Shelter and

Sustainability
A technical and environmental comparative
overview of common shelter typologies found
in settlements across UNHCR operations
© UNHCR/Anja Pirjevec
0.0 Contents

05..................................................................................... 1. Introduction
06..................................................................................... 1.1 Purpose
06..................................................................................... 1.2 Intended users

07..................................................................................... 2. Assessment of shelter sustainability

08..................................................................................... 2.1 Assessment methodology
09..................................................................................... 2.2 Shelter sustainability assessment criteria

09..................................................................................... I. Environmental impacts per shelter

a) Material consumption (raw material, man-made material, water)
b) CO2 footprint (CO2 emissions and CO2 absorption cease)
c) Direct damage of natural habitat
d) Reuse or recycle options

10...................................................................................... II. Technical performance of the shelter

a) Structural resistance of the shelter – context specific assessment
b) Suitability of shelter design – general assessment

12...................................................................................... III. Shelter habitability

a) Covered living area
b) Privacy
c) Natural lightning
d) Artificial lightning
e) Appropriateness of materials and construction techniques
f) Complementary facilities

14...................................................................................... IV. Affordability of the shelter

15...................................................................................... 3. Emergency shelter solution

16...................................................................................... 3.1 Emergency shelter, DR Congo
26..................................................................................... 3.2 Emergency shelter, Mauritania

37...................................................................................... 4. Transitional shelter solutions

38..................................................................................... 4.1 Elevated transitional shelter, Bangladesh
48..................................................................................... 4.2 Transitional shelter, Kenya

57..................................................................................... 5. Durable shelter solutions

58..................................................................................... 5.1 Durable shelter, Rwanda
68..................................................................................... 5.2 Durable shelter, Afghanistan
78..................................................................................... 5.3 Durable shelter, Tanzania

89..................................................................................... 6. Material selection in humanitarian contexts

90..................................................................................... 6.1 Environmental tips for shelter materials

96..................................................................................... 7. References

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 3

4 ___Technical Support Section___
© UNHCR

I. Introduction
Refugees and others of concern to UNHCR have the right to
adequate shelter, which should be ensured in all stages of the
displacement cycle: prior to, during and after displacement.
Adequacy of shelter goes beyond the mere physical living
space. It includes security of tenure, affordability, habitability,
accessibility, location, cultural suitability and availability of
services, materials as well as infrastructure. Humanitarian
crises impact access to safe and adequate shelter for
women, girls, men and boys in different ways. Each step
of a shelter program must be therefore considered with
regard to different needs and “do no harm” principles. The
identification of the specific needs, roles and capacities
of the displaced populations is essential to ensure their
participation and ownership. Providing culturally appropriate
shelters which are conceived to be convenient for women
and men of different age groups and backgrounds is crucial
as well as it is the proximity of shelters to basic services and
infrastructure. Protection principles should be mainstreamed
across all aspects of shelter programing.
 1.1 Purpose

Shelter cannot be looked at in isolation; any response must consider the settlement and the context
in which the households are sheltered. Preferred shelter solutions must be designed and engineered
on the basis of context-specific structural and performance requirements. The shelter should provide
a secure and healthy living environment with privacy and dignity to persons of concern (PoCs) and
protect them from a range of risks, including eviction, exploitation and abuse, overcrowding, poor
access to services, and unhygienic living conditions. The development of an appropriate shelter
response is a process and not simply the delivery of a product and it is important to ensure the
social aspects and needs become also design drivers, alongside all the other characteristics and
specifications assessed in this study.

This document is a comparative overview of different shelter typologies, which were recently
implemented in various field locations and in different stages of a humanitarian response to forced
displacement. Using established criteria to determine the technical performance, habitability,
affordability as well as the environmental impact of each shelter design, this study outlines the real
costs of shelter interventions taking into consideration the specificities of each context and material
used.

The scope of the Shelter and sustainability overview is not to review or update the technical
specifications of shelters presented in the UNHCR shelter design catalogue, which was developed
as a quick reference tool presenting a diverse range of applied examples of shelter designs. Rather, it
seeks to examine shelter designs, the life-cycle of the materials used and analyze possible strategies
to increase the sustainability of humanitarian responses and reduce their carbon footprint, while
at the same time ensuring shelter adequacy and suitability. Ultimately, this overview aims to assist
humanitarian practitioners and host governments in evaluating the performance of shelter solutions,
technically, culturally and environmentally, in a given context and response.

1.2 Intended users

This document is designed for use by all UNHCR staff and partners working in the shelter sector
across different humanitarian contexts and countries. The information may be particularly relevant to
practitioners who are supporting the development of shelter assistance programs with consideration
to shelter type, operational context and the long- and short-term environmental impacts of
humanitarian responses. The document should be used in conjunction with existing environmental
assessment tools seeking to identify potential impacts of shelter and settlement interventions and
the associated mitigation measures to be adopted.

6 ___Technical Support Section___

© UNHCR/Xavier Bourgois

2. Assessment of
shelter sustainability
The sustainability performance of shelter solutions presented
in this document uses technical drawings and bills of quantities
of types of designs that were implemented in different
UNHCR operations and was carried out by comparing four
main criteria (environmental impacts, technical performance,
shelter habitability and costs of construction materials &
labor) through a Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment (LCSA)
approach. The LCSA is a trans-disciplinary framework
which allows the comparison of different design options
through a multi-criteria decision analysis with the aim of
finding the best compromise between costs, environmental
impacts and functionality for a specific shelter. By giving a
comprehensive overview of the shelter response the LCSA
allows informed decision making leading to the selection of
the most appropriate shelter design to address the needs in
a specific context.
 2.1 Assessment methodology

General
Considerations
In order to holistically evaluate the sustainability of a shelter Shelter and settlement assistance should minimize as much
response, the shelter type is evaluated considering a range of as possible the negative impacts on the natural environment.
characteristics, to ensure their adequacy1* in the broad sense of Environmental impact assessments and mitigation strategies
the term, notably: should accompany all shelter and site planning activities
throughout the program cycle. Among the options available, the
• Provide protection from the elements, a space in which the most sustainable materials and construction techniques should
beneficiaries can live and store belongings, and privacy, be prioritized. Energy supply as well as solid waste management
comfort and emotional security; practices should be taken into consideration early on in the
• Provide a habitable covered living space that ensures a planning phase to ensure safe, hygienic, reliable, affordable and
secure and healthy living environment; environmentally sound systems. The protection, restoration and
• Address hazard risks and safety of the occupants; improvement of the natural environment in UNHCR operational
• Build using similar materials and techniques as by the sites should be mainstreamed throughout the program cycle and
displaced population or the host communities; considered before, during and after the establishment of such
• Adapt to take account of the local context and climate, cultural sites with special attention on the impact of shelter interventions
practices and habits, local skills, and available construction on the host population’s needs for natural resources.
materials;
• Consider the wider settlement context in which the households Each typology assessed throughout the study is accompanied by
are sheltered. details on set up time, life span, number of workers, the level of
expertise required for set up and finally the temperature range that
1*
Based on Sphere Standards.
the shelter is able to sustain in a given location.

Shelter life span

Shelter materials deteriorate with time. The shelter life span defines the period beyond which the
shelter and/or its elements might begin to deteriorate.

Shelter set up time

Shelter set up time defines the time in hours or days needed to build the shelter with a specific
number of workers. The set up time does not involve the time needed to produce specific shelter
materials (bricks, cement blocks, etc.).

Workforce required for set up

The number of people required for set up is defined in conjunction with the set-up time. The workforce
might include skilled and unskilled labor. All the shelters in this document were assessed taking into
consideration two unskilled and one skilled worker for the construction.

Suggested temperature range

The temperature range defines the internal temperatures in a shelter during which the thermal
comfort is sustained without artificial cooling or heating.

8 ___Technical Support Section___

To develop a comprehensive rating framework, four main criteria Different maintenance needs and the impacts linked to the use of a

The methodology______
were developed to guide the assessment of shelter sustainability: dwelling or a shelter (e.g. water and electricity usage, impacts from
i. Environmental impacts, ii. Technical performance, iii. Habitability, cooking, sanitation and solid waste) are excluded from this study,
and iv. Affordability. While some criteria might be evaluated in a because the majority of these activities are not part of the shelter
descriptive manner, others are assessed based on a quantitative itself and are being used in isolation from the units. Integrating
approach using a specific formula. these additional criteria would make the comparability of shelters
extremely challenging and in some cases unfeasible, and they
The environmental impacts of dwellings are typically divided into: were therefore excluded from the calculations. It is important
however to mention that although not covered in this document,
• Embodied impacts, which are associated with the pre- and all the above-mentioned aspects need to be considered from the
post-use phases of LCA, when raw materials are harvested onset of the emergency and integrated in the site plan.
and turned into construction materials, transported to the site
and assembled into the finished dwelling which includes the The details of the evaluation methodology to assess the
end-of-life impacts. environmental impacts, the technical performance, the shelter
• Use impacts, which are associated with energy consumption habitability and affordability are elaborated throughout the
and other operational and maintenance impacts. document, however the structure of the main evaluation criteria
is outlined below:
This evaluation is assessing only the environmental impacts
caused by a specific shelter during its lifespan (including the end
of life stages), therefore only the embodied impacts are analyzed.

1. Environmental impacts per shelter

Analyzing the negative effects of production, transportation, construction and disposal of
construction materials of a specific shelter, by considering:

a) Material consumption (raw material, man-made material, water)

b) CO2 footprint (CO2 emissions and CO2 absorption cease)
c) Direct damage of natural habitat
d) Reuse or recycle options

2. Technical performance per shelter

Assessing the performance and behavior of a specific shelter by taking into account:

a) Structural resistance of the shelter b) Suitability of shelter design

context specific assessment general assessment
• wind resistance • natural ventilation
• flood mitigation • fire and flammability
• seismic resistance • thermal comfort
• personal security
• accessibility

3. Shelter habitability
Evaluating the appropriateness of a shelter typology in terms of the following criteria:

a) Covered living area

b) Privacy
c) Natural lightning
d) Artificial lightning
e) Appropriateness of materials and construction techniques
f) Complementary facilities

4. Shelter affordability
Considering the cost of a specific shelter by taking into account all the associated costs:
production, supply and transportation of construction material and the shelter set up

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 9

 2.2 Shelter sustainability assessment criteria

Environmental
Impacts
The environmental impacts assessment will analyze the negative c) Direct damage of natural habitat
effects of production, transportation, construction and disposal
of construction materials. The assessment is carried out via an The destruction of natural habitat happens due to activities
analysis of the following criteria: related to the construction of a specific shelter. Habitat is lost
and degraded when natural or human-caused activities alter
a) Material consumption ecosystems often causing irreversible destruction. The following
activities are considered:
The material consumption is calculated by taking into consideration
the materials / resources needed to build one shelter. It does not • Deforestation and vegetation removal, which fosters soil
reflect the materials / resources used for the preparation and erosion, degradation of water quality and reduces natural
maintenance of the site implementation. infiltration of rainwater which leads to further habitat loss.
The materials / resources are divided in two main groups: • Creation of settlements with all the annexed activities that
• Raw materials used (in kilograms or liters): any naturally damage or destroy natural areas (pollution and deforestation
sourced product or physical matter (water, timber, soil, etc.). due to open fire cooking, construction and agricultural
• Man-made materials (in kilograms or liters): any product or activities, fall through hazards due to soil excavation for brick
physical matter that goes through rigorous processing. (steel, production, human waste and solid waste production and
plastic, concrete, etc.). their unsafe disposal as well as freshwater exacerbation).
• Water: water consumption is calculated for all the man-made
materials and products used to build the shelter. The water d) End of life stage options for shelter materials
consumed by naturally grown materials is not considered
(trees, thatch, bamboo, etc.) The end of life stage analysis examines if the materials of a shelter
could be re-purposed, recycled, up-cycled or down-cycled. While
b) CO2 footprint recycling is the process used to make waste or other materials
suitable for reuse, the goal of up-cycling is to prevent wasting
The CO2 footprint is calculated by taking into consideration CO2 potentially useful materials by making use of existing ones with little
emissions as well as the CO2 absorption cease. However, the or no change. With down-cycling on the other hand, the recycled
CO2 footprint is not only assessing the amount of CO2 that was material decreases in value with each reprocessing. If the materials
released in the air and / or not absorbed by trees. By including can be recycled but there are no recycling facilities in the country
also, the shelter life span and covered living area in the equation, of implementation, then the recyclability option is not considered.
we ensure comparability, across different shelter typologies.
Table A: Baseline data used to calculate the CO2 emissions and
• CO2 emissions in kg of CO2 : the calculation considers the water waste due to material production
CO2 emissions associated with the production of construction
materials, the transportation of construction materials to the Average quantity
Average quantity of
final construction site (national and/or international transport- Type of (in kg) of CO2
water used (in liters) per
depending weather the material was imported or locally material emitted per kg of
kg of material produced
produced), the set up / construction of the shelter, and if material produced
relevant, the disposal or destruction of the shelter. 6 kg of CO2
Plastic 17 l of water used
emitted for 1 kg of
• CO2 absorption cease in kg of CO2 : the calculation considers (PE) for 1 kg of PE
PE produced
the cease in the CO2 absorption per year due to deforestation
for obtaining construction material (wood, bamboo). 2 kg of CO2 emitted for 705 l of water used
Steel
1 kg of steel produced for 1 kg of steel
For the purpose of calculating the CO2 footprint the following
equation was developed: 1 kg of CO2 emitted
0.2 l of water used
Cement for 1 kg of cement
for 1 kg of cement
produced
0.3 kg of CO2
Burned Depending on brick
CO2 footprint = CO2 emission + CO2 absorption cease emitted for 1 kg of
bricks density
bricks produced
Measured in kg of CO2 / Shelter life span in years / Area in m2 0.8 kg of CO2 5.8 l of water used for 1
Glass emitted for 1 kg of glass kg of cement
produced

10 ___Technical Support Section___

Table B: Baseline data used to calculate the CO2 emissions due Table C: Baseline data used to calculate the CO2 absorption

The methodology______
to transport cease due to deforestation

Age of trees or Average quantity of CO2

Means of
Average quantity of CO2 emitted (in kg) bamboo poles absorption cease (in kg) per year
transport
Young tree 6 kg CO2 / year
0.105 kg of CO2 emitted per ton of (up to 10 years old)
Land transport material transported per kilometer
by truck Old tree 21 kg CO2 / year
(above 10 years old)
0.025 kg of CO2 emitted per ton of material
Sea freight transported per kilometer Young bamboo pole 5 kg CO2 / year
(up to 4 years old)

Technical
Performance
The technical performance is assessing the performance and Pluvial floods, occur due to extreme rainfall events.
behavior of a specific shelter typology in terms of structural There are two common types of pluvial flooding:
resistance and suitability of the shelter design.
• Surface water floods, which occur when the drainage capacity
a) Structural resistance in the event of a hazard of an area is overwhelmed. It generally occurs gradually,
which provides people time to move to safe locations, and
The structural resistance analyses the behavior of a shelter the level of water is usually shallow.
typology in the event of a natural hazard (winds, floods and • Flash floods, which are characterized by an intense, high
earthquakes). Not all the shelters and their variations will be velocity torrent of water triggered by torrential rain falling
assessed in all of these categories. A specific shelter typology will within a short amount of time within the vicinity or on nearby
only be assessed against the risks of natural hazards occurring in elevated terrain. The shelter typology will pass the flood
the area of implementation – context specific assessment. If the resistance assessment if it is adapted to the flood risks of
area of shelter implementation is not subject to flooding, extreme the area, hence if either its design previews the finished floor
winds or earthquake activity, the shelter will not be assessed in level of the shelter above flooding levels and/or if the flooding
risks are mitigated through site and plot level drainage
this regard. interventions or other flooding mitigation measures.
Wind resistance
Fluvial, or river floods, which occur when the water level in a river,
Wind exerts pressures (inward or outward) on all exterior shelter lake or stream rises and overflows onto the surrounding banks,
surfaces. If a shelter’s exterior cladding does not have the capacity shores and neighboring land.
to resist these pressures, the structure behind must. Structural For the purpose of this research we will assess shelters only in
components and cladding in a shelter or structure must be terms of pluvial flood resistance.
anchored to resist wind-induced overturning, uplift and sliding,
and to provide continuous load paths for these forces to the Seismic resistance
foundation.
Flood migation Earthquake-resistant structures are intended to withstand the
largest earthquake of a certain probability that is likely to occur at a
There are several different kinds of flood, and each one bears a specific location. For the purpose of this overview we will assesses
different impact in terms of how it occurs, how it can be forecasted, if the shelter design is appropriate to withstand a seismic risk in
the damage it causes, and type of mitigation or adaption measures the area of implementation. In general light weight, single storey
that need to be put in place to prevent major damage, inluding structures, such as emergency shelters are less prone to seismic
temporary evacuation or relocation. risks (no major risk of collapse).

Table 1: Structural resistance grading system

Risk1* Pass Fail

The shelter withstands maximum winds in the The shelter does not withstand maximum winds in the area of
Wind resistance
area of implementation implementation

The shelter is adapted to mitigate flooding The shelter is not adapted to mitigate flooding risks in the area of
Flood mitigation
risks in the area of implementation implementation

Seismic The shelter withstands the seismic loads of The shelter does not withstand the seismic loads of the area of
resistance the area of implementation implementation
1*
The risks of natural hazards occurring in a specific area of implementation are outlined in the introductory sheet of every shelter typology.

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 11

 Table 2: Broad overview of hazard classifications for information purposes, considering international standards

Flood intensity Seismic activity magnitude

Wind speed intensity
(based only on flood depth) *How well the shelter type
Risks *How well the shelter type
*How well the shelter type withstands earthquake magnitudes
withstands winds
withstands the flood intensity based on the Richter scale

Strong winds High intensity flooding

High magnitude seismic events (>7)
(39 – 74 km/hr) (> 50 cm)

Moderate winds Moderate floods Moderate magnitude seismic

Intensity (12 – 38 km/hr) (> 20 and < 50 cm) events (>5 <7)

Light winds No floods or minor floods Low magnitude seismic events

(0 – 11 km/hr) possible (< 20 cm) (> 1 < 5)

b) Suitability of the shelter design on a site level and for individual shelters should be based on the
following three mitigation strategies:
The shelter sustainability analyses the appropriateness of shelters
considering the indoor environmental quality and how well the • Limiting the spread of fire and formation of smoke;
shelter is suited for its designated role or purpose. While a shelter is • Ensuring safe escape time, safe distances between shelter
assessed against the risks of natural hazards only if they represent units and sound evacuation plans;
a risk in the area of implementation, the suitability of the shelter • Informing residents about fire prevention and management.
design will be assessed across all the shelter typologies – general
assessment. The suitability of a shelter typology is assessed in For the purpose of this assessment only the shelter materials and
terms of the following criteria: therefore the proportion (in %) of fire–resistant, fire–retardant
and flammable construction materials integrated in the shelter
Natural ventilation design will be analyzed. Fire-resistant materials are designed to
resist burning and withstand heat while fire-retardant materials
Natural ventilation helps maintain a healthy internal environment, are conceived to burn slowly. Flammable materials on the other
prevents condensation and reduces the spread of communicable hand, are combustible materials that ignite easily at ambient
diseases. It also reduces the effect of smoke and other pollutants temperatures and catch fire immediately on exposure to flame.
which might concentrate inside the shelter (cooking, storing
toxic products or materials, such as fuel for cooking/heating). Thermal comfort
The ventilation needs for a shelter typology are calculated and
assessed by using a rule of thumb calculation formula. If the If thermal comfort in a shelter is adequate people living inside it are
surface of all the window openings together is more than 5 % of comfortably warm or cold, covered and dry. Ideally, a comfortable
the surface of the floor area, the ventilation is adequate. The rule of indoor temperature in moderate climate1* is approximately between
thumb was based on ASHRAE standard which requires a minimum 20-25°C (+/- 2°C, ASHRAE standard). These values can increase
air change of 35 m3/ hr per person to ensure internal comfort. in hot climate conditions and reduce in cold climate conditions
The floor to ceiling height of the shelter plays also an important but generally should not be less than 13°C. However, the thermal
role in determining the internal air quality. The Sphere standards comfort inside a shelter is not linked only to the temperature and
recommend at least 2 meter floor to ceiling height at the highest weather patterns of the area and the shelter materials (especially
point of the shelter (2.6 meters in warm climates). Furthermore, the insulation properties of the shelter envelope), but also to
the addition of upper vent openings (near the ceiling) will allow the the perception of hot and cold of the shelter occupants. For the
warm air to escape outside, which is especially relevant in warm/ purpose of this assessment the satisfaction rates of the occupants
tropical climates. In cold climates, it is important to ensure the will not be assessed. Only the insulation factor of the materials
gases and fumes caused by heating stoves are properly released of the shelter envelope (walls and roof) in relation to the climate
from the shelter. conditions will be analyzed.

Fire and flammability Personal security

Fire risk assessments should inform site planning and shelter Personal security is extremely important in a shelter both to
design. Including 30-meter fire breaks every 300 meters between provide protection and to support groups at risk to feel safe. This
built-up areas (clear from debris, litter or other items at all times) criteria is highly context-specific and may vary from household
and ensuring a minimum distance of 2 meters, ideally twice the to household as well as from individual to individual and may be
height of the shelters (to the ridge), between structures will ensure highly influenced also by family/household composition (female
safe evacuation in the case of fire. The choice of shelter materials headed households, tensions with host communities or with other
as well as considering local cooking practices and providing displaced groups). For the purpose of this evaluation the personal
designated spaces to cook (on individual plots or communal security in a shelter will be assessed considering the following
kitchen spaces) will minimize fire risks. Fire prevention measures criteria:

1*
Temperate climates occur in the latitudes which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout the year and more distinct seasonal
12 changes compared to tropical climates, where such variations are often small.
___Technical Support Section___
• Inner and outer locks for all doors and windows; the shelter needs to be designed considering the following

The methodology______
• Artificial lightning source; accessibility criteria:
• Strong, non-transparent shelter cladding materials;
• Window openings not bigger than 60 x 60cm. • All doors in the shelter need to be wider than 90 cm (to allow
the passage of wheelchairs);
Accessibility • If the shelter is elevated or has steps other architectural
barriers a ramp with handrails and a parapet should be
To accommodate persons with disabilities and those facing installed to facilitate access;
mobility or access barriers (e.g. elderly, children, pregnant women) • The door of the toilet area should open outwards.

Table 3: Shelter design suitability (ventilation, flammability, thermal comfort) grading system

Ventilation Grade Flammability Grade Thermal comfort Grade

The shelter is made from The shelter is adapted to the climate and
The shelter exceeds the
3 materials which are fire 3 mitigates extreme temperatures (high 3
ventilation requirements
resistant (>75%) insulation factor of wall and roof materials)
The shelter meets The shelter is partially The shelter partially mitigates extreme
minimum ventilation 2 or fully made from fire 2 temperatures (either wall or roof materials 2
requirements retardant materials (>50%) have a high insulation factor)
The shelter is made from The shelter is not fit for extreme
The shelter does not meet
1 at least one flammable 1 temperatures (wall and roof materials do not 1
ventilation requirements
material (>25%) have high insulation factor)

Table 4: Shelter design suitability (personal security, accessibility) grading system

Personal security Grade Accessibility Grade

The shelter provides all the above The shelter provides all the above
3 3
listed measures listed measures

The shelter provides all the above The shelter provides all the above
2 2
listed measures, except one listed measures, except one

Two or more of the above listed Two or more of the above listed
1 1
measures are not provided measures are not provided

Shelter
Habitability
The shelter habitability is assessing the appropriateness of a b) Privacy (internal partition)
shelter typology in terms of the following criteria:
The need for internal subdivisions of a shelter should be assessed
a) Covered living area based on existing practices and customs. Where appropriate for
gender, age or cultural reasons, family and / or gender segregated
Living space should be adequate to accommodate daily activities partitions (curtains or walls) should be installed. These should be
such as sleeping, preparing and eating food as well as storing food made from non-transparent materials.
and belongings. According to the Sphere standards the shelter
should provide a minimum covered living area of 3.5 m2 per person
in hot climate conditions and 4.5 m2 per person in cold climate c) Natural lighting
conditions (where people are forced to stay inside the shelter for
longer periods of time). This standard however can be adapted in Adequate lighting, including access to daylight, are among the
specific contexts to reflect cultural and social norms. Land scarcity, basic elements required to ensure the health and well-being
host community habits and local shelter typologies might make it of shelter inhabitants. Daylighting is inseparably linked to the
difficult to implement humanitarian minimum standards and cause energy demand and the indoor climate of a shelter. The size and
tensions between the host community and displaced populations. placement of window openings should be determined based
The minimum living space should reflect cultural and social norms, on adequacy needs and security concerns. Adequate lighting
the context, the phase of the shelter response (emergency, conditions indoors do not only contribute to the health and well
recovery, protracted) the local codes and humanitarian standards, being of the shelter users, they also ensure a living space that can
therefore before adopting the minimum calculated space all the enhance the learning potential of schooling children and provide
considerations need to be carefully considered. a space adequate to perform specific livelihood activities. For the

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 13

 purpose of this analysis the natural lightning needs for a shelter of the host community or the displaced population. The shelter
typology is calculated by using a rule of thumb calculation formula. solutions should preferably be designed on the basis of context-
If the surface of all the window and ventilation openings together specific structural and performance requirements. Familiarity with
is more than 10 % of the surface of the floor area, natural lightning the construction techniques and materials will ensure that the
is adequate. shelter occupants are able to maintain and / or repair the shelter
without the need of technical guidance or procurement of costly
d) Artificial lighting parts.

Artificial lighting should be provided as needed to contribute to f) Facilities (kitchen areas, toilets, showers)
personal safety in and around the shelter. The access to artificial
lighting could be on a site level, where only strategic spaces and An adequate living space does not depend only on the
communal areas in the site are artificially lit and on an individual appropriateness of the shelter unit. Access to complementary
level where individual shelters have access to it. The sources of spaces and facilities are also considered, as they support and
artificial lighting can be of different nature. Besides candles, which maintain health, dignity and safety and they allow the undertaking
present considerable fire risks, and connection to an electricity of daily activities in and around the shelter. It is important to provide
grid or generator, the use of different renewable energy lighting designated spaces to cook and ensure adequate and appropriate
sources (solar panels) is also possible and encouraged. toilets and showers to allow rapid, safe and secure access at all
times by all their users, including children, older persons, and
e) Appropriateness of materials and set up pregnant women. Communal toilets should be considered as an
techniques immediate solution and replaced by individual toilets as soon as
possible. Safe and sustainable excreta management should be
The appropriateness of shelter materials and construction considered as a priority as well as solid waste management which
techniques is assessed in comparison either with the local practices should be safely contained to avoid pollution and health risks.

Table 5: Shelter habitability grading system

Appropriateness of shelter
Covered living area Grade Privacy Grade Grade
materials
The shelter provides minimum
Shelter is made by local materials
The shelter complies with privacy (has an internal
3 3 and locally adapted construction 3
Sphere standards partition, has more than one
techniques
room)

The shelter does not comply

with Sphere standards; however, The shelter does not provide
it was designed to reflect the minimum privacy, however the Shelter is partially made by local
local standards and avoid 2 design and space allow for 2 materials and locally adapted 2
conflict with host communities, modifications and upgrading to construction techniques
or the design and space allow offer minimum privacy
for shelter expansion

The shelter materials /

The shelter does not comply The shelter does not provide
1 1 construction techniques are not 1
with Sphere standards minimum privacy
locally adapted

Table 6: Shelter habitability grading system

Facilities
Natural lighting Grade Artificial lighting Grade Grade
(kitchen area, toilets, shower)

The shelter exceeds the natural The shelter has artificial The shelter or plot is equipped
3 3 3
lighting requirements lighting with the facilities

The shelter does not have The shelter or plot is not

The shelter meets minimum artificial lighting, however, equipped with the facilities;
2 2 2
natural lighting requirements there is artificial lighting in the however, there are communal
site in strategic spots facilities in the site

The shelter or plot is not

The shelter does not meet The shelter does not have equipped with the facilities and
1 1 1
natural lighting requirements artificial lighting there are no communal facilities
in the site

14 ___Technical Support Section___

 The methodology______
Shelter
Affordability
The shelter affordability is defined by considering the cost of a For calculating the shelter affordability the following equation was
specific shelter and taking into account all the associated costs: developed:
production, supply and transportation of construction material,
the shelter set up / construction costs and also by considering the
shelter life span and the shelter covered living area. By including
the shelter life span and covered living area in the equation, we
Affordability = cost (BoQ) / life span / shelter area
ensure a comparable unit cost, across different shelter typologies.
The cost assessment is calculated in USD and it considers the Measured in USD / Shelter life span in years / Area in m2
prices of materials, transport and construction according to the
2019 local market assessments. The price of the land where the
shelter is built it is not considered in the calculation.

Sustainability
Score card
The concept of the Shelter Sustainability Score Card is based on that provides an overview of the resources used to build a specific
the understanding that the built environment can have profound shelter, their impacts on the natural environment and the shelter
effects on the natural environment, as well as people who inhabit characteristics themselves, with the overall aim to ease cross-
dwellings/shelters, independently of the implementation context. typology comparison of resources and shelter aspects.
The Sustainability Score Card is an effort to amplify the positive The structuring of shelter data and tangible assets in a comparable
and mitigate the negative effects of these activities throughout format enables all the stakeholders in the supply chain to work
their life cycle. It was conceived as a standardized data format together towards a more sustainable shelter response.

Tree protection (environmental impact)

The tree protection is assessed based on the decrease in forest area (wood and bamboo) due to shelter
construction activity. It is calculated by taking into account the quantity of trees and/or bamboo poles
used to build a specific shelter type.

CO2 emission mitigation (environmental impact)

The CO2 footprint is calculated by taking into account CO2 emissions as well as the CO2 absorption
cease in relation to the shelter life span and covered living area.

Material efficiency (environmental impact)

Material efficiency is evaluating the quantity of the construction material used for a specific shelter
typology and its impact on the environment during extraction, production and processing (CO2 emissions
and water usage). Material reuse options after disposal are also taken into account. The material intensity
is then weighted in relation to the shelter covered living area.

Technical performance
The technical performance of a specific shelter typology is determined by assessing its structural
resistance in the event of a hazard and the suitability of the shelter design.

Shelter habitability
The shelter habitability is determined by assessing the covered living area, privacy characteristics,
appropriateness of shelter materials and construction techniques, the natural and artificial lightning
aspects and access to facilities.

Shelter affordability
The shelter affordability is determined by considering the cost of a specific shelter with all the associated
expenditures (production, transport, construction) in relation to the shelter life span as well as the shelter
covered living area.

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 15

16 ___Technical Support Section___
© UNHCR/Anja Pirjevec

3. Emergency
shelter solutions
UNHCR defines emergency shelter as a habitable covered
living space providing a secure and healthy environment
with privacy and dignity. Individual family shelters are always
preferred to communal accommodation as they provide the
necessary privacy and psychological comfort. They also
provide safety and security for people and possessions and
help to preserve or rebuild family unity. Emergency shelter
needs are best met by using materials and designs that
persons of concern or the local population would normally
use. Wherever possible, displaced populations should be
empowered to build their own shelter, with the necessary
organizational, material and / or cash assistance support.
This will help ensure that the shelter meets their particular
needs, promote a sense of ownership and self-reliance,
and reduce costs and construction time considerably. It is
important to keep in mind that the initial shelter design as
well as the site selection and planning will determine the
long term sustainability of the site, therefore it is important to
develop a shelter response focused beyond the emergency
phase and linked to more durable solutions.
 3.1
Map of locations

Emergency shelter Democratic Republic of Congo

Ituri province
Ituri settlements
The shelter was implemented to respond to the internal
displacement crises during the upsurge in violence in Ituri
province, Eastern Congo. In 2019, more than 360 000 people
fled their homes to seek safety in host communities and IDP
settlements. In response of the humanitarian crises UNHCR
has provided to the most vulnerable 8 621 IDPs households
with emergency shelters across more than 14 settlements. The
PoCs and the host community were involved in the project
through cash for work modality. The shelters are simple, one
room structures implemented to provide critical life saving
emergency assistance. In addition to emergency shelters the
sites were equipped with access to improved water sources,
communal toilets and showers and as kitchen areas.

Shelter service area

10.5 m2 [3m x 3.5m]

Regionally or locally sourced materials

Water, timber, bamboo, clay-rich soil and thatch

Imported materials
Cement, plastic based items, steel, iron and its end
products are imported from abroad usually from China

Climate classification
Tropical savanna

Yearly temperatures
Vary from 17°C to 30°C
Rarely below 15°C or above 34°C

Rainy season
September to November with
160 mm of precipitation per month on average

Dry season
December to March with
45 mm of precipitations per month in average

Wind speed
Winds up to 8.3 km/hr

Flood risks
• Clay reach soil (rain water retention)
• Important volumes of rain water runoff
• No service water drainage in the site

Flood mitigation opportunities

Site slope around 5 - 6 %

Site level environmental challenges

• Site cleaning (trees and other types of
vegetation) due to construction;
• No strategy for a sustainable disposal of fecal
waste;
• Refuse pits implemented, but without strategy for
long term solid waste management;
• Firewood collection and open fire cooking.

18 ___Technical Support Section___

 A

Emergency shelter in DR Congo______

Variation Environmental
impacts
Structure gable timber frame Raw materials used 3* gum trees 0.5 m3
Walls UNHCR plastic tarpaulins water1* 3 910 liters
Roof UNHCR plastic tarpaulins Manmade materials plastic (tarpaulins) 0.13 m3
Footing poles 50 cm deep with compacted earth used steel (nails) 5.3 kg
Floor natural earth
Openings one door [90 cm x 190 cm] CO2 emissions material production 84 kg
no windows, ventilation under each eave transportation 35 kg
CO2 absorption cease due to deforestation 90 kg/year
Total 209 kg
CO2 footprint kg of CO2 / Life span / Area
208.7 kg / 1 year / 10.5 m2
= 20 kg of CO2 / year / m2
Suggested Number of people Time required Average life span
temperature range required for setup for setup5* of the shelter Damage of natural habitat Deforestation & erosion

Material reuse Timber elements and tarpaulins can be

upcycled

Technical
performance
Wind resistance complying
Flood mitigation on plot/site flood mitigation measures
Ventilation meets minimum vent. requirements
Flammability meets fire retardant criteria
Thermal comfort not fit for extreme temperatures2*
Personal security not guaranteeing personal security
Accessibility adaption measures necessary

Habitability
Covered area suitable for 3 occupants ( Sphere )
Privacy not designed for minimum privacy
Natural light no natural light
Artificial light no access to artificial lightning
Shelter materials not adapted to local practices
Facilities communal facilities in the site

Affordability
Costs Cost / Life span / Area
$ 124.65 / 1 year / 10.5 m2
= $ 11.9 / year / m2

1*
The water consumtion is calculated for all the man made materials and products used to build the shelter. The water consumed by naturally grown materials is not taken into account (e.g. trees, thatch, bamboo).
2*
3*
Temperatures that hover 10 degrees or more above or below the average temperature for the region.
___Division of Resilience and Solutions___
The calculation takes into consideration the resources needed for the construction of one shelter unit. It does not reflect the resources used for the preparation and maintenance of the settlement.
19
5*
The construction set up time considers the time necessary to build the shelter with all necessary building material ready to use.
 Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters

S1

S2 S2

S1

Floor plan Roof plan

+260 +260

+200
+190

+95 +95

+5 0 +5

Section S1 Section S2

20 ___Technical Support Section___

 Emergency shelter in DR Congo______
Bill of Quantities

Item specification Unit Quantity Unit cost in USD4* Total cost in USD4*
Labour Openings Shelter Super Structure

Gum poles with ø 8-10 cm, 3.5 m long pieces 5 1.2 6

Gum poles with ø 8-10 cm, 2.5 m long pieces 7 1.2 8.4
Gum poles with ø 4-5 cm, 3.5 m long pieces 11 1 11
Gum poles with ø 4-5 cm, 3 m long pieces 6 1 6
Gum poles with ø 4-5 cm, 2 m long pieces 10 1 10
UNHCR plastic tarpaulin, sheet 4 x5 m pieces 3 12 36
Nails 10 cm long kg 2.5 3 7.5
Nails 4 cm long kg 1.75 3 5.25
Roofing nails (umbrella type), 5 cm long kg 1 3 3

Timber plank 10x5 cm, 3.5 m long pieces 3 3.5 10.5

Door locking system pieces 1 0.5 0.5
Door hindges pieces 2 0.25 0.5

2 unskilled day 2 3 12
1 skilled worker day 1 8 8
104.65 + 20
Total 124.65

4*
Prices according to the 2019 local market assessment.

Sustainability Score Card

Tree protection

C02 emission mitigation

Material efficiency

Technical performance

Shelter habitability

Shelter affordability
Score interpretation*: 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = exellent
The criteria for the evaluation was established based on the overall performance of the shelters presented in this document

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 21

 Variation B Environmental
impacts
Structure gable timber frame Raw materials used3* gum trees 0.48 m3
Walls wattle & daub with straw reinforced earth bamboo 0.35 m3
Roof UNHCR plastic tarpaulins water1* 4 641 liters
Footing poles 50 cm deep with compacted earth soil 5 m3
Floor natural earth straw 12 kg
Openings 1 door [90 x 190cm]
no windows, ventilation under both eaves Manmade materials plastic (tarpaulins) 0.04 m3
used steel (nails) 4.5 kg

CO2 emissions material production 33 kg

transportation 38 kg
CO2 absorption cease due to deforestation 225 kg/year
Suggested Number of people Time required Average life span Total 296 kg
temperature range required for setup for setup5* of the shelter CO2 footprint kg of CO2 / Life span / Area
296 kg / 2 years / 10.5 m2
= 14 kg of CO2 / year / m2

Damage of natural habitat Deforestation & erosion

fall through hazards due to soil excavation

Material reuse Timber elements and tarpaulins can be

upcycled

Technical
performance
Wind resistance complying
Flood mitigation on plot/site flood mitigation measures
Ventilation meets minimum vent. requirements
Flammability meets fire retardant criteria
Thermal comfort partially mitigates extreme temperatures2*
Personal security guarantees personal security
Accessibility adaption measures necessary

Habitability
Covered area suitable for 3 occupants ( Sphere )
Privacy not designed for minimum privacy
Natural light no natural light
Artificial light no access to artificial lightning
Shelter materials partially adapted to local practices
Facilities communal facilities in the site

Affordability
Costs Cost / Life span / Area
$ 190.15 / 2 years / 10.5 m2
= $ 9.1 / year / m2
1*
The water consumtion is calculated for all the man made materials and products used to build the shelter. The water consumed by naturally grown materials is not taken into account (e.g. trees, thatch, bamboo).
22 Temperatures that hover 10 degrees or more above or below the average temperature for the region.
2*
3*
5*
___Technical Support Section___
The calculation takes into consideration the resources needed for the construction of one shelter unit. It does not reflect the resources used for the preparation and maintenance of the settlement.
The construction set up time considers the time necessary to build the shelter with all necessary building material ready to use.
 Emergency shelter in DR Congo______
Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters

S1

S2 S2

S1

Floor plan Roof plan

+260 +260

+190 +190

+95 +95

+5 0 +5

Section S1 Section S2

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 23

 Bill of Quantities

Item specification Unit Quantity Unit cost in USD4* Total cost in USD4*

Gum poles with ø 8-10 cm, 3.5 m long pieces 5 1.2 6

Gum poles with ø 8-10 cm, 2.5 m long pieces 7 1.2 8.4
Gum poles with ø 4-5 cm, 3.5 m long pieces 11 1 11
Gum poles with ø 4-5 cm, 3 m long pieces 6 1 6
Shelter Super Structure

Gum poles with ø 4-5 cm, 2 m long pieces 10 1 10

Bamboo sticks with ø 2-3 cm, 3.5 m long pieces 56 0.25 14
Bamboo sticks with ø 2-3 cm, 3 m long pieces 23 0.2 4.6
Bamboo sticks with ø 4-5 cm, 2.5 m long pieces 10 0.25 2.5
Bamboo sticks with ø 4-5 cm, 2 m long pieces 17 0.2 3.4
Bamboo sticks with ø 2-3 cm, 2 m long pieces 35 0.15 5.25
UNHCR plastic tarpaulin, sheet 4 x5 m pieces 1 12 12
Nails 10 cm long kg 2.5 3 7.5
Nails 4 cm long kg 1 3 3
Roofing nails (umbrella type), 5 cm long kg 1 3 3
Syntetic rope with ø 0.5 cm m 80 - 15
Soil excavation m3 5 - -
Straw (average 6 kg per bundle) bundle 2 2 4
Labour Openings

Timber plank 10x5 cm, 3 m long pieces 3 3.5 10.5

Door locking system pieces 1 0.5 0.5
Door hindges pieces 2 0.25 0.5
Bush stick braiding, 90x190 cm pieces 1 5 5

2 unskilled worker day 7 3 42

1 skilled worker day 2 8 16
132.15 + 58
Total 190.15

4*
Prices according to the 2019 local market assessment.

Sustainability Score Card

Tree protection

C02 emission mitigation

Material efficiency

Technical performance

Shelter habitability

Shelter affordability
Score interpretation*: 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = exellent
The criteria for the evaluation was established based on the overall performance of the shelters presented in this document

24 ___Technical Support Section___

 C

Emergency shelter in DR Congo______

Variation Environmental
impacts
Structure gable timber frame Raw materials used3* gum trees 0.57 m3
Walls wattle & daub with straw reinforced earth bamboo 0.35 m3
Roof thatch water1* 4 320 liters
Footing poles 50 cm deep with compacted earth soil 5 m3
Floor natural earth straw 42 kg
Openings 1 door [90 x 190cm], 2 windows [65 x 60cm],
2 eave vents & 2 gable vents [50 x 30cm] Manmade materials steel (nails) 4 kg
used

CO2 emissions material production 8 kg

transportation 37 kg
CO2 absorption cease due to deforestation 237 kg/year
Suggested Number of people Time required Average life span Total 282 kg
temperature range required for setup for setup5* of the shelter CO2 footprint kg of CO2 / Life span / Area
282 kg / 4 years / 10.5 m2
= 7 kg of CO2 / year / m2

Damage of natural habitat Deforestation & erosion

fall through hazards due to soil excavation

Material reuse Timber elements can be upcycled

Technical
performance
Wind resistance complying
Flood mitigation on plot flood mitigation measures
Ventilation meets minimum vent. requirements
Flammability partially flammable (roof)
Thermal comfort*2 mitigates extreme temperatures2*
Personal security guarantees personal security
Accessibility adaption measures necessary

Habitability
Covered area suitable for 3 occupants ( Sphere )
Privacy not designed for minimum privacy
Natural light meets minimum light. requirements
Artificial light no access to artificial lightning
Shelter materials adapted to local practices
Facilities communal facilities in the site

Affordability
Costs Cost / Life span / Area
$ 256.65 / 4 years / 10.5 m2
= $ 6.1 / year / m2
1*
The water consumtion is calculated for all the man made materials and products used to build the shelter. The water consumed by naturally grown materials is not taken into account (e.g. trees, thatch, bamboo).
2*
3*
Temperatures that hover 10 degrees or more above or below the average temperature for the region.
___Division of Resilience and Solutions___
The calculation takes into consideration the resources needed for the construction of one shelter unit. It does not reflect the resources used for the preparation and maintenance of the settlement.
25
5*
The construction set up time considers the time necessary to build the shelter with all necessary building material ready to use.
 Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters

Floor plan Roof plan

260 260

200
190

95 95

0 5 5

Section S1 Section S2

26 ___Technical Support Section___

 Emergency shelter in DR Congo______
Bill of Quantities

Item specification Unit Quantity Unit cost in USD4* Total cost in USD4*

Gum poles with ø 8-10 cm, 3.5 m long pieces 5 1.2 6

Gum poles with ø 8-10 cm, 2.5 m long pieces 7 1.2 8.4
Gum poles with ø 4-5 cm, 3.5 m long pieces 15 1 15
Gum poles with ø 4-5 cm, 3 m long pieces 6 1 6
Shelter Super Structure

Gum poles with ø 4-5 cm, 2 m long pieces 18 1 18

Bamboo sticks with ø 2-3 cm, 3.5 m long pieces 56 0.25 14
Bamboo sticks with ø 2-3 cm, 3 m long pieces 23 0.2 4.6
Bamboo sticks with ø 4-5 cm, 2.5 m long pieces 10 0.25 2.5
Bamboo sticks with ø 4-5 cm, 2 m long pieces 17 0.2 3.4
Bamboo sticks with ø 2-3 cm, 2 m long pieces 35 0.15 5.25
Nails 10 cm long kg 2.5 3 7.5
Nails 4 cm long kg 1.5 3 4.5
Syntetic rope with ø 0.5 cm m 30 6
Syntetic rope with ø 0.5 cm m 80 - 15
Soil excavation m3 5 - -
Straw (6 kg/bundle) - earth mix bundle 2 2 4
Straw (6 kg/bundle) - roof cover, 2 m long bundle 5 3 15

Timber plank 10x5 cm, 3 m long pieces 3 3.5 10.5

Door locking system pieces 1 0.5 0.5
Door hindges pieces 2 0.25 0.5
Bush stick braiding, 90x190 cm pieces 1 5 5
Openings

Timber plank 10x5 cm, 3 m long pieces 2 3.5 7

Window locking system pieces 2 0.5 1
Window hindges pieces 4 0.25 1
Bush stick braiding, 65x60 cm pieces 2 3 6

2 unskilled worker day 9 3 54

Labour

1 skilled worker day 3 8 24

166.65 + 78
Total 244.65
4*
Prices according to the 2019 local market assessment.

Sustainability Score Card

Tree protection

C02 emission mitigation

Material efficiency

Technical performance

Shelter habitability

Shelter affordability
Score interpretation*: 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = exellent
The criteria for the evaluation was established based on the overall performance of the shelters presented in this document

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 27

 3.2
Map of locations

Emergency shelter
M'Bera settlement
M'Bera camp is located in south-east Mauritania and hosts
some 50,000 refugees who have fled conflict and ongoing Mauritania
insecurity in northern Mali since 2012. New arrivals allocated Bassikounou district
a plot of land and being provided with transitional shelter
and non-food items. The current shelter approach is based
around a simple rectangular structure of steel pipe and timber
frame, clad in thick canvas. The steel structure consists of 9
circular hollow section posts with a timber frame clad in canvas
cloth. This option is climatically and culturally appropriate
for the primarily rural and nomadic agro-pastoralist refugee
population. In addition to the shelters the settlement was
equipped with access to water sources, communal and
household toilets and showers.

Shelter service area

14 m2 [4m x 3.5m]

Regionally or locally sourced materials

Sandy-clayey soil, bricks, sand, aggregates, canvas,
animal dung, cement
Imported materials
Plastic based items, steel and iron products are
generally imported from China and timber is imported
mainly from Mali

Climate classification
Desert, hot all year round

Yearly temperatures
Vary from 14°C to 42°C
Rarely below 11°C or above 44°C

Rainy season
July to October with
38 mm of precipitation per month on average

Dry season
November to June with
1.5 mm of precipitations per month in average

Wind speed
Windiest period from October to May with average
wind speeds up to 20 km/h

Flood risks
• Areas prone to flash floods
• Sandy soil which easily washes away in rain
• Lack of vegetation cover and erosion
Flood mitigation opportunities
• Dykes across flood prone areas to prevent water
reaching the settlement
• Service water drainage in the site

Site level environmental challenges

• Site cleaning (trees and other types of
vegetation) due to construction;
• No strategy for a sustainable disposal of solid
waste;
• Impacts of livestock on the environment, public
health and aquifer depletion;
• No designated cooking areas;
• Firewood collection and open fire cooking.

28 ___Technical Support Section___

 A

Emergency shelter in Mauritania______

Variation Environmental
impacts
Structure galvanized iron frame Raw materials used 3* gum trees 0.3 m3
Walls UNHCR plastic tarpaulins water1* 100 600 liters
Roof UNHCR plastic tarpaulins Manmade materials plastic (tarpaulins) 0.13 m3
Footing steel poles, 70 cm deep with compacted earth used steel (nails, poles) 142 kg
Floor hand compacted
Openings 1 door [85 x 185cm] CO2 emissions material production 345 kg
no windows, ventilation under each eave transportation 140 kg
CO2 absorption cease due to deforestation 180 kg/year
Total 665 kg
CO2 footprint kg of CO2 / Life span / Area
665 kg / 1 year / 14 m2
= 48 kg of CO2 / year / m2
Suggested Number of people Time required Average life span
temperature range required for setup for setup5* of the shelter Damage of natural habitat Deforestation & erosion

Material reuse Steel poles are reusable

Timber elements and tarpaulins can be
upcycled

Technical
performance
Wind resistance complying
Flood mitigation on plot/site flood mitigation measures
Ventilation meets minimum vent. requirements
Flammability meets fire retardant criteria
Thermal comfort not fit for extreme temperatures2*
Personal security not guaranteeing personal security
Accessibility adaption measures necessary

Habitability
Covered area suitable for 4 occupants ( Sphere )
Privacy can be upgraded for minimum privacy
Natural light no natural light
Artificial light no access to artificial lightning
Shelter materials not adapted to local practices
Facilities household facilities in the plot

Affordability
Costs Cost / Life span / Area
$ 528.8 / 1 year / 14 m2
= $ 37.7 / year / m2

1*
The water consumtion is calculated for all the man made materials and products used to build the shelter. The water consumed by naturally grown materials is not taken into account (e.g. trees, thatch, bamboo).
2*
3*
Temperatures that hover 10 degrees or more above or below the average temperature for the region.
___Division of Resilience and Solutions___
The calculation takes into consideration the resources needed for the construction of one shelter unit. It does not reflect the resources used for the preparation and maintenance of the settlement.
29
5*
The construction set up time considers the time necessary to build the shelter with all necessary building material ready to use.
 Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters

S1

S2 S2

S1

Floor plan Roof plan

+255 +261

+187 +187

0 0

Section S1 Section S2

30 ___Technical Support Section___

 Emergency shelter in Mauritania______
Bill of Quantities

Item specification Unit Quantity Unit cost in USD4* Total cost in USD4*
Shelter Super Structure

Galvanized iron poles with ø 6 cm 3.2 m long pieces 3 33.3 99.9

Galvanized iron poles with ø 6 cm 2.5 m long pieces 6 36.8 220.8
Gum rafters, 8 x 6cm section, 4m long pieces 3 4.5 13.5
Gum rafters, 8 x 6cm section, 3.5m long pieces 3 8 24
Gum purlins, 5 x 5cm section, 2m long pieces 16 2 32
UNHCR plastic tarpaulin, sheet 4 x5 m pieces 3 12 36
Syntetic rope, small grain m 45 - 9
Syntetic rope, large grain m 35 - 14.5
Nails 10 cm long kg 2 2 4
Nails 4 cm long kg 2 1.6 3.2

Door panel-CGI, gauge 30, 1.8x0.85 m pieces 1 6 6

Labour Openings

Door locking system, 15 cm pieces 1 0.8 0.8

Door hinges & screws, 10-11 cm pieces 2 0.25 0.5
Gum plank 5x5 cm, 4 m min. length pieces 2 4 8
Nails 4 cm long kg 1 1.6 1.6

2 unskilled worker day 3 6 36

1 skilled worker day 1 19 19
473.8 + 55
Total 528.8

4*
Prices according to the 2019 local market assessment.

Sustainability Score Card

Tree protection

C02 emission mitigation

Material efficiency

Technical performance

Shelter habitability

Shelter affordability
Score interpretation*: 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = exellent
The criteria for the evaluation was established based on the overall performance of the shelters presented in this document

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 31

 Variation B Environmental
impacts
Structure galvanized iron frame Raw materials used 3* gum trees 0.3 m3
Walls UNHCR canvas roll water1* 118 300 liters
Roof UNHCR plastic tarpaulins Manmade materials plastic (tarpaulins) 0.04 m3
Footing steel poles, 70 cm deep with compacted earth used steel (nails, poles) 142 kg
Floor hand compacted cotton canvas 26 m2
Openings 1 door [85 x 185cm]
no windows, ventilation under each eave CO2 emissions material production 312 kg
transportation 135 kg
CO2 absorption cease due to deforestation 180 kg/year
Total 627 kg
CO2 footprint kg of CO2 / Life span / Area
627 kg / 1 year / 14 m2
= 45 kg of CO2 / year / m2
Suggested Number of people Time required Average life span
temperature range required for setup for setup5* of the shelter
Damage of natural habitat Deforestation & erosion

Material reuse Steel poles are reusable

Timber elements, tarpaulins and canvas
can be upcycled

Technical
performance
Wind resistance complying
Flood mitigation on plot/site flood mitigation measures
Ventilation meets minimum vent. requirements
Flammability meets fire retardant criteria
Thermal comfort partially mitigates extreme temperatures2*
Personal security not guaranteeing personal security
Accessibility adaption measures necessary

Habitability
Covered area suitable for 4 occupants ( Sphere )
Privacy can be upgraded for minimum privacy
Natural light no natural light
Artificial light no access to artificial lightning
Shelter materials partially adapted to local practices
Facilities household facilities in the plot

Affordability
Costs Cost / Life span / Area
$ 536.3 / 1 years / 14 m2
= $ 38.3 / year / m2

1*
The water consumtion is calculated for all the man made materials and products used to build the shelter. The water consumed by naturally grown materials is not taken into account (e.g. trees, thatch, bamboo).
32 Temperatures that hover 10 degrees or more above or below the average temperature for the region.
2*
3*
5*
___Technical Support Section___
The calculation takes into consideration the resources needed for the construction of one shelter unit. It does not reflect the resources used for the preparation and maintenance of the settlement.
The construction set up time considers the time necessary to build the shelter with all necessary building material ready to use.
 Emergency shelter in Mauritania______
Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters

S1

S2 S2

S1

Floor plan Roof plan

+255 +261

+187 +187

0 0

Section S1 Section S2

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 33

 Bill of Quantities

Item specification Unit Quantity Unit cost in USD4* Total cost in USD4*
Shelter Super Structure

Galvanized iron poles with ø 6 cm 3.2 m long pieces 3 33.3 99.9

Galvanized iron poles with ø 6 cm 2.5 m long pieces 6 36.8 220.8
Gum rafters, 8 x 6cm section, 4m long pieces 3 4.5 13.5
Gum rafters, 8 x 6cm section, 3.5m long pieces 3 8 24
Gum purlins, 5 x 5cm section, 2m long pieces 16 2 32
UNHCR plastic tarpaulin, sheet 4 x5 m pieces 1 12 12
UNHCR canvas roll, 16 m x 1.6m roll 1 - 31.5
Syntetic rope, small grain m 45 - 9
Syntetic rope, large grain m 35 - 14.5
Nails 10 cm long kg 2 2 4
Nails 4 cm long kg 2 1.6 3.2
Labour Openings

Door panel-CGI, gauge 30, 1.8x0.85 m pieces 1 6 6

Door locking system, 15 cm pieces 1 0.8 0.8
Door hinges & screws, 10-11 cm pieces 2 0.25 0.5
Gum plank 5x5 cm, 4 m min. length pieces 2 4 8
Nails 4 cm long kg 1 1.6 1.6

2 unskilled worker day 3 6 36

1 skilled worker day 1 19 481.3 + 55
19

Total 536.3

4*
Prices according to the 2019 local market assessment.

Sustainability Score Card

Tree protection

C02 emission mitigation

Material efficiency

Technical performance

Shelter habitability

Shelter affordability
Score interpretation*: 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = exellent
The criteria for the evaluation was established based on the overall performance of the shelters presented in this document

34 ___Technical Support Section___

 C

Emergency shelter in Mauritania______

Variation Environmental
impacts
Structure mud-brick load bearing walls-non reinforced masonry Raw materials used 3* gum trees 0.1 m3
Walls mud plastered sun-dried clay brick water1* 99 700 liters
Roof flat roof - I section steel profiles with brick infill soil 24.4 m3
Footing 40 x 60 cm brick foundations steel (nails, I profiles) 131 kg
Floor compacted earth Manmade materials cement 330 kg
Openings 1 door [100 x 200cm], 3 windows [60 x 60cm] used sand 0.56 m3

material production 547 kg

transportation 228 kg
due to deforestation 36 kg
CO2 emissions Total 811 kg/year

CO2 absorption cease kg of CO2 / Life span / Area

Suggested Number of people Time required Average life span
temperature range required for setup for setup5* of the shelter 811 kg / 10 years / 14 m2
CO2 footprint = 6 kg of CO2 / year / m2

Damage of natural habitat Deforestation & erosion

Material reuse Steel poles are reusable

Timber elements and tarpaulins can be
upcycled

Technical
performance
Flood mitigation on plot/site flood mitigation measures
Ventilation meets minimum vent. requirements
Flammability meets fire resistant criteria
Thermal comfort mitigates extreme temperatures2*
Personal security guarantees personal security
Accessibility adaption measures necessary

Habitability
Covered area suitable for 4 occupants ( Sphere )
Privacy can be upgraded for minimum privacy
Natural light meets minimum light. requirements
Artificial light no access to artificial lightning
Shelter materials adapted to local practices
Facilities household facilities in the plot

Affordability
Costs Cost / Life span / Area
$ 1 053.6 / 10 years / 14 m2
= $ 7.5 / year / m2

1*
The water consumtion is calculated for all the man made materials and products used to build the shelter. The water consumed by naturally grown materials is not taken into account (e.g. trees, thatch, bamboo).
2*
3*
Temperatures that hover 10 degrees or more above or below the average temperature for the region.
___Division of Resilience and Solutions___
The calculation takes into consideration the resources needed for the construction of one shelter unit. It does not reflect the resources used for the preparation and maintenance of the settlement.
35
5*
The construction set up time considers the time necessary to build the shelter with all necessary building material ready to use.
 Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters

S2
S1

S1
S2

Floor plan Roof plan

Section S1 Section S2

36 ___Technical Support Section___

 Emergency shelter in Mauritania______
Bill of Quantities

Item specification Unit Quantity Unit cost in USD4* Total cost in USD4*
Shelter Super Structure

Galvanized iron I profile, 11 cm hight 3.5 m long pieces 4 36.8 147.2

Clay bricks, dimensions 40x20x10 cm pieces 1900 0.2 380
Soil excavation for joints mortar and plastering m3 5.4 3 16.2
Soil excavation for roof infill m3 4 3 12
Portland cement, 50kgs bag- plastering of fundations pieces 3 11 33
Sand - plastering of fundations m3 0.33 10 3.3
Concrete ring beam with ratio mix 0.45:1:2:4 m3 0.6 100 60
Waterproof bitumen moist barrier layer m2 19 10 190
Galvanized iron poles with ø 6 cm 1 m long pieces 1 30 30

Door panel-CGI, gauge 30, 1.8x0.85 m pieces 1 6 6

Door locking system, 15 cm pieces 1 0.8 0.8
Door hinges & screws, 10-11 cm pieces 2 0.25 0.5
Openings

Gum plank 10x5 cm, 4 m min. length pieces 2 4 8

Nails 4 cm long kg 2 1.6 3.2
Gum plank 10x5 cm, 3 m long pieces 4 3.5 14
Window locking system, 7-8 cm pieces 3 0.8 2.4
Window hindges, 7-8 cm pieces 6 0.25 1.5
Window panel-CGI, gauge 30, 60x60 cm pieces 3 1.5 4.5
Labour

2 unskilled worker day 7 6 84

1 skilled worker day 3 19 57
912.6 + 141
Total 1 053.6

4*
Prices according to the 2019 local market assessment.

Sustainability Score Card

Tree protection

C02 emission mitigation

Material efficiency

Technical performance

Shelter habitability

Shelter affordability
Score interpretation*: 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = exellent
The criteria for the evaluation was established based on the overall performance of the shelters presented in this document

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 37

38 ___Technical Support Section___
© UNHCR

4. Transitional
shelter solutions
The term transitional shelter is used to define a range
of shelter options that help populations affected by a
humanitarian crises progress from an initial emergency
arrangement to a more suitable shelter solution, better
adapted to their needs in terms of habitability. Transitional
shelter is sometimes misunderstood as being a one-off
product, rather than a process whereby people upgrade
their own house overtime, often through the reuse of some
or all of its parts. Transitional shelters and their materials can
aid with recovery, be resold to generate income, or recycled
for reconstruction of a new shelter. Transitional shelter
can sometimes provide additional options for affected
populations with insecure land tenure as it may enable them
to physically relocate their shelters if threatened by eviction.
However, it cannot be used to solve this often very complex
and political issue. It is important to keep in mind that the
layout of settlements and the characteristics of plots and
shelters allocated in the initial phases of a crises are critical
determinants of all the subsequent development stages and
the long term sustainability of the response.
 4.1
Map of locations

Transitional shelter
Kutapalong settlement Bangladesh
Kutapalong became one of the world’s most congested and
Cox's Bazaar district
largest refugee settlements after the 2017 crisis, that triggered
an influx of 700000 Rohingya refugees into Bangladesh.
The hilly landscape which was quickly deforested, became
overcrowded and hazard sensitive in the cyclone-prone
area. Since the onset UNHCR has sought to improve the site
planning, infrastructure and facilities of the site, and prepare
the land for new arrivals. The refugees are assisted with either
finalized shelters or shelter kits. The transitional shelters were
conceived as a bamboo structure, elevated from the ground to
mitigate flooding and provided with concrete pad foundations
to minimize landslide risks. The settlement was equipped with
access to water sources and communal toilets and showers.

Shelter service area

17.5 m2 [5 m x 3.5 m]

Regionally or locally sourced materials

Water, bricks, sand, aggregates, cement, timber and
bamboo, steel, iron and its end products (CGI)
Imported materials
Plastic based items and some steel and iron products
are generally imported from China

Climate classification
Tropical climate with monsoons

Yearly temperatures
Around 26°C
Rarely below 15°C or above 35°C

Rainy season
April to October (max in July with 1060 mm)
520 mm of precipitations per month on average

Dry season
November to March with
27 mm of precipitations per month on average

Wind speed
Average daily winds up to 14 km/hr
Windiest period from May to September
The maximum winds during monsoon season up to
89 km/hr

Flood risks
• Important volumes of rain water runoff
• Flood prone low lying areas with very complex
river catchment area with slopes up to 45 % steep
• Sandy soil which easily washes away in heavy rain
• Lack of vegetation cover and erosion
Flood mitigation opportunities
• Elevated shelter typologies
• Service water drainage in the site

Site level environmental challenges

• Site cleaning (trees and other types of
vegetation) due to construction;
• No strategy for a sustainable disposal of fecal
and solid waste;
• No designated cooking areas;
• Firewood collection and open fire cooking.

40 ___Technical Support Section___

 A

Transitional shelter in Bangladesh______

Variation Environmental
impacts
Structure untreated bamboo frame Raw materials used3* bamboo 3.15 m3
Walls UNHCR plastic tarpaulins water1* 14 689 liters
Roof UNHCR plastic tarpaulins
Footing pre-cast reinforced concrete posts Manmade materials plastic (tarpaulin, rope) 32 kg
Floor woven bamboo mats on bamboo poles used steel (nails, wire) 20 kg
Openings 1 door [90 x 200cm] 3 windows [60 x 100cm], cement 210 kg
bamboo ventilation lattice under each eave sand 0.32 m3

CO2 emissions material production 421 kg

transportation 30 kg
CO2 absorption cease due to deforestation 885 kg/year
Total 1 336 kg
Suggested Workforce required Time required Average life span
temperature range for setup for setup5* of the shelter CO2 footprint kg of CO2 / Life span / Area
1 336 kg / 2 years / 17.5 m2
= 38 kg of CO2 / year / m2

Damage of natural habitat Deforestation & erosion

Material reuse Structural bamboo elements and

tarpaulins can be upcycled

Technical
performance
Wind resistance complying
Flood mitigation site and shelter flood mitigation measures
Ventilation meets minimum vent. requirements
Flammability meets fire retardant criteria
Thermal comfort*2 not fit for extreme temperatures2*
Personal security guarantees personal security
Accessibility adaption measures necessary

Habitability
Covered area suitable for 5 occupants ( Sphere )
Privacy provides minimum privacy
Natural light meets minimum light. requirements
Artificial light no access to artificial lightning
Shelter materials partially adapted to local practices
Facilities communal facilities in the site

Affordability
Costs Cost / Life span / Area
$ 739 / 2 years / 17.5 m2
= $ 21.1 / year / m2

1*
The water consumtion is calculated for all the man made materials and products used to build the shelter. The water consumed by naturally grown materials is not taken into account (e.g. trees, thatch, bamboo).
2*
3*
Temperatures that hover 10 degrees or more above or below the average temperature for the region.
___Division of Resilience and Solutions___
The calculation takes into consideration the resources needed for the construction of one shelter unit. It does not reflect the resources used for the preparation and maintenance of the settlement.
41
5*
The construction set up time considers the time necessary to build the shelter with all necessary building material ready to use.
 Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters

+307

+207

+92

+0

Floor plan

S2

S1 S1

S2

Section S1

42 ___Technical Support Section___

 Transitional shelter in Bangladesh______
Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters

+307

+207

Section S2

Roof plan

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 43

 Bill of Quantities

Item specification Unit Quantity Unit cost in USD4* Total cost in USD4*
Fundations

Earthwork & excavation of foundation trenches m3 0.6 1.8 1.1

Foundation pad with cement ratio mix 0.45:1:2:4 m3 0.7 112.2 76.3
Steel flat bar, dimesions 850x50x 5mm pieces 9 3.4 30.2
Plain Nut Bolt, ø 6 mm, 16 cm long pieces 18 0.9 17.1

Borrak bamboo for columns, beams & rafters

Super Structure

ø 75 mm, 12.2 m long m length 329.4 0.6 197.6

Polyvinyl / Nylon rope, ø 6-8 mm kg 10 1.4 14.1
Polyvinyl / Nylon rope, ø 3-4 mm kg 8 1.4 11.3
Galvanized iron wire, 18 BWG kg 3 1.3 3.9
Muli bamboo for purlins, mats, openings & fence
ø 30-40 mm, 4 m long pieces 300 0.6 180
Plastic rope for purlins, mats, openings & fence kg 2 1.4 2.8
UNHCR plastic tarpaulin, sheet 4 x5 m pieces 3 12 36
Nails 4 cm long kg 1 3 3
Labour

2 unskilled worker day 8 7.5 120

1 skilled worker day 3 15 45
574 + 165
Total 739

4*
Prices according to the 2019 local market assessment.

Sustainability Score Card

Tree protection

C02 emission mitigation

Material efficiency

Technical performance

Shelter habitability

Shelter affordability
Score interpretation*: 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = exellent
The criteria for the evaluation was established based on the overall performance of the shelters presented in this document

44 ___Technical Support Section___

 B

Transitional shelter in Bangladesh______

Variation Environmental
impacts
Structure treated bamboo frame Raw materials used3* bamboo 7.9 m3
Walls woven bamboo mats water1* 74 100 liters
Roof corrugated iron sheets
Footing pre-cast reinforced concrete posts Manmade materials plastic (rope) 20 kg
Floor woven bamboo mats on bamboo poles used steel (nails, wire) 105 kg
Openings 1 door [90 x 200cm] 3 windows [60 x 100cm], cement 210 kg
bamboo ventilation lattice under each eave sand 0.32 m3

CO2 emissions material production 508 kg

transportation 55 kg
CO2 absorption cease due to deforestation 3260 kg/year
Total 3 823 kg
Suggested Number of people Time required Average life span
temperature range required for setup for setup5* of the shelter CO2 footprint kg of CO2 / Life span / Area
3 823 kg / 10 years / 17.5 m2
= 22 kg of CO2 / year / m2

Damage of natural habitat Deforestation & erosion

Material reuse CGI sheets are reusable

Structural bamboo elements and
tarpaulins can be upcycled

Technical
performance
Wind resistance complying
Flood mitigation site and shelter flood mitigation measures
Ventilation meets minimum vent. requirements
Flammability meets fire retardant criteria
Thermal comfort*2 mitigates extreme temperatures2*
Personal security guarantees personal security
Accessibility adaption measures necessary

Habitability
Covered area suitable for 5 occupants ( Sphere )
Privacy provides minimum privacy
Natural light meets minimum light. requirements
Artificial light no access to artificial lightning
Shelter materials adapted to local practices
Facilities communal facilities in the site

Affordability
Costs Cost / Life span / Area
$ 1 465.1 / 10 years / 17.5 m2
= $ 8.4 / year / m2

1*
The water consumtion is calculated for all the man made materials and products used to build the shelter. The water consumed by naturally grown materials is not taken into account (e.g. trees, thatch, bamboo).
2*
3*
Temperatures that hover 10 degrees or more above or below the average temperature for the region.
___Division of Resilience and Solutions___
The calculation takes into consideration the resources needed for the construction of one shelter unit. It does not reflect the resources used for the preparation and maintenance of the settlement.
45
5*
The construction set up time considers the time necessary to build the shelter with all necessary building material ready to use.
 Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters

+307

+207

+92

+0

Floor plan

S2

S1 S1

S2

Section S1

46 ___Technical Support Section___

 Transitional shelter in Bangladesh______
Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters

+307

+207

Section S2

Roof plan

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 47

 Bill of Quantities

Item specification Unit Quantity Unit cost in USD4* Total cost in USD4*
Fundations

Earthwork & excavation of foundation trenches m3 0.6 1.8 1.1

Foundation pad with cement ratio mix 0.45:1:2:4 m3 0.7 112.2 76.3
Steel flat bar, dimesions 850x50x 5mm pieces 9 3.4 30.2
Plain Nut Bolt, ø 6 mm, 16 cm long pieces 18 0.9 17.1

Borrak bamboo for columns, beams & rafters

ø 75 mm, 12.2 m long m length 329.4 0.60 197.6
Polyvinyl / Nylon rope, ø 6-8 mm kg 10 1.4 14.1
Super Structure

Polyvinyl / Nylon rope, ø 3-4 mm kg 8 1.4 11.3

Galvanized iron wire, 18 BWG kg 3 1.3 3.9
Muli bamboo for purlins, mats, openings & fence
ø 30-40 mm, 4 m long pieces 1250 0.6 750
Plastic rope for purlins, mats, openings & fence kg 2 1.4 2.8
Iron sheets, gauge 30, dimesions 3.05 x 0.9 m pieces 10 10 100
Nails 4 cm long kg 1 1.6 1.6
Roofing nails (umbrella type), 5 cm long kg 2 2 4
Bamboo treatement LS - 90 90
Labour

2 unskilled worker day 8 7.5 120

1 skilled worker day 3 15 45
1 300.1 + 165

Total 1 465.1

4*
Prices according to the 2019 local market assessment.

Sustainability Score Card

Tree protection

C02 emission mitigation

Material efficiency

Technical performance

Shelter habitability

Shelter affordability
Score interpretation*: 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = exellent
The criteria for the evaluation was established based on the overall performance of the shelters presented in this document

48 ___Technical Support Section___

 Transitional shelter in Bangladesh______

© UNHCR/Adam Dean

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 49

 4.2
Map of locations

Transitional shelter
Dadaab settlement Kenya
Dadaab refugee complex consists of three camps, which went
Garissa county
through many displacement influxes over the years. A large part
of the residents arrived in Dadaab in the 1990s fleeing the civil war
in Somalia. Others had fled atrocities in the Horn of Africa. Most
of the refugees live in makeshift shelters called tukuls, the dome-
shaped grass-thatched structures used by Somali communities.
These shelters provide little shade from the 40°C days and poor
protection against the rainy season. UNHCR has recently started
a project with the aim to build 1 500 shelters, replacing tukuls
with more durable solutions from gum poles and trusses, with
iron sheets as roof cover. The settlement was equipped with
access to water sources, designated cooking areas within the
plots, communal and individual toilets and showers.

Shelter service area

19.8 m2 [3.2 m x 6.2m]

Regionally or locally sourced materials

Clayey soil, bricks, sand, aggregates, cement,
bamboo

Imported materials
Plastic based items, steel and iron products are
generally imported from China. Timber is generally
imported form DRC and Tanzania

Climate classification
Desert, hot all year round

Yearly temperatures
Vary from 22°C to 36°C
Rarely below 21°C or above 39°C

Rainy season
October to May with
31 mm of precipitations per month on average

Dry season
June to September with
4 mm of precipitations per month on average

Wind speed
Windiest period from May to October with average
wind speeds up to 29 km/h

Flood risks
• Areas prone to flash floods
• Sandy soil which easily washes away in rain
• Lack of vegetation cover and erosion

Flood mitigation opportunities

• Dykes across flood prone areas to prevent water
reaching the settlement
• Service water drainage in the site

Site level environmental challenges

• Site cleaning (trees and other types of
vegetation) due to construction;
• No strategy for a sustainable disposal of fecal
and solid waste;
• Firewood collection and open fire cooking.

50 ___Technical Support Section___

 A

Transitional shelter in Kenya______

Variation Environmental
impacts
Structure gable timber frame Raw materials used 3* gum & cypress trees 0.8 m3
Walls UNHCR plastic tarpaulins water1* 95 200 liters
Roof corrugated iron sheets Manmade materials plastic (tarpaulins) 0.13 m3
Footing treated poles, 50 cm deep with compacted earth used steel (nails, CGI) 135 kg
Floor hand compacted in two layers
Openings 1 door [100 x 195cm] CO2 emissions material production 330 kg
no windows, ventilation under each eave transportation 102 kg
CO2 absorption cease due to deforestation 271 kg/year
Total 703 kg
CO2 footprint kg of CO2 / Life span / Area
703 kg / 2 years / 19.8 m2
= 18 kg of CO2 / year / m2
Suggested Number of people Time required Average life span
temperature range required for setup for setup5* of the shelter Damage of natural habitat Deforestation & erosion

Material reuse Timber elements and tarpaulins can be

upcycled

Technical
performance
Wind resistance complying
Flood mitigation on plot/site flood mitigation measures
Ventilation meets minimum vent. requirements
Flammability meets fire retardant criteria
Thermal comfort not fit for extreme temperatures2*
Personal security not guaranteeing personal security
Accessibility adapted for accessibility needs

Habitability
Covered area suitable for 6 occupants ( Sphere )
Privacy can be upgraded for minimum privacy
Natural light no natural light
Artificial light no access to artificial lightning
Shelter materials not adapted to local practices
Facilities communal & household facilities in the site

Affordability
Costs Cost / Life span / Area
$ 462.4 / 2 years / 19.8 m2
= $ 11.7 / year / m2

1*
The water consumtion is calculated for all the man made materials and products used to build the shelter. The water consumed by naturally grown materials is not taken into account (e.g. trees, thatch, bamboo).
2*
3*
Temperatures that hover 10 degrees or more above or below the average temperature for the region.
___Division of Resilience and Solutions___
The calculation takes into consideration the resources needed for the construction of one shelter unit. It does not reflect the resources used for the preparation and maintenance of the settlement.
51
5*
The construction set up time considers the time necessary to build the shelter with all necessary building material ready to use.
 Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters
S2

S1 S1

Floor plan
S2

320

240

122

5 10
0

Section S1

52 ___Technical Support Section___

 Transitional shelter in Kenya______
Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters
320

240

122

5 0

Section S2

Roof plan

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 53

 Bill of Quantities

Item specification Unit Quantity Unit cost in USD4* Total cost in USD4*
Shelter Super Structure

Gum poles with ø 8-10 cm, 3 m long pieces 11 4 44

Cypress planks, 5x5 cm, 4.5 m min. length m 159 1 159
UNHCR plastic tarpaulin, sheet 4 x5 m pieces 3 12 36
Wood preservative liters 20 0.35 7
Iron sheets, gauge 30, dimensions 2.5 x 0. 9 m pieces 18 6.86 123.5
Nails, 10-11 cm long kg 5 1.95 9.80
Nails, 7-8 cm long kg 2 1.95 3.9
Nails, 2-3 cm long kg 1 1.57 1.57
Nails, 5-6 cm ling kg 0.25 1.56 0.39
Roofing nails (umbrella type), 5 cm long kg 5 1.95 9.75
Labour Openings

Timber door panel, 2x1 m pieces 1 14 14

Cypress planks, 5x5 cm, 4.5 m min. length m 12 1 12
Door locking system pieces 1 0.78 0.78
Door hinges & screws, 10-11 cm pieces 3 0.25 0.75

2 unskilled day 3 5 30
1 skilled worker day 1 10 10
422.44 + 40
Total 462.44

4*
Prices according to the 2019 local market assessment.

Sustainability Score Card

Tree protection

C02 emission mitigation

Material efficiency

Technical performance

Shelter habitability

Shelter affordability
Score interpretation*: 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = exellent
The criteria for the evaluation was established based on the overall performance of the shelters presented in this document

54 ___Technical Support Section___

 A

Transitional shelter in Kenya______

Variation Environmental
impacts
Structure gable timber frame Raw materials used 3* gum & cypress trees 0.9 m3
Walls wattle & daub with straw reinforced earth water1* 97 700 liters
Roof corrugated iron sheets bamboo 0.4 m3
Footing treated poles, 50 cm deep with compacted earth soil 9 m3
Floor hand compacted in two layers Manmade materials steel (nails, CGI) 133 kg
Openings 1 door [100 x 195cm], 2 windows [60 x 55cm] used
2 eave vents & 2 gable vents [50 x 30cm]
CO2 emissions material production 252 kg
transportation 114 kg
CO2 absorption cease due to deforestation 511 kg/year
Total 877 kg
kg of CO2 / Life span / Area
CO2 footprint 877 kg / 6 years / 19.8 m2 m2
Suggested Number of people Time required Average life span
temperature range required for setup for setup5* of the shelter = 7.4 kg of CO2 / year / m2

Damage of natural habitat Deforestation & erosion

Fall through hazards due to soil excavation

Material reuse CGI sheets are reusable

Structural timber elements and
tarpaulins can be upcycled

Technical
performance
Wind resistance complying
Flood mitigation on plot/site flood mitigation measures
Ventilation meets minimum vent. requirements
Flammability meets fire retardant criteria
Thermal comfort mitigates extreme temperatures2*
Personal security guarantees personal security
Accessibility adapted for accessibility needs

Habitability
Covered area suitable for 6 occupants ( Sphere )
Privacy provides minimum privacy
Natural light meets minimum light. requirements
Artificial light no access to artificial lightning
Shelter materials adapted to local practices
Facilities communal & household facilities in the site

Affordability
Costs Cost / Life span / Area
$ 669.1 / 6 years / 19.8 m2
= $ 5.6 / year / m2
1*
The water consumtion is calculated for all the man made materials and products used to build the shelter. The water consumed by naturally grown materials is not taken into account (e.g. trees, thatch, bamboo).
2*
3*
Temperatures that hover 10 degrees or more above or below the average temperature for the region.
___Division of Resilience and Solutions___
The calculation takes into consideration the resources needed for the construction of one shelter unit. It does not reflect the resources used for the preparation and maintenance of the settlement.
55
5*
The construction set up time considers the time necessary to build the shelter with all necessary building material ready to use.
 Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

S2
meters

S1 S1

Floor plan
S2

320

240

117

5 10
0

Section S1

56 ___Technical Support Section___

 Transitional shelter in Kenya______
Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters
320

235 240

117

5 0

Section S2

S1

Roof plan

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 57

 Bill of Quantities

Item specification Unit Quantity Unit cost in USD4* Total cost in USD4*

Gum poles with ø 8-10 cm, 3 m long pieces 11 4 44

Cypress planks, 5x5 cm, 4.5 m min. length m length 159 1 159
Bamboo sticks with ø 2-3 cm, 3.5 m long pieces 64 0.25 16
Shelter Super Structure

Bamboo sticks with ø 4-5 cm, 2.5 m long pieces 32 0.25 8

Bamboo sticks with ø 4-5 cm, 3 m long pieces 16 0.3 4.8
Soil excavation m3 9 1 9
Lime for the soil mix kg 450 0.2 90
Wood preservative liters 20 0.35 7
Iron sheets, gauge 30, dimensions 2.5 x 0. 9 m pieces 18 6.86 123.5
Nails, 10-11 cm long kg 5 1.95 9.80
Nails, 7-8 cm long kg 1 1.95 3.92
Nails, 5-6 cm ling kg 0.25 1.56 0.39
Roofing nails (umbrella type), 5 cm long kg 5 1.95 9.75

Door panel, 2x1 m pieces 1 14 14

Cypress planks, 5x5 cm, 4.5 m min. length m length 12 1 12
Door locking system, 10-11 cm pieces 1 0.78 0.78
Door hinges & screws, 10-11 cm pieces 3 0.25 0.75
Openings

Window panel, 0.6x0.55 m pieces 3 5 15

Cypress planks, 5x5 cm, 4.5 m min. length m length 9 1 9
Window locking system, 7-8 cm pieces 2 0.78 1.56
Window hinges & screws, 7-8 cm pieces 4 0.2 0.8

2 unskilled day 9 5 90
Labour

1 skilled worker day 4 10 40

539.1 + 130
Total 669.1

4*
Prices according to the 2019 local market assessment.

Sustainability Score Card

Tree protection

C02 emission mitigation

Material efficiency

Technical performance

Shelter habitability

Shelter affordability
Score interpretation*: 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = exellent
The criteria for the evaluation was established based on the overall performance of the shelters presented in this document

58 ___Technical Support Section___

© UNHCR/Anja Pirjevec

5. Durable
shelter solutions
While it may be difficult during an emergency to look beyond
the provision of life saving shelter support, it is imperative
to keep in mind that persons of concern to UNHCR should
be supported to reach durable shelter solutions. Within, but
particularly beyond the emergency and transitional phase,
shelters should be adapted and contextualized according to
the following elements: climate, cultural practice and habits,
local availability of skills, access to adequate construction
materials and geographical context. Furthermore, standards
for durable shelter solutions should be defined based on
humanitarian standards and in collaboration with the future
shelter users, the shelter partners and in close coordination
with government authorities and development partners.
 5.1
Map of locations

Durable shelter
Rwanda
Mahama settlement Eastern province
Mahama refugee settlement, is UNHCR’s newest and largest
settlement in Rwanda, hosting mainly Burundian refugees.
Established in 2015, it has a population of around 60 000
refugees. The settlement is currently in currently in transition
from a temporary site into a durable, integrated settlement
through an innovative and long term response plan, that
promotes refugee self-reliance and integration with the host
community. Temporary shelters are being replaced by the
more durable, brick alternatives, which were designed as
twin structures due to scarce availability of land. One shelter
unit can therefore host two households. The settlement was
equipped with access to water sources, communal toilets,
showers and designated cooking areas within the plots.

Shelter service area

34.6 m2 [5.4 m x 6.4 m] - 17.3 m2 per household

Regionally or locally sourced materials

Water, timber, straw, clay rich soil, bricks, cement and
cement based products, sand, steel, iron and its end
products (CGI)

Imported materials
Plastic based items and some steel and iron products
are generally imported from China

Climate classification
Tropical savanna

Yearly temperatures
Vary from 19°C to 26°C
Rarely below 10°C or above 32°C

Rainy season
October to December with
383 mm of precipitations per month on average
March to May
320 mm of precipitations per month on average

Dry season
June to August with
67 mm of precipitations per month on average

Wind speed
Winds up to 17 km/hr

Flood risks
• Clay reach soil
• Important volumes of rain water runoff

Flood mitigation opportunities

Site slope 6-18 %

Site level environmental challenges

• Site cleaning (trees and other types of
vegetation) due to construction;
• Communal toilets shared among 4 families;
• Refuse pits implemented, solid waste
management integrated with the national system;
• Gas fuel cooking.

60 ___Technical Support Section___

 A

Durable shelter in Rwanda______

Variation Environmental
impacts
Structure load bearing walls-non reinforced masonry Raw materials used3* gum trees 1 m3
Walls cement plastered sun-dried mud-brick water1* 126 600 liters
Roof corrugated iron sheets soil 21.5 m3
Footing 40 x 70 cm mud-brick foundations quarry stones 10 m3
Floor compacted earth
Openings 2 doors [90 x 200cm], 4 windows [60 x 60cm], Manmade materials plastic (damp course) 0.02 m3
4 gable vents [50 x 30cm] used steel (nails, CGI, bars) 174 kg
cement 405 kg
sand 6 m3

CO2 emissions material production 696 kg

transportation 33 kg
Suggested Workforce required Time required Average life span
CO2 absorption cease due to deforestation 204 kg/year
temperature range for setup for setup5* of the shelter Total 933 kg

CO2 footprint kg of CO2 / Life span / Area

933 kg / 10 years / 34.6 m2
=2.7 kg of CO2 / year / m2

Damage of natural habitat Deforestation & erosion

Fall through hazards due to soil excavation

Material reuse CGI sheets are reusable

Timber and tarpaulins can be upcycled

Technical
performance
Flood mitigation plot & shelter adapted to mitigate risks
Ventilation meets minimum vent. requirements
Flammability meets fire resistant criteria
Thermal comfort*2 mitigates extreme temperatures2*
Personal security guarantees personal security
Accessibility adaption measures necessary

Habitability
Covered area suitable for 5 occupants ( Sphere )
Privacy provides minimum privacy
Natural light meets minimum light. requirements
Artificial light artificial lightning in communal areas
Shelter materials adapted to local practices
Facilities communal facilities in the site

Affordability
Costs Cost / Life span / Area
$ 1 061.66 / 10 years / 34.6 m2
= $ 3.1 / year / m2
1*
The water consumtion is calculated for all the man made materials and products used to build the shelter. The water consumed by naturally grown materials is not taken into account (e.g. trees, thatch, bamboo).
2*
3*
Temperatures that hover 10 degrees or more above or below the average temperature for the region.
___Division of Resilience and Solutions___
The calculation takes into consideration the resources needed for the construction of one shelter unit. It does not reflect the resources used for the preparation and maintenance of the settlement.
61
5*
The construction set up time considers the time necessary to build the shelter with all necessary building material ready to use.
 Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1
S2
meters

S1 S1

Floor plan

S2

Section S1

62 ___Technical Support Section___

 Durable shelter in Rwanda______
Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters 345

240

Section S2

Roof plan

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 63

 Bill of Quantities

Item specification Unit Quantity Unit cost in USD4* Total cost in USD4*
Fundations

Quarry stones m3 10 5.43 54.35

Big River sand m3 5 10.87 54.35
Portland cement, (50kg bag) pieces 3 10.87 32.61

Clay bricks, dimensions 40x20x20 cm pieces 1 200 0.16 195.65

Soil for joints mortar m3 5 1.2 8.4
Gum rafters, 7.5 x 5cm section, 4m long pieces 12 4.57 54.78
Gum purlins, 5x5cm section, 4m long pieces 22 3.48 76.52
Super Structure

Gum poles for scaffold pieces 32 1.63 52.17

Iron sheets, gauge 30, dimensions 3.65 x 0. 9 m pieces 16 10.65 170.43
Iron bar, ø 6 mm, 12m long pieces 2 2.72 5.43
Roofing nails (umbrella type) kg 3 2.17 6.52
Orindary nails, 12 cm long kg 4 1.63 6.52
Ordinary nails, 10 cm long kg 2 1.63 3.26
Ordinary nails, 8 cm long kg 1 1.63 1.63
Ordinary nails, 5 cm long kg 0.5 1.63 0.82
Portland cement for plaster (50kg bag) pieces 5 10.87 54.35
Sand for plaster m3 1 10.87 10.87

Door panel, 0.8 x 2 m and frame, 0.10 m pieces 4 14 56

Openings

Door hindges pieces 8 1.5 12

Window panel, 0.6 x 0.6 m and frame, 0.10 m pieces 4 6 24
Window hindges pieces 8 1 8
Tower bolts pieces 8 0.75 6
Pad bolts pieces 4 0.5 2
Labour

2 unskilled worker day 10 100

1 skilled worker day 4 65
896.66 + 165
Total 1 061.66
4*
Prices according to the 2019 local market assessment.

Sustainability Score Card

Tree protection

C02 emission mitigation

Material efficiency

Technical performance

Shelter habitability

Shelter affordability
Score interpretation*: 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = exellent
The criteria for the evaluation was established based on the overall performance of the shelters presented in this document

64 ___Technical Support Section___

 B

Durable shelter in Rwanda______

Variation Environmental
impacts
Structure load bearing walls-non reinforced masonry Raw materials used3* gum trees 1 m3
Walls cement plastered blocks water1* 127 200 liters
Roof corrugated iron sheets quarry stones 10 m3
Footing 40 x 70 cm quarry stone foundations
Floor compacted earth Manmade materials steel (nails, CGI, bars) 174 kg
Openings 2 doors [90 x 200cm], 4 windows [60 x 60cm], used cement 4 805 kg
4 gable vents [25 x 30cm] sand 14 m3

CO2 emissions material production 4 656 kg

transportation 132 kg
CO2 absorption cease due to deforestation 204 kg/year
Total 4 992 kg
Suggested Number of people Time required Average life span
temperature range required for setup for setup5* of the shelter CO2 footprint kg of CO2 / Life span / Area
4 992 kg / 25 years / 34.6 m2
=5.8 kg of CO2 / year / m2

Damage of natural habitat Deforestation & erosion

Material reuse CGI sheets and cement blocks are reusable

Timber elements can be upcycled

Technical
performance
Flood mitigation plot & shelter adapted to mitigate risks
Ventilation meets minimum vent. requirements
Flammability meets fire resistant criteria
Thermal comfort*2 partially mitigates extreme temperatures2*
Personal security guaranteeing personal security
Accessibility adaption measures necessary

Habitability
Covered area suitable for 5 occupants ( Sphere )
Privacy provides minimum privacy
Natural light meets minimum light. requirements
Artificial light artificial lightning in communal areas
Shelter materials adapted to local practices
Facilities communal facilities in the site

Affordability
Costs Cost / Life span / Area
$ 1 558.7 / 25 years / 34.6 m2
= $ 1.8 / year / m2

1*
The water consumtion is calculated for all the man made materials and products used to build the shelter. The water consumed by naturally grown materials is not taken into account (e.g. trees, thatch, bamboo).
2*
3*
Temperatures that hover 10 degrees or more above or below the average temperature for the region.
___Division of Resilience and Solutions___
The calculation takes into consideration the resources needed for the construction of one shelter unit. It does not reflect the resources used for the preparation and maintenance of the settlement.
65
5*
The construction set up time considers the time necessary to build the shelter with all necessary building material ready to use.
 Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1
S2
meters

S1 S1

Floor plan

S2

Section S1

66 ___Technical Support Section___

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Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters 345

240

Section S2

Roof plan

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 67

 Bill of Quantities

Item specification Unit Quantity Unit cost in USD4* Total cost in USD4*
Fundations

Quarry stones m3 10 5.43 54.35

Big River sand m3 5 10.87 54.35
Portland cement, 42.5 or 53 (50kgs bag) pieces 3 10.87 32.61

Concrete blocks dimensions 40x20x20 cm pieces 1 200 0.5 600

Gum rafters, 7.5 x 5cm section, 4m long pieces 12 4.57 54.78
Gum purlins, 5x5cm section, 4m long pieces 22 3.48 76.52
Gum poles for scaffold pieces 32 1.63 52.17
Super Structure

Iron sheets, gauge 30, dimensions 3.65 x 0. 9 m pieces 16 10.65 170.43

Iron bar, ø 6 mm, 12m long pieces 2 2.72 5.43
Roofing nails (umbrella type) kg 3 2.17 6.52
Orindary nails, 12 cm long kg 4 1.63 6.52
Ordinary nails, 10 cm long kg 2 1.63 3.26
Ordinary nails, 8 cm long kg 1 1.63 1.63
Ordinary nails, 5 cm long kg 0.5 1.63 0.82
Portland cement for plaster & mortar (50kgs bag) pieces 13 10.87 141.31
Sand for plaster & mortar m3 2.3 10.87 25

Door panel, 0.8 x 2 m and frame, 0.10 m pieces 4 14 56

Door hindges pieces 8 1.5 12
Openings

Window panel, 0.6 x 0.6 m and frame, 0.10 m pieces 4 6 24

Window hindges pieces 8 1 8
Tower bolts pieces 8 0.75 6
Pad bolts pieces 4 0.5 2

2 unskilled worker day 10 100

Labour

1 skilled worker day 4 65

1 393.7 + 165
Total 1 558.7

4*
Prices according to the 2019 local market assessment.

Sustainability Score Card

Tree protection

C02 emission mitigation

Material efficiency

Technical performance

Shelter habitability

Shelter affordability
Score interpretation*: 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = exellent
The criteria for the evaluation was established based on the overall performance of the shelters presented in this document

68 ___Technical Support Section___

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© UNHCR/Georgina Goodwin

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 69

 5.2
Map of locations

Durable shelter
Nyarugusu settlement Tanzania
Kigoma region
The current three settlements of Kigoma region were established
in the mid-1990s to welcome Congolese refugees and were later
reopened for the new influx of Burundians in 2015. The refugees
are provided with emergency shelters on individual plots upon
their arrival. The shelter strategy is focused on the provision
of durable solutions - built from mud bricks and covered with
iron sheets. The implementation is undertaken with the local
authorities through a community-based approach. The strategy
involves community participation and capacity building enabling
the refugees to develop the technical skills in the construction
of their own shelters. The settlement was equipped with access
to water sources, individual toilets and communal showers. The
cooking area is integrated in the shelter design.

Shelter service area

20.8 m2 [3.3 m x 6.3 m]

Cooking area
4.9 m2 [1.6 m x 3.1 m]

Regionally or locally sourced materials

Water, timber, straw, clay rich soil, bricks, sand,
cement as well as cement based products

Imported materials
Plastic based items are generally imported from China
whereas steel as well as iron and its end products are
generally imported from South Africa

Climate classification
Tropical savanna

Yearly temperatures
Vary from 11°C to 29°C
Rarely below 9°C or above 32°C

Rainy season
October to April with
95 mm of precipitations per month on average

Dry season
May to September
7.6 mm of precipitations per month on average

Wind speed
Winds up to 18 km/hr

Flood risks
• Clay reach soil
• Important volumes of rain water runoff

Flood mitigation opportunities

• Site slope 6-18 %

Site level environmental challenges

• Site cleaning (trees and other types of
vegetation) due to construction;
• Individual pit latrines, but no measures in place for
a sustainable disposal of fecal waste;
• Refuse pits implemented, but without strategy for
long term solid waste management;

70 ___Technical Support Section___

 A

Durable shelter in Tanzania______

Variation Environmental
impacts
Structure load bearing walls-non reinforced masonry Raw materials used3* gum trees 0.6 m3
Walls mud plastered sun dried mud-brick water1* 143 600 liters
Roof corrugated iron sheets soil 18.2 m3
Footing 40 x 60 cm sun-dried mud brick foundations
Floor compacted earth Manmade materials plastic (damp course) 2 kg
Openings 2 doors [90 x 200cm], 3 windows [65 x 60cm], used steel (nails, CGI, bars) 195 kg
4 gable vents [25 x 30cm] lime 50 kg

CO2 emissions material production 426 kg

transportation 188 kg
CO2 absorption cease due to deforestation 192 kg/year
Total 806 kg
Suggested Workforce required Time required Average life span
temperature range for setup for setup5* of the shelter CO2 footprint kg of CO2 / Life span / Area
806 kg / 10 years / 25.7 m2
= 3.1 kg of CO2 / year / m2

Damage of natural habitat Deforestation & erosion

Fall through hazards due to soil excavation

Material reuse CGI sheets are reusable

Timber can be upcycled

Technical
performance
Flood mitigation plot & shelter adapted to mitigate risks
Ventilation meets minimum vent. requirements
Flammability meets fire resistant criteria
Thermal comfort*2 mitigates extreme temperatures2*
Personal security guarantees personal security
Accessibility adaption measures necessary

Habitability
Covered area suitable for 5 occupants ( Sphere )
Privacy provides minimum privacy
Natural light meets minimum light. requirements
Artificial light artificial lightning in communal areas
Shelter materials adapted to local practices
Facilities household facilities in the plot

Affordability
Costs Cost / Life span / Area
$ 793.92 / 10 years / 25.7 m2
= $ 3.1 / year / m2

1*
The water consumtion is calculated for all the man made materials and products used to build the shelter. The water consumed by naturally grown materials is not taken into account (e.g. trees, thatch, bamboo).
2*
3*
Temperatures that hover 10 degrees or more above or below the average temperature for the region.
___Division of Resilience and Solutions___
The calculation takes into consideration the resources needed for the construction of one shelter unit. It does not reflect the resources used for the preparation and maintenance of the settlement.
71
5*
The construction set up time considers the time necessary to build the shelter with all necessary building material ready to use.
 Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters
S2

S1 S1

Floor plan

S2

5 0

Section S1

72 ___Technical Support Section___

 Durable shelter in Tanzania______
Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters

298

243

5 0

Section S2

Roof plan

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 73

 Bill of Quantities

Item specification Unit Quantity Unit cost in USD4* Total cost in USD4*

Clay bricks, dimensions 16x30x12 cm pieces 2 300 0.16 368

Soil excavation for joints mortar and plastering m3 5 1.2 6
Gum plates, 10 x 5cm section, m length 18 0.8 14.4
Gum purlins, 5x5 cm, min 4 m length m length 64 0.5 32
Super Structure

Gum planks, 5x7.5 cm, min 3.7 m length pieces 15 2.5 37.5
Iron sheets, gauge 32, dimensions 3 x 0. 9 m pieces 21 7 147
Iron hoop, gauge 20, 2.5 cm kg 1 4.5 4.5
Damp proof course (polythene), width 30cm m length 28 0.13 3.7
Manilla rope, ø 1.5mm (50m roll) pieces 1 0.4 0.4
Roofing nails (umbrella type) kg 3 2.3 6.9
Ordinary nails, 7-8 cm long kg 1.5 1.3 1.95
Ordinary nails, 5-6 cm long kg 2.5 1.3 3.25
Ordinary nails, 10-11 cm long kg 3.5 1.3 4.55
Lime (25kg bag) pieces 2 2.15 4.3
Anti-termite protection (wood preservative) liters 2.5 1.1 2.75

CGI door panel, 32 gauge, 0.9 x 2 m pieces 2 6 12

Door hindges pieces 6 0.42 2.52
Openings

CGI window panel, 32 gauge, 0.6 x 0.6 m pieces 3 2 6

Window hindges pieces 6 0.34 2
Gum planks for frames 5x10 cm, 3.6 m length pieces 7.5 2.16 16.2
Tower bolts pieces 6 0.5 3
Pad bolts pieces 2 1.5 3
Labour

2 unskilled worker day 10 4 80

1 skilled worker day 4 8 32
681.92 + 112
Total 793.92

4*
Prices according to the 2019 local market assessment.

Sustainability Score Card

Tree protection

C02 emission mitigation

Material efficiency

Technical performance

Shelter habitability

Shelter affordability
Score interpretation*: 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = exellent
The criteria for the evaluation was established based on the overall performance of the shelters presented in this document

74 ___Technical Support Section___

 B

Durable shelter in Tanzania______

Variation Environmental
impacts
Structure load bearing walls-non reinforced masonry Raw materials used3* gum trees 0.6 m3
Walls cement plastered burned clay brick water1* 142 300 liters
Roof corrugated iron sheets soil 11.2 m3
Footing 40 x 60 cm burned clay brick foundations
Floor compacted earth Manmade materials plastic (damp course) 2 kg
Openings 2 doors [90 x 200cm], 3 windows [65 x 60cm], used steel (nails, CGI, bars) 195 kg
4 gable vents [25 x 30cm] cement 1580 kg
sand 5.4 m3

CO2 emissions material production 7 243 kg

transportation 1 840 kg
CO2 absorption cease due to deforestation 192 kg/year
Suggested Workforce required Time required Average life span Total 9 275 kg
temperature range for setup for setup5* of the shelter
CO2 footprint kg of CO2 / Life span / Area
kg / 25 years / 25.7 m2
= 14.4 kg of CO2 / year / m2

Damage of natural habitat Deforestation & erosion

Fall through hazards due to soil excavation

Material reuse CGI sheets and bricks are reusable

Timber can be upcycled

Technical
performance
Flood mitigation plot & shelter adapted to mitigate risks
Ventilation meets minimum vent. requirements
Flammability meets fire resistant criteria
Thermal comfort*2 mitigates extreme temperatures2*
Personal security guarantees personal security
Accessibility adaption measures necessary

Habitability
Covered area suitable for 5 occupants ( Sphere )
Privacy provides minimum privacy
Natural light meets minimum light. requirements
Artificial light artificial lightning in communal areas
Shelter materials adapted to local practices
Facilities household facilities in the plot

Affordability
Costs Cost / Life span / Area
$ 1 500.9 / 25 years / 25.7 m2
= $ 2.9 / year / m2
1*
The water consumtion is calculated for all the man made materials and products used to build the shelter. The water consumed by naturally grown materials is not taken into account (e.g. trees, thatch, bamboo).
2*
3*
Temperatures that hover 10 degrees or more above or below the average temperature for the region.
___Division of Resilience and Solutions___
The calculation takes into consideration the resources needed for the construction of one shelter unit. It does not reflect the resources used for the preparation and maintenance of the settlement.
75
5*
The construction set up time considers the time necessary to build the shelter with all necessary building material ready to use.
 Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters
S2

S1 S1

Floor plan

S2

5 0

Section S1

76 ___Technical Support Section___

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Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters

298

243

5 0

Section S2

Roof plan

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 77

 Bill of Quantities

Item specification Unit Quantity Unit cost in USD4* Total cost in USD4*

Clay burned bricks, dimensions 22.2 x 10.6 x 7.3 cm pieces 6500 0.10 650
Lintel block with cement ratio mix 0.45:1:2:4 m3 0.1 120 12
Gum plates, 10 x 5cm section, m length 18 0.8 14.4
Gum purlins, 5x5 cm, min 4 m length m length 64 0.5 32
Super Structure

Gum planks, 5x7.5 cm, min 3.7 m length pieces 15 2.5 37.5
Iron sheets, gauge 32, dimensions 3 x 0. 9 m pieces 21 7 147
Iron hoop, gauge 20, 2.5 cm kg 1 4.5 4.5
Damp proof course (polythene), width 30cm m length 28 0.13 3.7
Manilla rope, ø 1.5mm (50m roll) pieces 1 0.4 0.4
Roofing nails (umbrella type) kg 3 2.3 6.9
Ordinary nails, 7-8 cm long kg 1.5 1.3 1.95
Ordinary nails, 5-6 cm long kg 2.5 1.3 3.25
Ordinary nails, 10-11 cm long kg 3.5 1.3 4.55
Portland cement for plaster and mortar (50kg bag) pieces 31 12 372
Sand for plaster and mortar m3 5.4 9.5 51.3
Anti-termite protection (wood preservative) liters 2.5 1.1 2.75

CGI door panel, 32 gauge, 0.9 x 2 m pieces 2 6 12

Door hindges pieces 6 0.42 2.52
Openings

CGI window panel, 32 gauge, 0.6 x 0.6 m pieces 3 2 6

Window hindges pieces 6 0.34 2
Gum planks for frames 5x10 cm, 3.6 m length pieces 7.5 2.16 16.2
Tower bolts pieces 6 0.5 3
Pad bolts pieces 2 1.5 3

2 unskilled worker day 10 4 80

Labour

1 skilled worker day 4 8 32

1 388.9 + 112
Total 1 500.9

4*
Prices according to the 2019 local market assessment.

Sustainability Score Card

Tree protection

C02 emission mitigation

Material efficiency

Technical performance

Shelter habitability

Shelter affordability
Score interpretation*: 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = exellent
The criteria for the evaluation was established based on the overall performance of the shelters presented in this document

78 ___Technical Support Section___

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© UNHCR/Georgina Goodwin

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 79

 5.3
Map of locations

Durable shelter
Kandahar urban area Afghanistan
Southern region
Since 2002, nearly 5.3 million Afghan refugees have returned to
their country under UNHCR’s facilitated Voluntary Repatriation
program and shelter remains one of the most pressing need
in this context. Through UNHCR’s cash for shelter project,
vulnerable returnee households receive cash grants that enable
them to build their own shelter with the technical support from
UNHCR and partners. Beneficiaries are provided with cash in
three installments linked to three phases of construction. Training
and technical expertise is provided to guide the construction
process. A total of 600 households were targeted in the eastern,
southern and western regions of Afghanistan. The housing units
include a kitchen and toilet, and the households have access to
the public water distribution system.

Shelter service area

40 m2

Regionally or locally sourced materials

Timber, bricks, sand, cement and cement based
products

Imported materials
Plastic based items, steel as well as iron and its end
products are generally imported from China

Climate classification
Arid steppe – very cold in winter, very hot in summer

Yearly temperatures
Vary from 1°C to 40°C
Rarely below -3°C or above 43°C

Rainy season
December to April with
21 mm of precipitations per month on average

Dry season
May to November
5 mm of precipitations per month on average

Wind speed
Winds up to 25 km/hr

Flood risks
• Areas prone to flash floods
• Sandy soil which easily washes away in rain
• Lack of vegetation cover and erosion

Flood mitigation opportunities

• Service water drainage in the plot
• Shelters elevated on platforms

Site level environmental challenges

• Site cleaning (trees and other types of
vegetation) due to construction;
• Solid waste management integrated with the
national system;
• Toilets with septic tanks;
• Charcoal/kerosene heating stove;
• Charcoal/kerosene fuel cooking.

80 ___Technical Support Section___

 A

Durable shelter in Afghanistan______

Variation Environmental
impacts
Structure load bearing walls-non reinforced masonry Raw materials used3* straw 321 kg
Walls cement plastered burned brick water1* 2 984 100 liters
Roof flat roof - I section steel profiles with brick infill soil 20.3 m3
Footing 50 x 80 cm quarry stone foundations quarry stones 22 m3
Floor PCC flooring on compacted hard core filling
Openings 2 doors [100 x 210cm], 2 windows [150 x 150cm], Manmade materials plastic (damp course) 14 kg
1 toilet vent [80 x 80cm] used steel (doors, profiles) 4 218 kg
cement 5 150 kg
sand 24 m3
gravel 2 m3
glass 41 kg

Suggested Workforce required Time required Average life span

CO2 emissions material production 22 851 kg
temperature range for setup for setup5* of the shelter transportation 8 119 kg
due to deforestation 0 kg/year
CO2 absorption cease Total 30 970 kg

CO2 footprint kg of CO2 / Life span / Area

30 970 kg / 25 years / 40 m2
= 31 kg of CO2 / year / m2

Material reuse Bricks are reusable

Technical
performance
Flood mitigation shelter adapted to mitigate risks
Seismic resistance withstands moderate (5-5.9 Richter) events
Ventilation meets minimum vent. requirements
Flammability meets fire resistant criteria
Thermal comfort*2 mitigates extreme temperatures2*
Personal security guarantees personal security
Accessibility adaption measures necessary

Habitability
Covered area suitable for 10 occupants ( Sphere )
Privacy provides minimum privacy
Natural light exceeds minimum light. requirements
Artificial light shelter equipped with artificial lightning
Shelter materials adapted to local practices
Facilities shelter equipped with facilities

Affordability
Costs Cost / Life span / Area
$ 3 550.4 / 25 years / 40 m2
= $ 3.6 / year / m2
1*
The water consumtion is calculated for all the man made materials and products used to build the shelter. The water consumed by naturally grown materials is not taken into account (e.g. trees, thatch, bamboo).
2*
3*
Temperatures that hover 10 degrees or more above or below the average temperature for the region.
___Division of Resilience and Solutions___
The calculation takes into consideration the resources needed for the construction of one shelter unit. It does not reflect the resources used for the preparation and maintenance of the settlement.
81
5*
The construction set up time considers the time necessary to build the shelter with all necessary building material ready to use.
 Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters S2 S3

S1 S1

S2 S3

Floor plan

380
342

40

Section S1

82 ___Technical Support Section___

 Durable shelter in Afghanistan______
Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters

Roof plan
380
342

40

Section S2

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 83

 Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters

Foundation plan

380
342

40

Section S3

84 ___Technical Support Section___

 Durable shelter in Afghanistan______
Bill of Quantities

Item specification Unit Quantity Unit cost in USD4* Total cost in USD4*

Quarry stones m3 22 6.1 134.2

Fundations

Sand m3 7 5.3 37.1

Portland cement, (50kg bag) pieces 33 6.5 214.5
Plastic tarpaulin, 0.12 mm thick, as dump proof m2 70 0.5 35
course over ceiling and foundation walls

Burned bricks, dimensions 22x11x7 cm pieces 11 900 0.1 1190

Portland cement for masonry (50kg bag) pieces 41 6.5 266.5
Sand for masonry m3 11 5.3 58.3
Super Structure

I-Beams, dimensions 15x7.5x0.5 cm m length 135 1.1 148.5

T-Iron, dimensions 5x0.5 cm m length 578 0.3 173.4
Burned bricks, dimensions 30x15x0.5 cm (ceiling) pieces 1150 0.1 115
Straw mixed with mud plaster (flat roof infill) m2 51 1 51
Portland cement for plaster (50kg bag) pieces 17 6.5 110.5
Sand for plastering m3 5 5.3 26.5
Portland cement for flooring (50kg bag) pieces 12 6.5 78
Sand for flooring m3 1 5.3 5.3
Gravel for flooring, size 120-160 mm m3 2 5.2 10.4

Complete metal door, 1 x 2.1 m pieces 3 41.6 124.8

Labour Openings

Complete metal door, 0.9 x 1.8 m pieces 1 41.6 41.6

Complete metal window, 1.5 x 1.5 m pieces 2 36.4 72.8
Complete metal window, 0.8 x 0.8 m pieces 1 10.4 10.4
Plain window glass, 4mm thick as per window design m2 4.1 0.4 1.64

2 unskilled worker day 30 4.5 270

1 skilled worker day 30 12.5 375
2 905.4 + 645
Total 3 550.4

4*
Prices according to the 2019 local market assessment.

Sustainability Score Card

Tree protection

C02 emission mitigation

Material efficiency

Technical performance

Shelter habitability

Shelter affordability
Score interpretation*: 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = exellent
The criteria for the evaluation was established based on the overall performance of the shelters presented in this document

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 85

 Variation B Environmental
impacts
Structure load bearing walls-non reinforced masonry Raw materials used3* straw 321 kg
Walls cement plastered burned brick water1* 2 658 900 liters
Roof flat roof - I section steel profiles with brick infill soil 20.3 m3
Footing 50 x 80 cm quarry stone foundations quarry stones 22 m3
Floor PCC flooring on compacted hard core filling
Openings 2 doors [100 x 210cm], 2 windows [150 x 150cm], Manmade materials plastic (damp course) 14 kg
1 toilet vent [80 x 80cm] used steel (doors, profiles) 3 756 kg
cement 5 840 kg
sand 24.9 m3
gravel 3.4 m3
glass 41 kg

Suggested Workforce required Time required Average life span

CO2 emissions material production 22 595 kg
temperature range for setup for setup5* of the shelter transportation 8 226 kg
due to deforestation 0 kg/year
CO2 absorption cease Total 30 821 kg

CO2 footprint kg of CO2 / Life span / Area

30 821 kg / 25 years / 40 m2
= 31 kg of CO2 / year / m2

Material reuse Bricks are reusable

Technical
performance
Flood mitigation shelter adapted to mitigate risks
Seismic resistance withstands strong (6-6.9 Richter) events
Ventilation meets minimum vent. requirements
Flammability meets fire resistant criteria
Thermal comfort*2 mitigates extreme temperatures2*
Personal security guarantees personal security
Accessibility adaption measures necessary

Habitability
Covered area suitable for 10 occupants ( Sphere )
Privacy provides minimum privacy
Natural light exceeds minimum light. requirements
Artificial light shelter equipped with artificial lightning
Shelter materials adapted to local practices
Facilities shelter equipped with facilities

Affordability
Costs Cost / Life span / Area
$ 3 615.5 / 25 years / 40 m2
= $ 3.6/year/m2
1*
The water consumtion is calculated for all the man made materials and products used to build the shelter. The water consumed by naturally grown materials is not taken into account (e.g. trees, thatch, bamboo).
86 Temperatures that hover 10 degrees or more above or below the average temperature for the region.
2*
3*
5*
___Technical Support Section___
The calculation takes into consideration the resources needed for the construction of one shelter unit. It does not reflect the resources used for the preparation and maintenance of the settlement.
The construction set up time considers the time necessary to build the shelter with all necessary building material ready to use.
 Durable shelter in Afghanistan______
Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters S2 S3

S1 S1

S2 S3

Floor plan

380
342

40

Section S1

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 87

 Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters

Roof plan
380
342

40

Section S2

88 ___Technical Support Section___

 Durable shelter in Afghanistan______
Technical drawings
All measures in cm

0 0.5 1

meters

Foundation plan

380
342

40

Section S3

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 89

 Bill of Quantities

Item specification Unit Quantity Unit cost in USD4* Total cost in USD4*
Fundations

Quarry stones m3 22 6.1 134.2

Sand m3 7 5.3 37.1
Portland cement, (50kg bag) pieces 33 6.5 214.5
Plastic tarpaulin, 0.12 mm thick, as dump proof m2 70 0.5 35
course over ceiling and foundation walls

Burned bricks, dimensions 22x11x7 cm pieces 11 900 0.1 1190

Portland cement for masonry (50kg bag) pieces 41 6.5 266.5
Sand for masonry m3 11 5.3 58.3
I-Beams, dimensions 15x7.5x0.5 cm m length 100 1.1 110
T-Iron, dimensions 5x0.5 cm m length 578 0.3 173.4
Super Structure

Burned bricks, dimensions 30x15x0.5 cm (ceiling) pieces 1150 0.1 115

Straw mixed with mud plaster (flat roof infill) m2 51 1 51
Portland cement for plaster (50kg bag) pieces 17 6.5 110.5
Sand for plastering m3 5 5.3 26.5
Portland cement for flooring (50kg bag) pieces 12 6.5 78
Sand for flooring m3 1 5.3 5.3
Gravel for flooring, size 120-160 mm m3 2 5.2 10.4
Portland cement for beam ring (50kg bag) pieces 14 6.5 91
Sand for flooring for beam ring m3 0.9 5.3 4.8
Gravel for for beam ring m3 1.5 5.2 7.8
Openings

Complete metal door, 1 x 2.1 m pieces 3 41.6 124.8

Complete metal door, 0.9 x 1.8 m pieces 1 41.6 41.6
Complete metal window, 1.5 x 1.5 m pieces 2 36.4 72.8
Complete metal window, 0.8 x 0.8 m pieces 1 10.4 10.4
Plain window glass, 4mm thick as per window design m2 4.1 0.4 1.64
Labour

2 unskilled worker day 30 4.5 270

1 skilled worker day 30 12.5 375
2 970.5 + 645
Total 3 615.5
4*
Prices according to the 2019 local market assessment.

Sustainability Score Card

Tree protection

C02 emission mitigation

Material efficiency

Technical performance

Shelter habitability

Shelter affordability
Score interpretation*: 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = average, 4 = good, 5 = exellent
The criteria for the evaluation was established based on the overall performance of the shelters presented in this document

90 ___Technical Support Section___

© UNHCR/Colin Delfosse

6. Environmental tips
for shelter materials
Environmental impacts for shelter construction are typically
divided into: i) embodied impacts, which are associated with
the pre- and post-use phases of Life Cycle Sustainability
Assessment (LCSA), when raw materials are harvested and
turned into construction materials, transported to the site
and assembled into the finished shelter, as well as the end-
of-life impacts, and ii) use impacts, which are associated with
energy consumption and other operational and maintenance
impacts. Material related decisions in a construction project
are not all made at one time. Different issues on material
selection, sourcing, procurement, storage, use and disposal
emerge at different stages of the project cycle. Life Cycle
Sustainability Assessment’s strength lies in the fact that
it also considers what happens before and after the final
shelter is used and allows for the measurement of long-
term environmental impacts. The life cycle of materials
and ultimately of a shelter consists of four interconnected
steps: raw material extraction stage, production phase and
transporting, installation/use and maintenance phase and
finally end-of-life stage.
 Material Natural forest and plantation timber Bamboo

• Unsustainable or inappropriate forest timber • Bamboo can be extracted from natural or

extraction can cause forest destruction, soil farmed bamboo groves.
erosion, landslides, land degradation, habitat • Uncontrolled bamboo extraction may cause
destruction, and can increase flood risk. habitat destruction, riverbank erosion.
• Forest management for timber production can • Bamboo grows fast, does not need replanting
be combined with biodiversity conservation and it is renewable, therefore it can be a valid
and ecosystem services such as landslide substitute for timber.
prevention and water supplies. • Bamboo should be sourced from well
Raw material • In the case of timber plantations, mono culture managed sources which do not damage
extraction timber plantations can cause land degradation, other natural areas (bamboo plantations
stage habitat and biodiversity loss, and hydrological replacing natural forests).
problems. • Employing bamboo may support local
• Transport of woods/logs can damage forests livelihoods and traditional knowledge.
and rural roads.
• Source timber from forests where it has been
logged sustainably following local approved
forest management plans.

• Wood is processed in timber mills. Mills may • Bamboo can be used directly without any
cause solid waste pollution, inefficient timber processing. However, it can be processed
use, and noise and air pollution. into high-quality products. Some of these
• Many types of timber require treatment for products require energy intensive factory
pest control and to prevent moist. Using toxic processes, especially if bamboo must be
chemicals for treatment causes environmental treated for long term use.
Production and health hazards. • Bamboo treatment processes may cause air,
phase and water pollution and health hazards, as they
transport can involve chemical treatments. Natural
seasoning or non-toxic certified treatment
chemicals should be used.

• To avoid excessive waste and inefficient use • Bamboo should be used only when
of timber proper structural design for timber sustainable harvesting is possible.
structures should be prepared and timber • Bamboo should be treated for long-term
quantity and quality calculated according to durability.
Installation
needs. • Borax or boric acid treatment is common;
use,
• Use timber profile that minimize off-cuts. though should be carried out with care and
maintenance
• If timber is susceptible to insect attack it training, as both chemicals have proven
phase
should be treated with preferably sustainable health hazards.
(in
or natural surface treatments to ensure longer • To support local communities, bamboo
humanitarian
term durability. should be from local industries.
contexts)
• Timber should be stored properly to avoid • Bamboo should be stored properly, to avoid
damaging and waste. damage and waste.

• Timber reuse and recycling from debris should • Bamboo reuse and recycling from debris
End-of-life be encouraged (e.g. door and window frames, should be encouraged
stage roof members etc.)

92 ___Technical Support Section___

 Environmental tips for shelter materials______
Wattle & daub
Adobe bricks Clay/burned bricks
(reinforced mud wall)

• Adobe bricks require important • Burned brick production requires • This type of walling technique
amounts of clayey soil. important amounts of clay. requires high/large amounts of
• Soil extraction may cause • Clay mining may cause natural habitat soil.
natural habitat and farmland and farmland destruction, pollutes • Soil extraction can cause habitat
destruction, pollutes water water bodies, creates ponds where destruction, landslides, erosion,
bodies, creates ponds where disease vectors can breed, alters local fouling of water bodies and
disease vectors can breed, hydrological regime, and may cause hydrological alteration. It creates
alters local hydrological regime, soil erosion. ponds and extraction holes where
and may cause soil erosion. disease vectors can breed.
• -For the construction of walls, a
wooden or bamboo framework/
structure is needed which put
pressure on timber/bamboo
resources and may cause
uncontrolled

• No air pollution is produced • Burned bricks are manufactured in • The walls are built on the
during the production/ wood or coal fired kilns in most of spot; transportation needs are
installation phase, as the bricks the fields. Burning coal and wood therefore reduced.
are sun dried. releases high amounts of C02 - kilns • This type of walling solutions
• The earth excavation and cause severe air pollution. does not cause air pollution and
production occur in-situ • Firewood demands threaten forests do not require energy resources
or near the construction and can cause deforestation and or quarried materials; however, it
site, diminishing in this way erosion. requires water.
transportation needs. • Additionally, transportation may • The technique should only be
• The production site requires contribute to C02 release and air used in areas where soil can
a lot of space for drying and pollution. be extracted without causing
excavation purposes. • To minimize pollution during brick hazards or environmental impacts
• Brick-manufacturing is an production improved technology in and should be accompanied by
intensive water-consuming kilns should be promoted. strategies for the reestablishment
industry that requires a of the area of soil extraction, to
sustainable and integrated prevent accidents and water
water management strategy to accumulation (vector control) in
reduce reliance on freshwater the excavation areas.
consumption.

• Adobe brick structures are not • To minimize pollution during the

suitable in wet areas without construction phase, standard lengths
proper protection from the rain and optimal wall thicknesses should
and flood mitigation strategies be used.
in flood prone areas. • Good loading practices during
transport should be adapted to avoid
losses.

• Possible uses of down-cycled • If a brick structure is decommissioned • A decommissioned mud wall can
clay construction material: the reuse or down-cycling of bricks be used to form substrates for
filling and stabilizing material should be encouraged. growing plants.
for roads and aggregates for
concrete or mortar.

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 93

 Material Corrugated galvanized iron Plastic sheets Thatching material

• CGI sheets are sheets • Crude oil is the main raw • Thatching material is
of hot-dip galvanized material used for production of harvested from natural or
mild steel, cold-rolled polyethylene products. farmed vegetation: palm
to produce a linear • Using recycled polyethylene leaves, reed, grasses.
corrugated pattern. reduces dependence on • Harvesting may destruct
Raw material
• Manufacturing processes petroleum needs as raw natural habitats and cause
extraction
require large quantities of material. erosion.
stage
steel, zinc and other metals
and cause social and
environmental impacts due
to mining.

• CGI sheets are protected • The production processes are • Thatching material is
from corrosion by a zinc energy intensive especially harvested and processed
coating (or galvanized) because the transformation of on a household or small-
applied to the steel sheet PE into fibers involves extremely scale industrial scale.
and are manufactured hot processes which release • Its processing may cause
using energy and water toxic chemicals and require water pollution if not
intensive processes, often important amounts of energy properly managed.
with carbon emissions from and water. • Thatching does not require
Production fossil fuel energy sources. • The vast majority of PE additional materials, nor
phase and • Manufacturing plants products are produced in Asia, energy sources for its
transport cause severe air and water therefore the transportation processing.
pollution by releasing impacts of worldwide export • Thatching techniques can
toxic heavy metals into the of these products in terms support community led
environment. of Co2 emissions, but also and traditional livelihood
• Large quantities of direct pollution especially opportunities and be
water are used in steel linked to sea and air freight part of sound grassland
production, with losses transportation. management.
mostly attributable to
evaporation during cooling.
• CGI sheets should not • Only thatching material
be used in corrosive that can be obtained locally
Installation environments. and without environmental
use, • The quantity of the sheets damage should be used.
maintenance should be carefully • As the material needs to be
phase measured, avoiding seasoned, thatch cannot be
(in unnecessary waste. accessible all year round.
humanitarian • Thatch should be treated
contexts) for longer-term durability of
the products.

• Reuse of un-corroded • Polyethylene is not

sheets from old buildings biodegradable, once disposed
should be encouraged it can stay in landfills for
• The sheets should be centuries, therefore the reuse
End-of-life stored in a dry place in and recycling of old sheets is
stage suitable stack heights to recommended.
avoid damage and never • Special care should be taken
disposed in a natural when disposing – in well
environment. managed landfill sites.

94 ___Technical Support Section___

 Environmental tips for shelter materials______
Quarried materials
Cement/Concrete Cement blocks
(sand, rock chips, gravel)

• Cement is manufactured using limestone and • Cement blocks require • The extraction of quarried
other minerals extracted from quarries or mines. cement, quarried and materials involves blasting,
Its extraction can cause severe social and mined material (sand, which causes noise, dust, air
environmental impacts due to mining. rock chips, gravel). pollution, habitat destruction.
• Extraction of limestone can cause alteration in • Informally managed rock
pH value / alkalinity of soil, impacting hydro- quarrying can cause
geology and livelihoods of the host community. landslides and hydro-
• In the case where cement is used to mix geological impacts.
concrete, mortar or plaster other materials are • Quarried material extraction
associated with its use: quarried material and may cause natural habitat
water. and farmland destruction,
it pollutes water bodies,
creates ponds where disease
vectors can breed, alters
local hydrological regime,
and may cause soil erosion.

• The production of cement occurs on a huge • Cement blocks are • After extraction quarried
scale, and the resulting byproducts have large manufactured using material usually needs
effects on the environment. Approximately 5% powered or manually further processing to
of global CO2 emissions originate from the operated pressure molds. uniform the aggregate size.
manufacturing of cement. • Casting areas can cause The material is crushed
• Cement production requires large quantities of dust, noise and silt and uniformed in specific
raw materials and energy. The main component problems and require a plants which cause noise,
of cement is called clinker, the production of lot of space for drying. air pollution, and silting/
which is very resource intensive. • Important quantities of polluting of water bodies.
• Cement production has high energy requirement water are needed and • Transport affects local roads.
which results in carbon emissions if fossil fuels released into the ground
are used and causes severe air pollution and if the process is poorly
dust. managed.
• The cement manufacturing process produces
millions of tons of the waste product cement kiln
dust each year contributing to respiratory and
pollution health risks.

• To minimize waste during construction, the use • Use and transport

of prefabricated concrete items and premixed of cement may have
concrete is advised instead of in-situ mixing and hazardous impact on
the use of optimum concrete mix/ratios. environment.
• Cement should be stored in a dry place in
suitable stack heights to avoid damage as well
as degradation and never disposed in a natural
environment.
• Concrete structures have generally low
maintenance needs and longer life spans and
offer exceptional levels of protection and safety
in case of fire.

• Reuse or rehabilitation of cement-based • Old blocks can be

elements and structures should always be crushed, and used for
considered. filler in Portland cement.

___Division of Resilience and Solutions___ 95

 7.0 References

UNHCR Emergency Handbook - https://emergency.unhcr.org/

The Sphere Handbook 2018 - https://spherestandards.org/handbook-2018/

DG ECHO’s approach to reducing the environmental footprint of humanitarian aid, ECHO, 2019

Building material selection and use an environmental guide, WWF, 2016

Shelter and environment Haiti, IASC, 2010

Carbon footprint of humanitarian shelter: A case study of relief and construction materials used in Haiti, Selina Chan, 2014

Reducing environmental impact in humanitarian response, Sphere, 2019

Impact of the global forest industry on atmospheric greenhouse gases, FAO, 2010

Challenges and opportunities in the production and purchase of good quality blocks, Build Change, 2012

Interlocking stabilised soil blocks, UN-HABITAT, 2009

Going green, UN-HABITAT, 2012

7 steps guide to building life cycle assessment, Tytti Bruce-Hyrkäs, 2020

Guidelines for building flood resistant houses, UN-HABITAT, 2010

Environmental checklist for shelter response, Shelter Cluster Vanuatu, 2019

Keep it legal, WWF, 2006

Reuse, recycle and disposal of emergency plastic sheets, IASC, 2012

Resource efficiency in the building sector, Ecorys, 2014

Quantifying Supply Chain Network Synergy for Humanitarian Organizations, DOI 10.1147/JRD.2019.2940430, IBM Journal of
Research and Development

Environment and Shelter1 / NFI / Humanitarian transport, RMRP 2021, UNHCR

Timber as a construction material in humanitarian operation, OCHA, IFRC, Care International, 2009

Global status report 2017, UNEP

Monthly diameter and height growth of young eucalyptus Fastigata, E. Regnans, and E. Saligna, A. E. Hay, M. O. Kimberley,
And B. M. P. Kampfraath, New Zealand Forest Research Institute, 1997

sea-distances.org

stopplastics.ca

timberpolis.co.uk

IASC Guidelines, Inclusion of persons with disabilities in humanitarian action, 2019

UNHCR/HCP/2019/1 - Policy on UNHCR’s Engagement in Situations of Internal Displacement

UNHCR/HCP/2018/1 - Policy on Age, Gender and Diversity

96 ___Technical Support Section___

The Shelter and Sustainability Overview has been developed by UNHCR’s Division of Resilience and
Solutions, Technical Support Section.

Project Supervision: Ammar Al-Mahdawi

Author: Anja Pirjevec

Design and layout: Anja Pirjevec

Geneva, April 2021