × ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑩𝑯) × ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑯𝑮
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
Distance = × 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟐𝟒𝟎 + (𝟏𝟒𝟎 × 𝟐𝟒𝟎) × 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟕𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝟓𝟎𝒔 𝟕𝟒𝟎𝟎
(iv) Average velocity in 50s = = = 𝟏𝟒𝟖𝒎/s
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝟓𝟎

Class Activity – 8:5

1.Draw a displacement -time graph for a particle in the following situations:
(a) A body projected vertically upwards
(b) A body at stationary
(c) Moving with variable velocity
(d) Moving with uniform velocity
(e) A body fall freely
(f) Moving with uniform acceleration
(g) Moving with uniform retardation.

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2. A car starts from rest and is accelerated uniformly at a rate of 4 m/s2 for 5 sec. it maintains a
constant speed for 20 sec, brakes applied and the car stops in the next 3 sec. find
(a) Draw a velocity-time graph of the motion.
(b) Maximum speed attained (ANS: v = 20 m/s)
(c) Find the total distance travelled. (ANS: s = 480 m)
3. Explain the importance of the position-time graph.
4. The displacement of a particle is shown in the displacement – time graph below. Displacement
is measured in meters from its starting point position and time is measured in seconds.

(a) Find the displacement of the particle from its starting point position after 3seconds.
(b) For how long was the particle stationary? [ANS; (a) 15m (b) 4s (c) -5m/s]
(c) Find the velocity of the particle for the last 4 seconds of its motion
5. A bike accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 7.10 m/s over a distance of 35.4 m.
Determine the acceleration of the bike. (ANS: a = 0.712 m/s2)
6. A body accelerates uniformly from velocity of 40 m/s to a velocity of 50 m/s in 4seconds
(a) Draw a velocity-time graph of the motion.
(b) Find acceleration of the body (ANS: a = 2.5 m/s2)
(c) Calculate the total distance travelled by the body in meter (ANS: s = 180 m)
7. Velocity time graph below shows a car journey which lasts for160 seconds.

Calculate the total distance travelled by the car on this journey [ANS; 2325m]
8. A particle is set into motion with a constant velocity of 3m/s. After 5 seconds the particle stops
and remains stationary for 6 seconds. The particle then moves with a constant velocity of – 6
m/s until returns to its initial position. Sketch the displacement – time graph for the motion of
the particle
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9. This displacement—time graph shows the motion of a particle in a straight line. It travels away
from its starting point for 15 minutes and then returns in 30 minutes.

(i) Calculate the average speed for the whole journey in kilometres per hour.
(ii) Calculate the average velocity for the whole journey in kilometres per hour.
ANS;
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 (𝟏𝟐+𝟏𝟐) 𝟐𝟒𝒌𝒎 𝟐𝟒𝒌𝒎
(i) Average speed = = = = = 𝟑𝟐𝒌𝒎/h
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟐𝟎+𝟐𝟓 𝟒𝟓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒔 𝟎.𝟕𝟓𝒉𝒓
𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒍𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝟏𝟐−𝟏𝟐) 𝟎𝒌𝒎 𝟎𝒌𝒎
(ii) Average velocity = = = = = 𝟎𝒌𝒎/h
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝟐𝟎+𝟐𝟓 𝟒𝟓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒔 𝟎.𝟕𝟓𝒉𝒓

Equations of uniformly accelerated Motion

(Equations of Linear Motion)
(i) First equation of motion
(ii) Second equation of motion
(iii) Third equation of motion
Consider a body moving with a constant acceleration 𝒂 from an initial velocity 𝒖, to a final
velocity 𝒗 .The body covers a displacement ,𝒔, after sometime 𝒕.

Derivation of first equation

Now, find the acceleration of the body
∆𝒗 𝒗−𝒖
From: a = = , 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒗 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕
𝒕 𝒕
𝒂𝒕 = 𝒗 − 𝒖 → 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕

∴ 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕

Derivation of the second equation

𝒗+𝒖 𝒔
 Find the average velocity of the body; 𝑽𝒂 = = 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝑡
𝟐 𝒕
𝒖+𝒂𝒕+𝒖 𝟐𝒖+𝒂𝒕 𝒔
 𝑽𝒂 = = =
𝒕 𝟐 𝒕
𝟐𝒖+𝒂𝒕 𝒔
 = -------------------- multiply by 𝒕 each side
𝟐 𝒕
𝟐𝒖𝒕+𝒂𝒕𝟐 𝟐𝒖𝒕 𝒂𝒕𝟐 𝟏
 𝒔= = + = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

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 𝟏
∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐

Derivation of third equation

 Consider the 1st equation: 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕
𝟐 𝟐
 Then square the equation in each side:𝒊𝒆, .. (𝒗) = (𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕)
𝟏
 This gives: 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒖𝒂𝒕 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒕𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂(𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 )
𝟐
𝟏
 But: 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕 , 𝟐
Therefore 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐

∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝟑𝒓𝒅 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔

Derivation of equations of motion through graphical method

(i) Derivation of first equation using graphical approach
 Let us consider a body moving with uniform acceleration ‘𝒂’ having initial velocity ‘𝒖’
attains the final velocity 𝒗 in time ‘𝒕’ covering a distance ‘𝒔’ as shown in the graph below.

 In the given velocity time graph, Initial velocity, 𝒖 = 𝑶𝑨, Final velocity, 𝒗 = 𝑩𝑪
𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 ∆𝒗 𝒗−𝒖 𝒗−𝒖
Then from the graph above, 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 = = = =
𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 ∆𝒕 𝒕−𝟎 𝒕
Whereby the slope from the graph represents acceleration, 𝒂
𝒗−𝒖
 Thus; 𝒂 = → 𝒂𝒕 = 𝒗 − 𝒖 ∴ 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 ------ (the 1st equation)
𝒕
(ii) Derivation of second equation using graphical approach
 From the figure above, area under the velocity time graph gives displacement (distance)
travelled by the body, 𝒔
𝟏
 Area of the graph above is a trapezium, which is given by; A = × (𝒂 + 𝒃) × 𝒉
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝑨= ̅̅̅̅ + 𝑩𝑪
× (𝑶𝑨 ̅̅̅̅) × 𝒕 = × (𝒖 + 𝒗) × 𝒕, but 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕
𝟐 𝟐

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 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Thus; 𝑨 = × (𝒖 + 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕) × 𝒕 = (𝟐𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕)𝒕 = (𝟐𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐) = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
 Therefore, the displacement (distance), 𝒔 = 𝑨 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 ------ (2nd equation)
𝟐

(iii) Derivation of third equation using graphical approach

𝟏
 From the graph distance(displacement) covered is given by, 𝑨 = × (𝑶𝑨
̅̅̅̅ + 𝑩𝑪
̅̅̅̅) × 𝒕
𝟐
𝒗−𝒖
 From first equation, 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕  𝒕 = , (substitute 𝒕, in the equation above)
𝒂
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒗−𝒖
Then; 𝑨 = ̅̅̅̅ + ̅̅̅̅
× (𝑶𝑨 𝑩𝑪) × 𝒕 = × (𝒖 + 𝒗) × 𝒕 = × (𝒖 + 𝒗) × ( )
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝒂
𝟏 𝒗−𝒖 𝟏 (𝒗𝟐 −𝒖𝟐 ) (𝒗𝟐 −𝒖𝟐 )
𝑨= × (𝒖 + 𝒗) × ( ) = × = , but 𝑨 = 𝒔
𝟐 𝒂 𝟐 𝒂 𝟐𝒂
(𝒗𝟐 −𝒖𝟐 )
𝒔=
𝟐𝒂
 𝟐𝒂𝒔 = (𝒗𝟐 − 𝒖𝟐 )  𝟐𝒂𝒔 + 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒗𝟐  𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔
 ∴ 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔 -------- (3rd equation)

Worked Examples
1. A body moving with a velocity of 30m/s is accelerated uniformly to a velocity of 50m/s in 5s.
Calculate the acceleration and the distance traveled by the body.
Data given
Initial velocity (u) = 30m/s, Final velocity (v) = 50m/s, Time (t) = 5s Acceleration =?
𝒗−𝒖 𝟓𝟎−𝟑𝟎
(i) Acceleration, 𝒂 = = = 𝟒 𝒎𝒔−𝟐
𝒕 𝟓
𝟏 𝟏
(ii) Distance traveled, 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟓 + × 𝟒 × 𝟓𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
2. An object travelling at 10m/s accelerates at 4m/s2 for 8 seconds.
(i) Calculate the final velocity.
(ii) How far does it travel for 8 seconds
ANS; 𝒖 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒂 = 𝟒𝒎/s2 , 𝒕 = 𝟖𝒔
(i) 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟒 × 𝟖 = 𝟒𝟐𝒎/s
𝟏 𝟏
(ii) 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟖 + × 𝟒 × 𝟖𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟖 𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
3. A body moves from rest with a uniform acceleration and travels 270m in 3s. Find the velocity
of the body at 10s after the start.
ANS;
𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎/𝒔 , 𝒔 = 𝟐𝟕𝟎𝒎, 𝒕𝟏 = 𝟑𝒔, 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝒔
𝟏 𝟏
From; 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐  𝟐𝟕𝟎 = 𝟎 × 𝟓 + × 𝒂 × 𝟑𝟐  𝟓𝟒𝟎 = 𝒂 × 𝟑𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟓𝟒𝟎
𝟓𝟒𝟎 = 𝒂 × 𝟑  𝒂= 𝟗 =
𝟐
𝟔𝟎𝒎/s2
Also; 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟎 + 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎/s
4. A body moving with a constant acceleration travels the distances 3m and 8m respectively in
1s and 2s. Calculate;
(a) The initial velocity, and
(b) The acceleration of body.
ANS;
Given; 𝒔𝟏 = 𝟑𝒎, 𝒔𝟐 = 𝟖𝒎, 𝒕𝟏 = 𝟏𝒔, 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟐𝒔
𝟏 𝟏
From; 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐  𝟑 = 𝒖 × 𝟏 + × 𝒂 × 𝟏𝟐  𝟔 = 𝟐𝒖 + 𝒂 ------(i)
𝟐 𝟐

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 𝟏 𝟏
Also; 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐  𝟖 = 𝒖 × 𝟐 + × 𝒂 × 𝟐𝟐  𝟒 = 𝒖 + 𝒂 --------(ii)
𝟐 𝟐
Then; solve the two equations, simultaneously
(a) ∴ the initial velocity , 𝒖 = 𝟐𝒎/s
(b) ∴ Acceleration of the body, 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎/s2
5. A car moves with a uniform velocity of 12m/s for 6s. It accelerates at 2.0m/s 2 for 4s. It then
travels for 2 more seconds with uniform velocity. The car finally decelerates to a stop in 15s.
Calculate;
(i) The distance travelled in 5s.
(ii) Average velocity for the journey, assuming that the journey is in a straight line
ANS;
(i) 𝒖 = 𝟏𝟐𝒎/s, 𝒕 = 𝟓𝒔, 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎/s, 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 = 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟓 = 𝟔𝟎m
(ii) Total distance travelled, first calculate the distance at given different stages
Distance travelled in 6s, during this stage, ∆𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s
Then, 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 = 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟔 = 𝟕𝟐m
Distance traveled in 4s, during this stage, 𝒖 = 𝟏𝟐𝒎/s, 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒎/s2,
𝟏 𝟏
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟒 + × 𝟐 × 𝟒𝟐 = 𝟔𝟒𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
Distance traveled in 2 more seconds, during this stage, ∆𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s,
Then, 𝒔 = 𝒗𝒕
But; before attaining this stage; its final velocity, 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟐 × 𝟒 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎/s
Thus; 𝒔 = 𝒗𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟐 = 𝟒𝟎m
Distance traveled in 15s, but during this stage, 𝒖 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s
𝒗𝟐 −𝒖𝟐 𝟎−𝟐𝟎
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔 → 𝒔 = = ,
𝟐𝒂 𝟐𝒂
𝒗−𝒖 𝟎−𝟐𝟎 −𝟒
𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒂 = = = = −𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝒎/s2
𝒕 𝟏𝟓 𝟑
𝒗𝟐 −𝒖𝟐 𝟎𝟐 −𝟐𝟎𝟐
𝒔= = = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒎
𝟐𝒂 𝟐×−𝟏.𝟑𝟑
Thus, total distance travelled = 𝟕𝟐 + 𝟔𝟒 + 𝟒𝟎 + 𝟏𝟓𝟎 = 𝟑𝟐𝟔𝒎
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝟑𝟐𝟔
Therefore; Average velocity, 𝒗 = = = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟎𝟕𝒎/s
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝟔+𝟒+𝟐+𝟏𝟓

6. An object is constrained to move along a track as shown in the figure below

The acceleration of the object on both inclined planes is 6.9m/s 2 (down), zero along the flat
section and – 6.9m/s2 up the inclined planes. If the object is released from rest at the top of the
left inclined plane, how long will it take to reach the top of the right inclined plane?
ANS;
Consider a free body diagram;

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 𝒔𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝒄𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝒎, 𝒔𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝒄𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝒎, 𝒔𝟑 = 𝟖𝒄𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝒎
𝒂𝟏 = 𝟔. 𝟗𝒎/s2 , 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟎𝒎/s2, 𝒂𝟑 = −𝟔. 𝟗𝒎/s2, 𝒖𝟏 = 𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗𝟏 = 𝒖𝟐 , 𝒗𝟐 =?
𝟏 𝟏
From; 𝒔𝟏 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐  𝟎. 𝟏 = 𝟎 × 𝒕𝟏 + × 𝟔. 𝟗 × 𝒕𝟏 𝟐  𝟐 = 𝟔𝟗𝒕𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝒕𝟏 𝟐 =
𝟔𝟗
 𝒕𝟏 = √(𝟔𝟗) = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝒔
Also; when a body moves from A to B, 𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗 = 𝒗𝟏
Thus; 𝒗𝟏 = 𝒖𝟏 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒕𝟏 = 𝟎 + 𝟔. 𝟗 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝒎/s
Likewise; when a body moves from B to C, ∆𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s
𝒔 𝟎.𝟐
Thus; 𝒔 = 𝒗𝒕  𝒔𝟐 = 𝒗𝟏 𝒕𝟐  𝒕𝟐 = 𝟐 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝒔
𝒗𝟏 𝟏.𝟏𝟕𝟑
Lastly; when a body moves from C to D, 𝒖 = 𝒖𝟐 = 𝒗𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝒎/𝒔, 𝒔𝟑 = 𝟖𝒄𝒎
From; 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔 → 𝒗𝟐 𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔𝟑
𝒗𝟐 𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔𝟑  𝒗𝟐 = √(𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝟐 + (𝟐 × −𝟔. 𝟗 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖))

𝒗𝟐 = √(𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝟐 + (𝟐 × −𝟔. 𝟗 × 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖)) = √𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟏𝟗 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐𝒎/s

Also; from 1ST equation; 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕  𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒕𝟑
𝒗𝟐 − 𝒖𝟐 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐 − 𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟑
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒕𝟑  𝒕𝟑 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟓
𝒂𝟑 −𝟔. 𝟗
Therefore; the total time taken to reach at the top from rest, 𝒕 = 𝒕𝟏 + 𝒕𝟐 + 𝒕𝟑
𝒕 = 𝒕𝟏 + 𝒕𝟐 + 𝒕𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟓 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔
7. A train travelling at 30km/h stops when its brakes are applied. The train suffers a deceleration
of 2m/s2.
(a) How long does the train take to come to rest?
(b) What is its final velocity?
𝟑𝟎×𝟏𝟎
ANS; 𝒖 = 𝟑𝟎𝒌𝒎/h = = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟑𝒎/s, 𝒂 = −𝟐𝒎/s2, 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s
𝟑𝟔
𝒗−𝒖 𝟎−𝟖.𝟑𝟑
(a) From; 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕  𝒕 = = = 𝟒. 𝟏𝟕𝒔
𝒂 −𝟐
(b) Since the train comes to stop therefore; its final velocity, 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s,
8. At an instant, two cars A and B move at a speed of 15m/s in the same direction. Car B is
300m ahead of car A. If car A is accelerating at 6m/s2 while car B continues to move at
the same speed, what will be the time taken by car A to overtake car B?
ANS: Given; 𝒖𝑨 = 𝒖𝑩 = 𝒖 = 𝟏𝟓m/s,, 𝒂𝑨 = 𝟔𝒎/s2, distance of separation = 300m
Consider the figure below, Let C be the overtaking point as seen from the figure below

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 Distance moved by car A to overtake car B = (𝟑𝟎𝟎 + 𝒚)m
Distance moved by car B when overtaken by car A = (𝒚)m
Then, time taken by car A to get point C = time taken by car B to get the same point
𝒊, 𝒆. 𝒕𝑨 = 𝒕𝑩 = 𝒕
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
From; 𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝟐  𝒔𝑨 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝟐  𝟑𝟎𝟎 + 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟓𝒕 + × 𝟔 × 𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝟑𝟎𝟎 + 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟓𝒕 + 𝟑 𝒕𝟐 ------ (i)
𝒔
Also; 𝒗𝑩 = (it shows that car B was moving with a constant speed, a = 0m/s 2)
𝒕
𝒔 𝒚 𝒚
𝒊, 𝒆.. 𝒗𝑩 =
𝒕
 𝟏𝟓 =
𝒕
 𝒕=
𝟏𝟓
-----(ii)
Now substitute equation (ii) into (i)
𝒚 𝒚 𝟐
𝟑𝟎𝟎 + 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟓𝒕 + 𝟑 𝒕 𝟐
 𝟑𝟎𝟎 + 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟓 ( ) + 𝟑 ( )
𝟏𝟓 𝟏𝟓
𝒚 𝒚 𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝟑𝟎𝟎 + 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟓 ( ) + 𝟑 ( )  𝟑𝟎𝟎 + 𝒚 = 𝒚 +
𝟏𝟓 𝟏𝟓 𝟕𝟓
𝒚𝟐
𝟑𝟎𝟎 =  𝒚𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 × 𝟕𝟓 → 𝒚 = √𝟑𝟎𝟎 × 𝟕𝟓 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝒎
𝟕𝟓
𝒔 𝒚 𝟏𝟓𝟎
But; 𝒗𝑩 = = ∴ 𝒕= = 𝟏𝟎𝒔
𝒕 𝒕 𝟏𝟓
Therefore; the time taken by car A to overtake car B is 10 seconds.

Class Activity – 8:6

1. A car initially at rest, attains a velocity of 20 m/s after 8 seconds. What is the acceleration of
the car? (ANS: a = 2.5 m/s2)
2. John is driving his car with a constant speed of 8 ms−1. At 20 m away, suddenly a child comes
on his way, and he immediately applies the brakes to avoid the accident. What was the
deceleration with which the car came to rest? [ANS; −𝟏. 𝟖𝒎/s2 ]
3. A rally car takes 5 minutes to cover a displacement of 20 km. If the initial velocity of the car is
40 m/s, Calculate the average acceleration of the car (ANS: a = 0.178 m/s2)
4. A rocket initially moving at a velocity of 5m/s accelerates uniformly at 1.5 m/s 2 .What will be
its velocity after covering 120 km? ( ANS: v= 600 m/s)
5. Starting from rest, a car accelerates uniformly at 2.5m/s 2 for 6sec. the constant speed is
maintained for one third of a minute. The brakes are then applied making the car to retard
uniformly to rest in 4sec. find
(a) Draw speed time graph
(b) Maximum speed in km/h (ANS: v = 54km/h)
(c) Displacement covered in km (ANS: S = 0.375 km)
6. A car accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 15km/h in 10s, Find:
a) The acceleration in m/s2 (ANS: a = 0.42 m/s2)
b) Distance covered in meters (ANS: s = 21 m)

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 7. A train with a velocity of 40m/s is uniformly retarded and brought to rest after 5 seconds.
Determine its deceleration and draw the graph ( ANS: a = -8 m/s2 )
8. A train starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at a rate of 2 m s -2 for 10 s. It then
maintains a constant speed for 200s. The brakes are then applied and the train is uniformly
retarded and comes to rest in 50 s. Find;
(a) The maximum velocity reached, [ANS; 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟎 + 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎m/s]
𝒗−𝒖 𝟎−𝟐𝟎
(b) The retardation in the last 50 s, [ANS; 𝒂 = = = −𝟎. 𝟒m/s2]
𝒕 𝟓𝟎
(c) The total distance travelled, and [ANS; 𝒔𝑻 = 𝒔𝟏 + 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒔𝟑 = 𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎]
𝟏 𝟏
𝒔𝑻 = 𝒔𝟏 + 𝒔𝟐 + 𝒔𝟑  𝒔𝑻 = 𝒖𝒕𝟏 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒕𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒗𝒕𝟐 + 𝒖𝟏 𝒕𝟑 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒕𝟑 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝒔𝑻 = 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 + × 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟐𝟎𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎 + × (−𝟎. 𝟒) × 𝟓𝟎𝟐
𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
Therefore; 𝒔𝑻 = 𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝟓𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟎𝒎
𝒔 𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟎
(d) The average velocity of the train. [A; 𝒗𝑨𝒗𝒆 = 𝑻 = =17.69m/s]
𝒕𝑻 (𝟏𝟎+𝟐𝟎𝟎+𝟓𝟎)
9. A car is travelling at 20m/s along a straight road. The brakes are applied for 5s causing a
retardation of 3m/s2. Find the car’s final velocity. [A; 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎 + (−𝟑 × 𝟓) = 𝟓m/s

Reaction time and stopping distance

 Reaction time and Stopping distance are essential concepts in understanding vehicle
safety, particularly when analyzing road accidents and designing traffic systems.

Reaction time
 The reaction time is the time between when the driver sees the hazard and when he/she
applies the brakes. Speed affects the thinking distance. The faster the vehicle is travelling,
the further it will travel during the driver’s reaction time. This increases the thinking distance.
Therefore, if the vehicle is moving faster, it requires a longer distance to come to a stop, even
if the same braking force is applied

Braking distance (Stopping distance)

 This refers specifically to the distance a vehicle travels while it is actively braking, from the
moment the brakes are applied until the vehicle comes to a complete stop. It depends on the
initial speed of the vehicle and the deceleration caused by the brakes.

 The graph above shows how the velocity typically changes as a vehicle comes to an
emergency stop
 While the driver reacts (the time taken to press the brakes is called reaction time) the vehicle
continues to move at constant velocity. The area underneath the graph during this time

MWL GEOFREY M IDEBE (0688/0673 – 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 67

 represents the thinking distance (reaction distance). Thus thinking distance is the distance
the vehicle travels during the driver’s reaction time.
 As soon as the brakes are applied, the vehicle decelerates to a halt. The area underneath the
graph during this time represents the braking distance.

NB:
 Both the thinking distance (reaction distance) and the braking distance depend on the initial
speed of the car. The higher the speed of the car, the longer distance it has to travel before
coming to rest.
 Speeding is often a major cause of traffic accidents because the driver cannot stop the car in
time in an emergency.

Deriving formula for braking distance (stopping distance)

 At the stopping point, the vehicle has applied the brakes, and now it has to come to a stop.
The final velocity will become zero, hence, 𝒗 = 𝟎 .
 From the third (3rd) equation of motion; 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔
− 𝒖𝟐
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔  𝟎𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔  𝟐𝒂𝒔 = − 𝒖𝟐  𝒔 =
𝟐𝒂
− 𝒖𝟐
 Therefore the stopping distance is given as; 𝒔 =
𝟐𝒂
NB:
 The acceleration 𝒂 is taken as negative (since the vehicle is decelerating). When
substituting, 𝒂 is written as a negative value, so the stopping distance, 𝒔 finally becomes
positive.

Deriving formula for Reaction time

 Imagine the case of a free-falling object and the time to react and catch it in order to find the
reaction time. Keeping in mind that the initial velocity will be zero since the object is freely
falling.
 To derive the formula for reaction time based on the free-fall concept, we use the second
equation of motion:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝒔
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 = 𝟎 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐  𝒔 = 𝒈𝒕𝟐  𝒕 = √
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝒈
𝟐𝒔
 Therefore, the reaction time is given by; 𝒕 = √
𝒈

Total Stopping Distance

 This is the distance covered from the moment the driver notices a danger to when the car
comes to a complete stop. This includes the thinking distance and the braking distance.
 Thus total stopping distance is the sum of the reaction distance and the braking distance:
 Thus; Total stopping distance = Thinking distance + Braking distance
− 𝒖𝟐 − 𝒖𝟐
 Therefore, total stopping distance = 𝒖𝒕 + = 𝒖𝒕𝑹 +
𝟐𝒂 𝟐𝒂
NB:
 The total stopping distance is always longer than the stopping distance alone because it
includes the driver's reaction time.

MWL GEOFREY M IDEBE (0688/0673 – 082 089 – MWANZA, TANZANIA) Page 68

Worked examples
1. While driving at a speed of 40m/s, Yusuf sees an obstacle in the road at time t = 0. The
velocity – time graph below shows how the speed of the car changes as Yusuf reacts and
slams the brakes, bringing the car to a halt. Determine

(a) The braking distance (stopping distance) of the car

(b) Total stopping distance
(c) The drive’s reaction time
ANS:
(a) The area under the graph during the car’s deceleration is a triangle which represents
𝟏
the breaking distance and it is given by; A = × 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 × 𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
𝟐
𝟏
𝑨 = × (𝟓 − 𝟏) × 𝟒𝟎 = 𝟐 × 𝟒𝟎 = 𝟖𝟎𝒎
𝟐
(b) Total stopping distance = reaction distance+ braking distance = Area under the graph
𝟏 𝟏
𝑨 = × (𝒃𝟏 + 𝒃𝟐 ) × 𝒉 = × (𝟏 + 𝟓) × 𝟒𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
Therefore; total distance = 120m
(c) The driver's reaction time is the time between the moment they see the obstacle to
the moment the brakes are applied. Therefore, from the graph above, the driver's
reaction time is 1 s

2. An object is dropped and is now free-falling under gravity. The Stopping distance is given as
0.5 meters for the object. Find out the reaction time neglecting other factors.
ANS: Given; 𝒔 = 𝒎, 𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎/s2
𝟐𝒔 𝟐×𝟎.𝟓
From; 𝒕 = √ ∴𝒕= √ = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝒔
𝒈 𝟏𝟎
3. How will the stopping distance be affected if the velocity of the vehicle is doubled?
ANS: 𝒗𝟏 = 𝒗, 𝒗𝟐 = 𝟐𝒗𝟏 = 𝟐𝒗
− 𝒖𝟐 − 𝒗𝟐 −(𝟐𝒗)𝟐 −𝟒 𝒗𝟐 −𝒗𝟐
From; 𝒔 = , then, 𝒔𝟏 = , 𝒔𝟐 = = =𝟒 ( )
𝟐𝒂 𝟐𝒂 𝟐𝒂 𝟐𝒂 𝟐𝒂
−𝒗𝟐
But; 𝒔𝟏 = ( ), thus; 𝒔𝟐 = 𝟒𝒔𝟏
𝟐𝒂
Therefore, the stopping distance will increase by 4 times.
4. A man drops his phone from a height of 20 meters. At the same time, his friend is climbing
down the stairs and takes 10 seconds to reach the ground. Will the friend be able to catch the
phone before it lands? (Ignore air resistance.)
ANS: 𝒔 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎, 𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎/s2, 𝒕′ = 𝟏𝟎𝒔

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 𝟐𝒔 𝟐×𝟐𝟎
From; reaction time; 𝒕 = √ ∴𝒕= √ = √𝟒 = 𝟐𝒔
𝒈 𝟏𝟎
Therefore the phone reaches the ground in about 2 seconds, but the friend takes 10 seconds.
The phone will hit the ground long before the friend arrives.

Class Activity: 8 – 7
1. A car has a velocity of 19m/s and the braking capacity of the car is given as 11m/s.
What will the stopping distance be for the car? [ANS: 16.4m]
2. A truck is moving at 30 m/s when the brakes are applied, causing a deceleration of 10
m/s². How far will the truck travel before stopping? [ANS: 45m]
3. A driver sees a red traffic light and takes 0.8 seconds to react before applying the
brakes. If the car is moving at 20 m/s, how far does the car travel before the driver starts
braking? [ANS; 16m]
4. The driver of a bus travelling along a gravel road at speed of 40m/s from town A, applies
the brake as the bus approaches town B and the bus slows down at a rate of 2m/s2. If
the platform is 400m long. Will the lorry stop in time? Why?
−𝒖𝟐 −𝟒𝟎𝟐 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝒔= = = = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎
𝟐𝒂 −𝟐×𝟐 𝟒
 Since, the stopping distance is 400 meters, which matches the available distance.
Therefore, the bus will stop just in time at the edge of the platform.
5. A motorcyclist is traveling at 25 m/s when they notice a pedestrian. If their reaction time
is 0.6 seconds, how far will they travel before hitting the brakes? [ANS; 15m]
6. What would happen to thinking and braking distance if
(a) The driver was under the influence of alcohol,
(b) The driver was travelling at a faster speed.

Motion under Gravity

 All bodies on the earth will always fall down towards the earth’s surface when released from a
point. What makes these bodies falling downwards is the acceleration of free falling body
called acceleration due to gravity which is 9.8 or 10 N/kg.
 Acceleration of free falling body is denoted by ‘g’. Light bodies like feathers, paper etc are
observed to fall down more slowly than iron balls. This is because light bodies are very much
affected by air resistance.
 There are two important characteristics of free fall
(a) Free falling objects do not encounter air resistance
(b) All free falling objects on earth accelerate downwards at a rate of 9.8 m/s 2
(often approximated as 10 m/s2)
 For a body moving downwards the following formulae are applied
(Here; 𝒂 = 𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔 = 𝒉)
1st equation is given by 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒈𝒕
𝟏
𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒉 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝟑𝒓𝒅 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒉

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  When the body moves upwards ,the formulae will change to:
(Here 𝒂 = −𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔 = 𝒉)
1st equation is given by 𝒗 = 𝒖 − 𝒈𝒕
𝟏
𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒉 = 𝒖𝒕 − 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐

𝟑𝒓𝒅 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 − 𝟐𝒈𝒉

Worked Examples;
1. A stone is thrown vertically upward from the ground with a velocity of 30 m/s. find
(a) Maximum height reached
(b) Time taken for maximum height
(c) Time taken for reach ground again
(d) The velocity reached half-way to the maximum height
ANS;
(a) Maximum height reached, s = H =?
Data given:
Initial velocity, u = 30 m/s
Final velocity, v = 0 m/s
Acceleration, a = -g = -10 m/s2
From: third equation of motion
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 − 𝟐𝒈𝒉 -------------------- make h the subject
𝒖𝟐 −𝒗𝟐 𝟑𝟎𝟐 −𝟎𝟐 𝟗𝟎𝟎
𝒉 = = = = 𝟒𝟓 𝒎
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟎
(b) Time taken for maximum height, t =?
From: first equation of motion
𝒗 = 𝒖 − 𝒈𝒕 -------------------- make t the subject
𝒖−𝒗 𝟑𝟎−𝟎 𝟑𝟎
𝒕= = = = 𝟑𝒔
𝒈 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎
(c) Time taken to reach the ground again,(T = 2t) ?
T = 2t = 2 x 3 = 6 sec
(d) Velocity reached half-way to the maximum height, v =?
When stone is halfway to maximum height, the height attained is
𝑯 𝟒𝟓
𝒉 = = = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
Data given: u = 30 m/s and a = -10 m/s2
From: third equation of motion
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 – 𝟐𝒈𝒉
𝒗 = √𝒖𝟐 − 𝟐𝒈𝒉 = √𝟑𝟎𝟐 − 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓 = √𝟗𝟎𝟎 − 𝟒𝟓𝟎 = √𝟒𝟓𝟎
∴ 𝒗 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟐 𝒎
2. A stone falling down a well takes 2s to reach the water surface. Calculate;
(a) The velocity with which the stone hits the surface of water
(b) The distance of the water surface from the top of the well shaft
ANS; 𝒕 = 𝟐𝒔, 𝒈 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎/s2, 𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗 =?
(a) 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝟎 + 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝒎/s
(b) 𝒖 = 𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗 = 𝟐𝟎m/s
𝒗𝟐 −𝒖𝟐 𝟐𝟎𝟐 −𝟎𝟐 𝟒𝟎𝟎
From; 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒉  𝒉= = = = 𝟐𝟎𝒎
𝟐𝒈 𝟐×𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟎

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 3. An object thrown straight upward with an initial velocity of 88.2m/s will reach its maximum
height of 396.9m in 9s. If after 3s, the object is at an altitude of 220.5m moving upward, after
what time will it be at a height of 220.5m moving downwards.
ANS;
 𝟑𝒔 at 220.5m upwards, it means that an object 𝒊𝒔 𝟔𝒔 before reaching its
maximum height.
 Therefore the object will be at the same height when moving downwards 𝟔𝒔 after
reaching the maximum height, thus; 𝒕 = 𝟗𝒔 + 𝟔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟓𝒔
4. Calculate the maximum height of a ball of mass 1.2kg will attain if projected vertically
upward with an initial velocity of 17m/s
𝒗𝟐 −𝒖𝟐 𝟎𝟐 −𝟏𝟕𝟐
ANS; From; 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒖𝟐 −𝟐𝒈𝒉  𝒉 = = = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟒𝟓𝒎
−𝟐𝒈 −𝟐×𝟏𝟎
NB;
 When an object is thrown upwards, its final velocity, at its maximum point, 𝒗 = 𝟎
 When an object falls downward or is released from a height, its initial velocity, 𝒖 = 𝟎
 The time it takes an object to travel upwards is the same time it takes to come down

Class Activity – 8:8

1. Calculate the velocity of a paratrooper falling under gravity after 6 seconds (A: v = 58.8 m/s)
2. A ball is released from a cliff, 45 m high. Find the magnitude of the average velocity during its
motion till it reaches the ground ( g = 10 m/s 2) (ANS: u=30 m/s)
3. An object is thrown straight up with an initial velocity of 50 m/s
a) How long will take to reach its maximum height (ANS: t = 5 sec)
b) To what height will it rise? (ANS: h =125 )
c) What will be its velocity when it returns to its starting point? (AN: v = 50 m/s)
d) How long will be in the air? (ANS: t = 10 se)
4. A ball initially at rest falls for 4 seconds at a constant acceleration. Calculate:
(a) Its velocity after 4 seconds (ANS: v = 39.2 m/s)
(b) Its distance from the rest position (ANS: h = 156.8 m)
5. A body moved vertically upwards to a distance of 20 m. Calculate
(a) The initial velocity (ANS: v = 20 m/s)
(b) The time taken to reach the maximum height (ANS: t = 2 sec )
6. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 29.4m/s from the top of a tower
34.3m high. Find
(a) The time taken to reach the maximum height
(b) The total time that elapses just before it reaches the ground
ANS; 𝒔𝟏 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟑, 𝒖 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟒𝒎/s, 𝒗 = 𝒖𝟐 = 𝟎𝒎/s
𝒗−𝒖 𝟎−𝟐𝟗.𝟒
(a) 𝒗 = 𝒖 − 𝒈𝒕 → 𝒕 = = =2.94s
−𝒈 −𝟏𝟎
𝟏
(b) Height from the top of a tower to maximum point above the tower , 𝒔𝟐 = 𝒖𝒕 − 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
𝒔 = 𝒖𝒕 − 𝒈𝒕𝟐 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟒 × 𝟐. 𝟗𝟒 − × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟐. 𝟗𝟒𝟐 = 𝟒𝟑. 𝟐𝒎
𝟐 𝟐
Thus; total distance to reach the ground , 𝒔 = 𝒔𝟏 + 𝒔𝟐 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟑 + 𝟒𝟑. 𝟐 = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟓𝒎
𝟏
Then, time taken from maximum height to ground , 𝒔𝟐 = 𝒖𝟏 𝒕𝟐 + 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟕𝟕.𝟓
𝒔𝟐 = 𝒖𝟏 𝒕𝟐 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐 𝟐 → 𝟕𝟕. 𝟓 = 𝟎 × 𝒕𝟐 + × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝒕𝟐 𝟐  𝒕𝟐 = √ = 3.94s
𝟐 𝟐 𝟓

Therefore, the total time that elapses just before it reaches the ground, 𝒕 = 𝒕𝟏 + 𝒕𝟐

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 𝒕 = 𝒕𝟏 + 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟒 + 𝟑. 𝟗𝟒 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟖𝒔
7. A stone was dropped from the top of a building and hit the ground 4s later.
𝟏 𝟏
(a) How tall is the building? [ANS; 𝒉 = 𝒖𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒈𝒕𝟐 = 𝟎 + 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟒𝟐 = 𝟖𝟎𝒎]
(b) What was the stone’s velocity when it hits the ground [ANS; 𝒗 = 𝒖 + 𝒈𝒕 = 𝟒𝟎m/s]
8. In a free fall the velocity of a stone is increasing equally on equal intervals of time under the
effect of gravitational force of the earth. What can you conclude about the motion of this stone?
ANS: Since the velocity of the stone is increasing equally in equal time intervals, we can
conclude that the stone is undergoing uniformly accelerated motion.
9. A pebble is thrown upwards. What is the velocity when it reaches maximum height?
ANS: We know that a pebble momentarily comes to rest at the highest point. So, velocity
becomes zero.

Simple Pendulum
 The motion of pendulum was first studied by Galileo. Galileo discovered the important
principle of pendulum according to which: A pendulum completes every swing (or every
oscillation) in exactly the same time, provided its length is kept constant. In other words, the
time-period of oscillation of a given pendulum is constant.
 A simple pendulum can be made by tying about one meter long thread to a small metal ball
(called bob) and suspending it from a rigid support as shown in Figure (a), so that the bob
is free to swing. When the pendulum is at rest, then its bob is at the mean position A

 If the bob of this pendulum is pulled to one side and then released, it will begin to oscillate
to-and-fro (back and forth) like a swing [see Figure (b)]. For example, in Figure (b), initially
the bob is at the mean position A. Now, suppose the bob is pulled a little to the right side to
position B and then released.
 it will be seen to come back and move on to position C, at an equal distance on the other
side of the mean position A, and then go on repeating this back and forth motion between
the two extreme positions B and C. And we say that the simple pendulum is oscillating (or
vibrating).
 When the length of string change while the mass of pendulum bob is constant, the period
is always constant and that constant time is given by

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 𝑳
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√
𝒈
Whereby:
 Length (L): Is the distance between the point of suspension to the center of the bob.
The time-period of a pendulum depends on its length. As the length of a pendulum is
increased, its time-period also increases. The time-period of a pendulum of given length
is constant.
 Time Period (T): Time taken by the pendulum to finish one full oscillation. For
example, in Figure (b), the time taken by bob to travel from position B to C and back to
B is the time-period of pendulum. The time taken by bob in going from position A to B,
then from B to C, and back to A is also equal to time-period.
 Linear Displacement (x): Distance traveled by the pendulum bob from the equilibrium
position to one side.
 Angular Displacement (𝜽): The angle described by the pendulum with an imaginary
axis at the equilibrium position is called the angular displacement.
 Amplitude; As the pendulum oscillates to-and-fro, the maximum displacement of the
bob from its mean position on either side is called the amplitude of pendulum. In Figure
(b), the distance AB is the amplitude of pendulum. The distance AC is also equal to
amplitude of pendulum. Please note that whether the amplitude of oscillations of a
pendulum is large or small, the time taken for one complete oscillation (or time-period)
remains the same.
 g = Acceleration due to gravity

Application of gravitational force

 Used to launch satellites and space vehicle into space requires overcoming the
gravitational attraction forces for take off
 Used to keep satellite rotating on the earth’s orbit
 It causes everybody to be attracted towards the earth’s surface
 It is used to calculate the time taken by object to reach to ground for all objects near the
earth’s surface. E.g. army aircraft when firing bombs, parachutist move under free fall,(a =
g) etc

Class Activity – 8:8

1. The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is 1.2 seconds in a place where g=
9.8m/s2. How long is the bob below the rigid
𝑳 𝑻𝟐 𝒈 𝟏.𝟐𝟐 ×𝟗.𝟖
ANS; 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√ → 𝒍 =( 𝟐
)=( ) = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝒎
𝒈 𝟒𝝅 𝟒𝝅𝟐

2. When the length of a simple pendulum is decreased by 20 cm, the period changes by
10%. Find the original length and period of pendulum. g = 9.8 m/s 2
ANS; 𝒍𝟏 = 𝒍, 𝒍𝟐 = (𝒍 − 𝟐𝟎)𝒄𝒎, 𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻, 𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝑻
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝟏 √𝒍𝟏 𝑻 √𝒍
Since; 𝑻 ∝ √𝒍 → = → = → =
√𝒍𝟏 √𝒍𝟐 𝑻𝟐 √𝒍𝟐 𝟎.𝟗𝑻 √𝒍−𝟐𝟎
𝟏 𝒍
= → 𝒍 − 𝟐𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝒍 → 𝒍 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝒍 = 𝟐𝟎 → 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝒍 = 𝟐𝟎
𝟎.𝟖𝟏 𝒍−𝟐𝟎
𝟐𝟎
(a) Therefore, the original length, 𝒍 = = 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝒄𝒎 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟓𝒎
𝟎.𝟏𝟗

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 𝑳 𝟏.𝟎𝟓
(b) Therefore, the original period, 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√𝒈 = 𝟐𝝅√ 𝟗.𝟖 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟔𝒔

3. At exactly 2hr: 00min: 00sec a pendulum bob is thrown vertically upwards from the ground
with an initial velocity of 75m/s. At what time will the bob return to the ground? (Take g =10m/s2)
𝒗−𝒖 𝟎−𝟕𝟓
ANS; 𝒖 = 𝟕𝟓𝒎/s, 𝒗 = 𝟎𝒎/s, 𝒗 = 𝒖 − 𝒈𝒕 → 𝒈 = = = 𝟕. 𝟓𝒔
−𝒈 −𝟏𝟎
Therefore; the total time of return, 2hr: 00min: 15sec
4. The diagram shows the velocity-time graph for a vertically bouncing ball, which is released
above the ground at A and strikes the floor at B. The effects of air resistance have been
neglected.

(a) What does the gradient of a velocity-time graph represent?

(b) Explain why the gradient of the line CD is the same as line AB.
(c) What does the area between the line AB and the time axis represent?
(d) State why the velocity at C is negative.
(e) State why the speed at C is less than the speed at B.
(f) The ball has a mass of 0.15 kg and is dropped from an initial height of 1.2m. After impact the
ball rebounds to a height of 0.75m. Calculate;
(i) the speed of the ball immediately before impact,
𝟏
[A; 𝒎𝒗𝟐 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉 → 𝒗 = √𝟐𝒈𝒉 = √𝟐 × 𝟏. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎 = √𝟐𝟒 =4.9m/s]
𝟐
(ii) the speed of the ball immediately after impact,
𝟏
[A; 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉′ → 𝒗 = √𝟐𝒈𝒉′ = √𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 = √𝟏𝟓 =3.9m/s]
ANS; (a, b, c, d, e,)
(a) Acceleration
(b) They both represent the acceleration of free fall [or the same acceleration]
(c) The height/distance ball is dropped from above the ground [or the displacement of the ball
from when it is dropped until it hits the ground]
(d) It is moving in the opposite direction to when it was at B
(e) Because the Ball dos not bounce as high as initial position or some kinetic energy is lost (as
heat/internal energy) during the bouncing

Self Assessment– 8
1. Calculate the distance in metres covered by a body moving with a uniform speed of 180
km/hr in 30 seconds. (ANS: d = 1 500 m)
2. Calculate the time in seconds taken by a body moving with uniform speed of 360 km/h to
cover a distance of 3000 km. (ANS: t = 30,000 s)

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 3. What is the speed of a racing car in metres per second if the car covers 360 k/h in 2 hours?
(ANS: V = 50 m/s)
4. The average speed of a car is 25 m/s .Calculate the distance travelled by the car in 30
minutes.(ANS: d = 45 000 m or 45 km)
5. Which of the following quantities are scalar?
Displacement, speed, acceleration, velocity and distance.
6. Match the items in column A against the corresponding item from column B by writing the
correct response in the answer column.
Column A Column B
(i) Distance A. Meters per second
(ii) Velocity B. 0m/s and stops
(iii) Displacement C. Rate of change of velocity
(iv) Acceleration D. Path of an object
(v) Maximum attitude E. 10m/s2
(vi) Final velocity F. Speed in meters
(vii) Gravitational G. Has magnitude only
acceleration H. Momentarily stops
I. Distance in a specific direction

7. A race car accelerates uniformly from 18.5 m/s to 46.1 m/s in 2.47s. Determine the
acceleration of the car and the distance traveled (a = 11.2m/s2 , d = 79.8 m)
8. The position time (𝒙 − 𝒕) graphs for two children A and B returning from their school O to
their homes P and Q respectively are shown in the following figure

(i) Which among of the students A or B lived closer to school?

(ii) If they were to meet at point K, who would start early for school?
(iii) Who move faster among the two students A and B if they were to reach home at the
same time?
(iv) Why at point K student B overtake student A
ANS:
(i) It is clear from the graph that 𝑶𝑸 > 𝑂𝑃. So, A lives closer to the school than B.
(ii) The position-time graph of A starts from the origin (t = 0) while the position-time graph
of B starts from C which indicates that B started later than A after a time interval OC.
So, A started earlier than B.
(iii) The speed is represented by the steepness (or slope) of the position-time graph. Since
the position-time graph of B is steeper than the position-time of graph A, therefore, we
conclude that B is faster than A.

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 (iv) The position-time graphs intersect at the point K. B overtakes A at point K means
that at that moment, B has a steeper slope than A. This suggests that B is moving
faster than A at K, which is why B crosses A and continues ahead.
9. State the difference between distance and displacement
10. A man runs 800 m due North in 100 seconds , followed by 400 m South in 80 seconds
.Calculate,
a) His average speed (ANS: V = 6.67 m/s)
b) His average velocity (ANS:V = 2.22 m/s due North)
c) His change in velocity for the whole journey (ANS:V = 3 m/s due North)
11. Define speed and explain what is meant by average speed. A motorist travels from a town A
to town B , 145 km distant in 3 h 45 minutes. Find his average speed:
(a) In km/h (ANS: V = 38.7 km/h)
(b) In m/s (ANS: V = 10.7 m/s)
12. A car initially moving at a velocity of 2 m/s takes 2 minutes to reach a velocity of 20 m/s.
What is the average acceleration of the car? (ANS: a = 0.15 m/s2)
13. How long does it take a truck initially at rest to accelerate to 20 m/s if the acceleration is 2
m/s. (ANS: t = 10 s)
14. A kangaroo is capable of jumping to a height of 2.62 m. Determine the takeoff speed of the
kangaroo. (ANS: v = 7.17 m/s)
15. A car accelerates uniformly from rest to a speed of 15 km/hr in 10 seconds. Find
(a) The acceleration in m/s2 (ANS: a = 0.42 m/s2)
(b) Distance covered during this period in meters (ANS: s = 21 m)
16. A dragster accelerates to a speed of 112 m/s over a distance of 398 m. Determine the
acceleration of the dragster. (ANS: a = 15.8 m/s2)
17. The maximum retardation with which the breaks of a locomotive can reduce its speed is 1.8
m/s2. Calculate the time in which the locomotive can be brought to rest . (ANS: t = u/1.8)
18. A bullet leaves a riffle with a muzzle velocity of 521 m/s. While accelerating through the
barrel of the riffle, the bullet moves a distance of 0.840 m. Determine the acceleration of the
bullet.(assume a uniform acceleration.) (ANS: a = 1.62 x 105 m/s2)
19. A car moving along a straight road ABC as shown in the figure below.

It maintains an average speed of 90 km/h between point A and B and 36 km/h between
point B and C. Calculate the:
(i) Time taken in seconds by the car between points A and C. (ANS: t = 300 s, 13m/s)
(ii) The average speed in metres per second of the car between points A and C.
20. A tennis ball is thrown vertically upwards with a velocity of 20 m/s. Calculate the time taken
for the ball to return to its starting point. (ANS: t = 4 s)
21. (a) Sketch a velocity – time graph for a car moving with uniform acceleration from 5 m/s to
25 m/s in 15 seconds.
(b) Use the sketch graph to find the values for:-
(i) The acceleration. (ANS: a = 1.33 m/s2)
(ii) The total distance travelled during acceleration. (ANS: s = 225 m)
22. A car with a velocity 50 m/s is uniformly retarded and brought to rest after 10 seconds.
Calculate its acceleration. (ANS: a = - 5 m/s)

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 23. What is the mass of a body which when acted on by a force of 3 N accelerates at 7m/s 2
(ANS: m = 0.428 kg)
24. A car travelled from town A to town B 200 km east of A in 3 hours. The car changed
direction and travelled a distance of 150 km due North from town B to town C in 2 hours.
Calculate the average
(i) Speed for the whole journey (ANS: V = 70 km/h)
(ii) Velocity for the whole journey (ANS: V = 50 km/h)
25. A tennis ball hits a vertical wall at a velocity of 10 m/s and bounces off at the same velocity.
Determine the change in velocity. (ANS:V = 20 m/s)
26. A football kicked horizontally from a vertical cliff has a vertical velocity of 30 m/s when it
reaches the sea below
(a) Calculate the time the ball takes to reach the sea. (ANS: t = 3 s)
(b) The initial horizontal velocity of the ball is 15 m/s. Calculate the horizontal distance
travelled by the ball. (ANS: s = 45 m)
27. The velocity of a body increases from 72 km/h to 144 km/h in 10 seconds. Calculate its
acceleration. (ANS: a = 2 m/s2)
28. A car is brought to rest from 180 km/h in 20 seconds. What is its retardation?
(ANS: a = -2.5 m/s2)
29. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly at a rate of 2 m/s 2 for 20 s.It then maintains
a constant velocity for 10 s. The brakes are then applied and the car is uniformly retarded
and comes to rest in 5 s. Draw the velocity – time graph for the motion and find:
(a) The maximum velocity. (ANS: v = 40 m/s)
(b) The retardation in the last 5 seconds. (ANS: a = -8 m/s2)
(c) Total distance travelled. (ANS: s = 900 m)
(d) Average velocity. (ANS: V = 25.71 m/s)
30. A car starts from rest and attains a velocity 20 m/s in 10 s. If it travels at this velocity for 5 s
and then decelerates to stop after another 6 s. Draw the velocity time graph for this motion.
From the graph:
(a) Calculate the total distance moved by the car (ANS: s = 260 m)
(b) Find the acceleration of the car at each stage
(ANS: a1 = 2 m/s2, a2 = 0 m/s2 and a3 = - 3.33 m/s2)
31. Define the term acceleration due to gravity
32. A stone is let to fall vertically down from a window on the 10 th floor of a building 40 m above
the ground. Find the time taken by the stone to reach the ground.
33. A ticker – tape is moved through a ticker – timer for 5.0 seconds. If the timer is operating at
25 Hz
(a) How many dots would have been printed on the tape? (ANS: n=125 dots)
(b) What kind of motion does the tape represents? (ANS: Linear motion)
34. A stone dropped down a well takes 3.0 s to reach the surface of the water .How far is the
water surface below the top of the well? (ANS: h = 45 m)
35. A car on a straight road accelerates from rest to a speed of 30 m/s in 5 s. It then travels at
the same speed for 5 minutes and then brakes for 10 s in order to stop. Calculate the:
(a) Acceleration of the car during the motion (ANS: a = 6 m/s2)
(b) Deceleration of the car (ANS: a = -3 m/s)
(c) Total distance travelled (ANS: d = 9 225 m)
36. A car accelerates from rest to a velocity of 20 m/s in 5 s. Thereafter it decelerates to a rest in
8 s. Calculate the acceleration of the car
(a) In the first 5 s (ANS: a = 4 m/s2)
(b) In the next 8 s (ANS: a = -2.5 m/s2)

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 37. A rocket fired vertically upward with a velocity of 60 m/s falls back to earth .Ignoring the
effects of air resistance ,Calculate the greatest height reached by the rocket (A: h = 180 m)
38. An electric train moving at 20 km/h accelerates to a speed of 30 km/h in 20 s. Find the
average acceleration in m/s2 and the distance travelled in metres during the period of the
acceleration. (ANS: a = 0.14 m/s2 , s = 139 m)
39. A tennis ball is dropped on to the floor from a height of 10 m. It rebounds to a height of 2.5
m. If the ball is in contact with the floor for 0.01 s. What is the average acceleration during
the contact? Take g = 10 m/s2 (AN: a = 2121 m/s2)
40. The speed of goods truck which has been shunted on to a level siding falls from 10 km/h to
5 km/h in moving a distance of 30 m. If the retardation is constant, how much further will the
truck travel before coming to rest? (ANS: s = 10 m)
41. A stone is dropped into a deep well and is heard to hit the water 3.41 s after being dropped.
Determine the depth of the well. (ANS: d = 57.0 m)
42. A car travelling at 22.4 m/s skids to a stop in 2.55 s. Determine the skidding distance of the
car. (ANS: d = 28.6 m)
43. A train, 90 m long, stops in a station with its front buffers in line with a lamp – post on the
platform. Later it starts off with an average acceleration of 0.45 m/s 2. What will be its speed,
in km/h, when the tail buffers pass the lamp – post? (ANS: V = 32.4 km/h)
44. A car runs at a constant speed of 15 m/s for 300 s and then accelerates uniformly to a
speed of 25 m/s over a period of 20 s. This speed is maintained for 300 s before the car is
brought to rest with uniform deceleration in 30 s. Draw a velocity – time graph to represent
the journey described above. From the graph find:
(a) The acceleration while the velocity changes from 15 m/s to 25 m/s. (ANS: a = 0.5 m/s2)
(b) The total distance travelled in the time described; (ANS: s = 12 775 m)
(c) The average speed over the time described. (ANS: V = 19.7 m/s)
45. A bird flying horizontally at 4.8 m/s drops a stone from its beak. The stone hits the ground
after it has travelled a horizontal distance of 12 m
(a) After the bird dropped it , how long did it take the stone to fall to the ground
(ANS: t = 2.5 s)
(b) Calculate the vertical velocity of the stone when it hits the ground (ANS: v = 25 m/s)
46. A car initially at rest, attains a velocity of 20 m/s after 8 seconds. What is the acceleration of
the car? (ANS: a = 2.5 m/s)
47. A body moves with a uniform acceleration of 10 m/s2 covers a distance of 320 m. If its initial
velocity was 60 m/s. Calculate its final velocity (ANS: v = 100 m/s)
48. A body whose initial velocity is 30 m/s moves with a constant retardation of 3 m/s 2.
Calculate the time taken for the body to come to rest. (ANS: t = 30 s)
49. Two stones are thrown vertically upwards from the same point with the same velocity of 20
m/s but at an interval of 2 seconds. When they meet, the second stone rising at 10 m/s.
Calculate:
(a) The time taken by the second stone in air before they meet. (ANS: t = 1 s)
(b) The velocity of the first stone when they meet. (ANS: V = 10 m/s, downward)
50. Explain the difference between speed and velocity. Draw a graph of velocity against time for
a body which starts with an initial velocity of 4 m/s and continues to move with an
acceleration of 1.5 m/s2 for 6 s. Show how you would find from the graph:
(i) The average velocity. (ANS: V = 8.5 m/s)
(ii) The distance moved in the 6 s. (ANS: s = 51 m)
51. A body is uniformly accelerated from rest to a final velocity of 100 m/s I 10 seconds.
Calculate the distance moved. (ANS: s = 500 m)
52. A stone is projected vertically upward with a velocity of 30 m/s from the ground. Calculate

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 (a) The time it takes to attain maximum height (ANS: t = 3 s)
(b) The time of flight (ANS: T = 2t = 6 s)
(c) The maximum height reached (ANS: h = 45 m)
(d) The velocity with which it lands on the ground (ANS: V = 30 m/s)
53. Two cars A and B start moving at the same time along a straight line with uniform
acceleration of 5 m/s2 and 3 m/s2, respectively. If A is 60 km behind B, after how long will car
overtake car B? (ANS: t = 245 s)
54. Define the term uniform acceleration of a body
55. A small solid sphere falls freely from rest, in air, with an acceleration of 10 m/s 2.How far
does it fall in 5.0 s? (ANS: h = 125 m)
56. A motorcyclist accelerates from 10 m/s to 30 m/s in 20 s. Calculate:
(i) The acceleration of the motorcyclist [ANS: 1m/s2]
𝒗𝟐 −𝒖𝟐 𝟖𝟎𝟎
(ii) The displacement of the motorcyclist [ANS: 𝒔 = = = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒎]
𝟐𝒂 𝟐
57. An object is thrown vertically upward from the ground at 30 ms -1.
(a) What is the displacement after 4 s? (ANS: h = 42 m)
(b) What is the velocity after 4 s? (ANS: v = - 9 m/s)
(c) What is the maximum height it attains? (ANS: H = 46 m)
(d) What is the time of flight? (ANS: T = 6.1 s)
58. A small iron ball is dropped from the top of a vertical cliff and takes 2.5 s to reach the sandy
beach below. Find:
(a) The velocity with which it strikes the sand. (ANS: V = 25 m/s)
(b) The height of the cliff .If the ball penetrates the sand to a depth of 12.5 cm, calculate its
average retardation. (ANS: h = 31.25 m ,a = 2500 m/s2)
59. A balloon is ascending at the rate of 12 m/s. When it is at a height of 65 m from the ground,
a packet is dropped from it. After how much time and with what velocity does the packet
reach the ground? Take g = 10 m/s2 (t = 5 s, v = 38 m/s)
60. An object is seen to fall from an aeroplane and observed to take 15 seconds in reaching the
ground . Assuming that air resistance is negligible, calculate
(a) the height of the plane. (ANS: h = 1103 m)
(b) the velocity with which the object strikes the ground (ANS: v = 147 m/s)
61. A motorist, travelling at 90 km/h, applies his brakes and comes to rest with uniform
retardation in 20 s. Calculate the retardation in m/s2. (ANS: a = 1.25 m/s2)
62. A stone is dropped from the top of a tower 400 m high and at the same time another stone is
projected upward vertically from the ground with a velocity of 100 m/s. Find when and where
the two will meet. (ANS: t = 4 s, h = 78.4 m)
63. A body is dropped from rest at a height of 150 m and simultaneously another body is
dropped from rest from a point 100 m above the ground .What is the difference of their
heights after they have fallen for 3 seconds? .(AN: ∆𝒉 = 50 m)
64. A car travels at a uniform velocity of 20 m/s for 5 s. The brakes are then applied and the car
comes to rest with uniform retardation in a further 8 s. Draw a sketch graph of velocity
against time. How far does the car travel after the brakes are applied. (ANS: s = 80 m)
65. A trolley starts from rest on an inclined plane and moves down it with uniform acceleration.
After having moved a distance of 40 cm its velocity is 20 cm/s. Find its acceleration: (a) in
cm/s2 (b) in m/s2 (AN: a = 5 cm/s2 ,a = 0.05 m/s2)
66. Define speed, velocity and acceleration.
(a) A stone is released from rest at the top of a tall tower .Draw a distance – time graph of
its free fall under gravity during the first 6 s. Show your table of values.

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 (b) A bullet, fired vertically upwards from a gun held 2 m above the ground ,reaches its
maximum height in 4 s. Calculate:
(i) The initial velocity of the bullet. (ANS: (i) v = 40 m/s, (ii) s = 162 m)
(ii) The total distance the bullet travels by the time it hits the ground, given that g = 10 m/s 2.
67. A body starts from rest and accelerates at 3 m/s2, for 4 s. Its velocity remains constant at the
maximum value so reached for 7 s and it finally comes to rest with uniform retardation after
another 5 s. Find by a graphical method:
(i) The distance moved during each stage of the motion.(s =24 m, s= 30 m)
(ii) The average velocity over the whole period. (ANS: V = 8.6 m/s)
68. An object travelling at 10 m/s decelerates at 2.0 m/s .How long does the object take before
2

coming to rest? Calculate the distance travelled by the object before it comes to
rest.[5s,25m]
69. A car travelling at a speed of 72 km/hr is uniformly retarded by an application of brakes and
comes to rest after 8 seconds. If the car with its occupants has a mass of 1,250 kg.
Calculate
(i) The braking force (ANS: F = 3,125 N)
(ii) The work done in bringing it to rest.(ANS: Wd = -2.5 x 105 J)
70. A bus starts to move with acceleration of 1 m/s 2 .A man who is 48 m behind the bus runs to
catch it with a constant velocity of 10 m/s. In how much time he will catch the bus?
(ANS: t = 8 s or 12 s)
71. A ball is thrown straight up. What is its velocity and acceleration at the top?
(ANS: V at top = 0 m/s, acceleration at top = 9.8 m/s 2)
72. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 30 m/s from the top of a tower
20 m high. Find:
(a) The time taken to reach the maximum height. (ANS: t = 3 s)
(b) The total time which elapses before it reaches the ground (A: t = 6.6 s)
73. A projectile is fired vertically upwards and reaches a height of 125 m. Find the velocity of
projection and the time it takes to reach its highest point. (ANS: V = 50 m/s, t = 5 s)
74. A cyclist starts from rest and accelerates at 1.0 m/s 2 for 30 s. The cyclist then travels at a
constant speed for 1 minute and then decelerates uniformly and comes to a stop in the next
30 s.
(a) Find the maximum speed attained in
(i) Metres per second
(ii) Kilometer per hour
(b) Calculate the total distance travelled
75. A racing car accelerates on a straight section of a road from rest to a velocity of 50 m/s in 10
s. Find:
(i) The acceleration of the car
(ii) The distance travelled by the car in 10 s.

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 Chapter: 09
Work, Energy and Power

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