07/03/2024

Factors affecting plant growth

Essential elements and their functions Discuss how genetic and environmental factors affect plant
Sources of nutrients productivity
Nutrient availability
Soil fertility decline

 Heredity consists of the inborn characteristics

of a plant transmitted by its seed or other
reproductive parts such as stem or tubers
 Plant characteristics that could be improved
through breeding include good yield quality
and adaptability to adverse soil conditions.
 Promising techniques for genetic manipulation
or molecular genetics include in vitro
Plant growth is affected by genetic and environmental factors. If these factors techniques for asexual approaches, broad
are optimally applied to the plant, the plot of dry matter yield versus time will crosses between crop species, single-cell
produce a growth curve.
culture, anther and pollen culture, and somatic
hybridization.

 Environment is defined as the aggregate of all A. Temperature

external conditions and influences affecting the ➢ This is a measure of heat intensity.
life and development of an organism. ➢ Major growth factor because almost all
 These include such factors as temperature, metabolic reactions of living organisms are
water, light, composition of atmospheric air, catalyzed by enzymes whose activities are
biotic factors (man, weeds, pest, diseases, large primarily controlled by temperature.
and small plants and animals), and soil
conditions like fertility, structure, texture and
reaction.

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Some plant processes effected by B. Water or moisture supply

temperature are: ➢ Water is part of the living protoplasm which
1. Photosynthesis which is negligible below 10OC and serves as solvent for nutrients and raw material
increases from 10-30OC, doubles for every 10OC rise
between 10-35OC for photosynthesis. The rate of plant growth is
2. Respiration which is slow at 0OC but it becomes generally directly proportional to the available
faster up to 40OC as temperature increases soil moisture.
3. Nutrient absorption which increases with increasing ➢ Management for little moisture in the soil
temperature from 0-40OC for most plants includes plowing, using green and animal
4. Cell enlargement and elongation; and
manures, mulching, irrigation, drainage, planting
5. Microbial activity and nutrient availability.
shelter belts and terracing.

Soil moisture supply depends on: C. Light or radiant energy

1. Amount of rainfall and irrigation, and its ➢ Light quality, intensity and duration affect plant
distribution during the growing season. growth to a large extent.
2. Evaporation ➢ Some plant processes and growth affected by

3. Height of water table light energy are photosynthesis, transpiration,

protein synthesis, respiration, direction of plant
4. Rate of water percolation downward in the soil
growth, thickness of leaves, time of reproduction
5. Soil structure which favors or hinders the rise
or flowering, and form of the shoot system.
of water capillarity from the water table
6. Soil texture and
7. Vegetative covering

D. Composition of atmospheric air E. Biotic factor

➢ The principal source of carbon for plants is ➢ These include all living things that influence
carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere, plant growth and development; man, weeds,
comprising about 0.03% by volume. pests, diseases, large and small animals and
➢ It is taken into their leaves and becomes other large and small plants.
chemically bound in organic molecules through
photosynthesis.
• Beneficial effects of farmyard manures and crop
residues on crop yields maybe the carbon dioxide
trapped in and below dense plant canopies that is
released into the air.

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F. Soil
➢ These include soil fertility, structure, texture and
soil reaction.
• Describe the physical, chemical and biological
• Soil structure determines the bulk density of a soil. conditions of the soil affecting plant growth and
• Soil reaction affects plant growth through the development.
• Discuss the role of essential elements in plant growth
influence on the availability of certain elements • Know how nutrients move from the soil to the plant
required for growth. Example is the volatilization of system
ammoniacal –N fertilizers left on soil surface at pH • Enumerate and describe the different soil properties
affecting nutrient availability.
greater than 7.0. Soils high in iron and aluminum • Identify some techniques in maintaining or improving
(acid) also tend to increase sorption and precipitation soil conditions to maintain a sustainable supply of
of phosphates. nutrients for plant absorption.

 Soil is the natural medium for plant  The liquid phase is mainly for nutrient
growth transport (the transport of nutrients from
 It provides anchorage for plants
various parts of the soil to plant roots)
 Consists of three phases: solid, liquid and
 The gaseous phase, mediates in the
gas
 The solid phase contain cationic nutrients
gaseous exchange which occurs between
such as K, Na, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn and Co the numerous living organisms of the soil
 Organic components provide the main (plant root, bacteria, fungi, animals) and
reservoir of N and also of P and S to a the atmosphere.
lesser extent

 Soil general properties: the physical,

chemical and biological.
 Soil properties and environmental factors
may be properly manipulated either to make
a soil fertile or restore and maintain its
fertility level.
 In effect, soil provides many things essential
to the growth of higher plants. Principal
among these are: mechanical support,
oxygen for root respiration, water and
essential plant nutrients

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 The term essential mineral element (or

mineral nutrient) was proposed by Arnon
and Stout (1939).
Essential elements and their functions  They concluded three criteria must be
met for an element to be considered
essential.

 Although more than 90 elements can be absorbed by plants, 3 (C,H,O) are abundant and absorbed in
only 17 met the criteria for essentiality and so are absorbed
by plants more than the others. gaseous form
 The 17 elements which met the criteria for essentiality are ✓ Carbon and Oxygen from atmosphere, enter as
described by Arnon and Stout (1939) as follows: gases through stomata of leaves (CO2 and O2) or
A. Deficiency of the element makes it impossible for the through roots (O2). CO2 is needed for
plant to complete the vegetative or reproductive stage of photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration.
its life cycle. ✓ Hydrogen comes from water absorbed by plant
B. Such deficiency is specific for the element in question roots.
and can be corrected only by supplying the element.
C. The element must be directly involved in plant
14 are mineral nutrients: Absorbed primarily
metabolism or a component of an essential plant from the soil
constituent. ✓ Six are macronutrients: N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S
D. The element is needed in a substantial number of plant ✓ Eight are micronutrients: Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, B, Cl, Mo,
species. Ni

The plant nutrients may be divided into:

a. Macronutrients = chemical elements
necessary in large amounts (usually >50
ppm in the plant) for plant growth.
Examples are C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S
b. Micronutrients = chemical elements
necessary only in extremely small amounts
<50 ppm in the plant) for plant growth.
Examples are B, Cl, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn.

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➢ Elements which either stimulate growth but b. Silicon – essential for several species of
are not essential or which are essential only silicon accumulators; beneficial on plants
for certain plant species, or under specific include increase in yield that can result
conditions. from increasing leaf erectness, decreasing
susceptibility to lodging, decreasing
a. Sodium – beneficial for crops such as
incidence in fundal infections and
sugar beet; essential for the growth of a preventing Fe and Mn toxicity.
halophyte Atriplex vesicaria at levels in
the range of micronutrient; C4 c. Cobalt – essential for N-fixing organism,
photosynthetic pathways require up to irrespective of whether they are in the free-
around 0.02% in dry weight. living or symbiotic form; N-fixing in root
nodules of legumes and nonlegumes;

Essential Elements Source Forms available to Concentration in dry

(Chemical plants tissue (%)
symbol)

C Air CO2 45
➢ Plants absorb 60 or more elements from H Water H2O 45
soil. Many have neither essential, nor O Air and water O2, H2O 6
beneficial roles. If present in large N Nutrient medium NH4+, NO3- 1.5
enough amounts may be toxic to plant P NM H2PO4 - , 0.2
(or to humans consuming them) HPO42-
K NM K+ 1.0
a. Aluminum (e.g. acidic soils) Ca NM Ca ++ 0.5
b. Heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg) Mg NM Mg ++ 0.2
S NM SO42-, SO3 2- 0.1

Essential Elements Source Forms available to Concentration in dry

(Chemical plants tissue (%)
symbol)

Nutrient medium
Fe Fe 2+, Fe 3+ 0.1 Nutrient Element Physiological/ Biochemical Function

NM
Mn Mn2+ 0.0050 First Group
Carbon, C Major constituent of the organic plant material.
NM
Zn Zn+, Zn2+ 0.0020 Hydrogen, H Essential elements of atomic groups which are
involved in enzymatic process and assimilated
NM Oxygen, O
Cu Cu+, Cu2+ 0.0006
Nitrogen, N
by oxidation-reduction reactions

NM
B BO3 -3 , 0.002 Sulfur, S
Second Group
B4O7-2 Phosphorus, P Formation of esters with native alcohol groups
NM
Mo MoO2- 0.00001 Boron, B with importance in stabilizing cell walls and/or
biomembranes. The phosphate esters are
NM Silicon, Si
Cl Cl- 0.01 involved in energy transfer reactions.

NM
Ni Ni + 0.00001

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Nutrient Element Physiological/ Biochemical Function

Element Role in Plants
Third Group
Primary Nutrients
Potassium, K Besides more specific reactions such as
conformation of enzyme proteins, bridging of Carbon, C Main structural materials in plant tissue; account for about
Calcium, Ca 90-95% of the dry weight of most plants which occur in
reaction partners, and controlling membrane Hydrogen, H
Magnesium, Mg about the same ration as in carbohydrates
permeability, they perform some nonspecific Oxygen, O
Manganese, Mn functions like establishing osmotic potential and
Nitrogen, N Constituent of all proteins, chlorophyll, nucleic acid,
Chlorine, Cl balancing anions.
amines, amides.
Nickle, Ni Phosphorus, P Constituent of nucleic acids, phytin, phospholipids, and of
Fourth Group the energy rich compound, ATP
Iron, Fe Present predominately as chelates in plants, Potassium, K Important in carbohydrate and nitrogen metabolism,
often incorporated in prosthetic groups and adjustment of stomatal movement and water relations, and
Copper, Cu
enable electron transport by valency change. activation of various enzymes.
Zinc, Zn
Molybdenum, Mo

Element Role in Plants Element Role in Plants

Secondary Nutrients Micronutrients
Calcium, Ca Occurs as calcium pectates in and along cell walls of Iron, Fe Essential in RNA metabolism of chloroplasts related to
leaves and stems; necessary for cell elongation, protein chlorophyll synthesis, constituent of leghemoglobin,
synthesis, and normal cell division; activator of some cytochromes and other components of respiratory enzyme
enzyme systems. systems.
Magnesium, Constituent of chlorophyll; specific activator of some Boron, B Essential in protein synthesis, nitrogen and carbohydrate
Mg enzymes metabolism, root system development, fruit and seed
Sulfur, S Required in the synthesis formation and water relations; facilitates transport of sugars
of sulfur-containing amino acids cystine, cysteine and across cell membranes.
methionine, formation of vitamins, hormones, and in Zinc, Z Metal activator of many enzyme systems involved in protein
nitrogen fixation by leguminous plants. synthesis and degradation and electron transfer reactions;
promotion of seed and grain maturation and production.

Element Role in Plants

Element Role in Plants
Micronutrients
Micronutrients
Cupper, Cu Catalyst for respiration, constituent of enzymes (e.g.
cytochrome oxidase, phenol oxidase, laccase, ascorbic Manganese, Mn Nitrogen and inorganic acid metabolism, carbon dioxide
acid oxidase and superoxide dismutase) important in assimilation (photosynthesis), carbohydrate breakdown,
chlorophyll synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism and formation of carotene riboflavin and ascorbic acid.
protein metabolism. Nickel, Ni Necessary for proper functioning of the enzyme, urease,
Molybdenum, Essential constituent of two major enzymes involved in N and found to be necessary in seed germination.
Mo metabolism-nitrogenase and nitrate reductase; thus it is
required for nitrate reduction and N fixation and protein
synthesis.
Chlorine, Cl Required in photosynthesis both in noncyclic
phosphorylation and the riboflavin phosphate pathway of
cyclic photophosphorylation; assists in processes related
to charge
balance and osmoregulation.

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➢ Nitrogen was discovered in 1772 by D.

Rutherford of Britain but was given the name
Azote (“without life”) by Antoin Laurent Lavoiser
(Azobacter is a N-fixing bacterium).
Sources, forms, transformation
and availability of nutrients; N, P, ➢ Oxidation is addition of O2 and also removal of
K and Micronutrients electrons. As an NH4 or amino (-NH2)
compound, N is highly reduced.

➢ Non metal common in living organisms ➢ In the simplest N compound, NH3 the 3
bonding electrons are paired with one
➢ Has 5 outer electrons. Combines readily
electron from a H atom.
with C compounds in living organisms. It
is found as two atom diatomic molecule,
N2 like H2.
Ions electron pair
N
N

3 unpaired electrons available for

bonding Tetrahedron arrangement

NH3 is dipolar
➢ The 3 unpaired electrons can share electrons
with another N atom to produce the N Ξ N
molecule. This triple bond is strong making
N2 an unreactive molecule.
H
N + N
+ H
H H H
H H
PROTON

NH3 + H+ NH4+

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 How organic matter undergoes

decomposition?
• Organic materials undergo enzymatic
oxidation by aerobic microorganism
C-H containing compds + 2O2 CO2 +
energy+ 2H2O

• Also release nutrients like N, P, and S

for plants & microbial use

1. Sources
Under flooded condition – organic
materials are acted upon by ➢ Air = 78% N2 = 3.8 x 1015 tons
➢ Atmosphere (ultimate source) – 78% N
anaerobic microbes;
- relatively slower process ➢ Lithosphere = 18 x 1015 (fixed in rocks and
sediments)
• Major products : methane (CH4), (atmosphere over 1 ha = 75,000 tons N2
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), S, H2 and
➢ Mineral = saltpeter (KNO3), rainwater
organic acids (NO3, NO2-, Nitrous oxide, N2O, NH3)
➢ Irrigation water

1. Sources 1. Sources

➢ Symbiotic and non-symbiotic BNF ➢ 10 – 20% of NO3- in rainfall is due to

lightning. The rest from industrial waste
➢ Azobacter, Azospirillum, Rhizobium,
gases. Total N from rainfall 1 – 50 lb/A/yr.
Actinomycetes, Frankia, Blue-green
algae, Anabaena ➢ Industrial fixation (Haber-Bosch process)
➢ Chilean nitrate catalyst
3 H2 + N 2 2 NH3
➢ Organic matter 1200ºC
500 atm
➢ NO3- from electrical discharge

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1. Sources 1. Sources
➢ Industrial fixation (Haber-Bosch process) ➢ N2 converted by NH3 by Haber-Bosch
process
➢ Fritz Haber – Professor of physical
chemistry and electrochemistry – ➢ N2 + 3H2 === 2NH3
demonstrated (1909) a process of
Air + natural gas ==== anhydrous ammonia (NH 3)
converting atmospheric nitrogen to liquid
ammonia a. Urea
b. Ammonium sulfate
➢ Carl Bosch – a pioneer in high-pressure
physics and manufacturing agreed to
investigate large scale production

2. Forms 2. Forms
➢ Total N = 0.02 – 0.4% ➢ Organic
amino acids (30-50% N)
➢ organic N = 95% of total N in surface soil amino sugars (5-10% N)
➢ inorganic N: soil OM – 5% N, if OM = 3%
➢ NH4+, NO3-, NO2 – most important and 2 – 1 HFS = 2 x 106 kg
5% of total soil N. .03 x 2 x 106 kg = 60,000 kg OM/HFS
➢ The rest is N2O (nitrous oxide), NO (nitric .05 x 60,000 kg = 3,000 kg N/HFS
oxide) and N2.

2. Forms 2. Forms
➢ Organic ➢ Inorganic
➢ Protein, amino NH4+
acids, amino NO3- Available forms
sugars, NH3
nitrosamins, mineralization rate: 2% /yr/ha
purines and 3,000 kg x .02 = 60 kg N
pyrimidine
derivatives

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2. Forms 2. Forms absorbed by plants

➢ NH4+ and NO3-
➢ N must be combined with H or O to be
reactive ➢ NO3- is more abundant in aerobic soils. Most
plants absorb both.
➢ N as NH4+ is easily fixed in clays. ➢ NH4+ abundant in reduced layer of paddy
➢ NO3 – N moves more easily in the soil. soils.
➢ Some plants, e.g., tobacco, potato, tomato
prefer high NO3-/NH4+ ratio. At low pH NO3-
uptake is high. Roots release HO3- and
maintain electroneutrality in the plant and in
the soil solution.

2. Forms absorbed by plants 2. Forms absorbed by plants

➢ NH4+ and NO3- ➢ NH4+ and NO3-

➢ NH4+ is the preferred source since NO3- ➢ Uptake of NH4+ lowers rhizosphere pH
reduction for protein synthesis needs 2 because of H+ exudation by roots.
NADH per NO3- reduced. At low pH NH4+
uptake is low and high at neutral pH.
➢ NH4+ uptake reduces Ca, Mg, K uptake but
increases uptake of H2PO4-, SO4-, and Cl-.
High levels of NH4+ are toxic to plants but
high NO3- more tolerated by plants.

3. Losses 3. Losses
➢ N is easily lost through:
➢ Leaching
➢ Avenue of Losses
➢ Volatilization ➢ Leaching
➢ Denitrification ➢ NO3- moves with water down the
➢ Immobilization
soil profile being negatively
➢ Therefore, it needs to be conserved and
maintained difficult to manage continually charged hence not attracted to
changed by chemical reactions and soil clay and humus which are
microbial activity also negatively charged

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3. Losses 3. Losses
➢ Avenue of Losses ➢ Avenue of Losses
➢ Volatilization – loss of N in gaseous ➢ Denitrification – biochemical reduction of nitrate-N to
gaseous N by anaerobic microbes in paddy soils.
form ➢ When NO3- in thin aerobic surface of paddy soils is
➢ NH4+ present in fertilizers e.g. urea, leached down to the reduced subsoil, denitrificans
ammonium nitrate, manures reduce NO3- to nitrite then to gaseous forms
nitrous oxide (NO) and elemental Nitrogen (N 2).
changed to ammonia gas (NH3 ) &
lost into the atmosphere esp. if ➢ 2HNO3 2HNO2 N2O 2NO N2
fertilizers are not incorporated into
Denitrifiers: Pseudomonas, Bacillus & Paracoccus
the soil

3. Losses 4. Transformation
➢ Mineralization ( Aminization and
➢ Avenue of Losses
Amonification)
➢ Immobilization ➢ Nitrification
➢ Temporary capture of N by soil ➢ NH4 fixation
microbes esp. if material of high C/N ➢ Gaseous loss of N (Denitrification)
ratio is used ➢ Biological Nitrogen Fixation

4. Transformation 4. Transformation
➢ Mineralization – transformation of organic ➢ Mineralization
N to simpler inorganic forms before to
become available to plants
a. Aminization – ammonia is lost to the
atmosphere
➢ organic N NH4+
H2O NH2 NH2
PROTEINS R – C – COOH + R – NH2 + C = O + CO2 + ENERGY
Bacteria
fungi H NH2
➢ Aminization, ammonification by heterotrophs AMINO ACID AMINES
(need organic C as source of energy)

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4. Transformation 4. Transformation
➢ Mineralization ➢ Mineralization
➢ Fate of NH4
b. Ammonification – conversion of
organic N to NH4 or NO3 1. Nitrified

R – NH2 + H2O NH3 + R – OH + ENERGY

2. Absorbed by plants
+ H2O 3. Used by organisms for further
NH4+ + OH- decomposition of OM
4. Fixed by clays
5. Released to atmosphere as N2

4. Transformation 4. Transformation
➢ Mineralization ➢ Nitrification
➢ Amount of N mineralized ➢ Nitrosomonas are obligate Autotrophs and get
energy from oxidation of N and C from CO2. NO2- is
➢ if OM = 4%; % N in OM = 5% toxic to plant roots but do no accumulate because
NO2- NO3- is faster than NH4+ NO2-.
➢ mineralization rate = 2% per season
➢ 1 mole of NH4+ produces 2 moles H+ thus causing
➢ (2 x 106 kg) (0.04) = 80,000 kg OM/ha acidification.

➢ (80,000) (0.05) = 4,000 kg N/ha 2 NH4+ + 3 O2

nitrosomonas
2 NO2- + 2 H 2O + 4 H +

➢ (4,000) (0.02) = 80 kg N/ha mineralized 2 NO2 - + O2 2 NO3 -

nitrobacter

4. Transformation 4. Transformation
➢ NH4-Fixation ➢ Gaseous loss of N (Denitrification)
➢ Vermiculite and illite can fix
NH4+.Fixed
NH4+ can be replaced (and released) by Ca, + 4H + 2H + 2H
2 HNO3 2 HNO2 2 N2O
Mg, Na & H but not by K. -2 H2O -2 H2O NO - H 2O

➢ Presence of K+ restricts NH4+ fixation due to

+2H
competition for fixation sites. N2O
-H2O
N2

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Denitrification

4. Transformation
➢ Biological N Fixation
➢ By N fixing microbes (Rhizobium bacteria) in
legumes fixes 150-250 lbs of N/acre/yr
➢ Bacteria in root nodules trap atmospheric N
then transformed to NH3.
➢ NH3 combines with organic compounds to
form amino acids and proteins
➢ In turn the plant supplies CHO and energy for
their metabolism

4. Transformation 4. Transformation
➢ Biological N Fixation ➢ Biological N Fixation
➢ Total worldwide BNF: 17.2 x 107 tons/year ➢ Total worldwide BNF: 17.2 x 107 tons/year
food legumes pasture
cowpea: 90 kg N/ha
stylosanthes
soybean: 100 kg N/ha
sesbania
peanut: 42 kg N/ha
crotolaria
trees
azolla
ipil-ipil; acacia; kakawate (Glyricidia sepium)
450 – 600 kg N/ha/year
doubling time: 5 – 7 days

4. Transformation
➢ Biological N Fixation
➢ Factors affecting BNF by Rhizobia
a. Soil pH
b. Concentration of NO3, NH4, NO2, urea
c. Ca, P, K, Co, Mo (enhance fixation)

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Fertilizers Fertilizers
➢ N2 converted to NH3 by Haber-Bosch ➢ Ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4
process
➢ one of the oldest ammoniacal source of
➢ Air (N2) + Natural Gas Anhydrous nitrogen
Ammonia (NH3)
➢ White crystalline salt
➢ Very soluble in water
Reaction involved:
2NH3 +H2SO4 (NH4) 2SO4

Fertilizers Fertilizers
➢ Ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4 ➢ Ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4
Advantages: Disadvantages:
a. Low hygroscopicity a. Relatively low nitrogen concentration
b. Chemical stability b. The strong acid residue that it imparts to the
soil especially if continually applied in the
c. Agronomic suitability
uplands.
d. Good source of both N and S
e. Good to be applied in high-pH soils and for
acid-requiring crops

Fertilizers Fertilizers
➢ Ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4 ➢ Urea, CO(NH2)2 or carbamide
Reaction under lowland condition: ➢ The first organic compound synthesized from
H2O inorganic substances.
(NH4) 2SO4 2NH4+ + SO4 =
Reaction Involved:
Reaction under upland condition:
Ammonia ammonium carbamate
(NH4) 2SO4 2NH4+ + SO4 =
2NH3 + + CO2 NH2COONH4
2NH4 + + 3O2 2NO2 + 2H2O + 4H +
NH2COONH4 NH2CONH2 + H2O
2NO2 + O2 2NO3 +

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Fertilizers Fertilizers
➢ Urea, CO(NH2)2 or carbamide ➢ Urea, CO(NH2)2 or carbamide
Advantages: Disadvantages:
a. High nitrogen content a. Harmful effect of biuret
b. Substantial savings in handling, storage, b. Phytotoxicity of urea
transportation and application costs
c. N-loss as ammonia from urea exposed on
the soil surface

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