TERMS DEFINITION

lymphatic system The tissue of the lymphatic system is lymph; it consists of the tissue
components of blood other than red cells and platelets.
- In the process of vascular circulation, fluid and leukocytes (white
blood cells) leak from the capillaries and escape the circulatory
system
In its circulation, all lymph travels through at least one lymph node
Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell found in lymph. There are several types of
lymphocytes, the most fully understood of which are
T-lymphocytes, or T-cells; B-lymphocytes, or B-cells; and natural killer
(NK) cells Lymphocytes originate in the bone marrow, but they mature and
differentiate in other structures of the immune system.

- two other types of leukocytes are granulocytes and

monocytes/macrophages
thymus which has endocrine functions, secretes a hormone called
thymosin which is involved in the maturation and differentiation of the
T-cells
tonsils are masses of lymphatic tissue located in the throat. Their function is akin
to that of the lymph nodes: trapping and killing invading cells and
particles.
spleen an organ near the stomach in the abdominal cavity, is one site in which
lymphocytes mature. In addition, it serves as a holding station for
lymphocytes as well as a disposal site for worn-out blood cells
immune system’s function is to defend against foreign substances that the body
encounters
- Invading organisms can enter the body in many ways, and the
immune system has methods to combat each mode of entry. In
general, there are two ways the immune system fights invading
foreign substances: general (nonspecific) response and specific
response. Both may be involved in fighting foreign substances.
Nonspecific Immune Foreign substances capable of passing these barriers face two general
System Responses (nonspecific) mechanism.

One is phagocytosis, which is the attacking of foreign particles by cells of

the immune system.

Two types of leukocytes perform this function. Granulocytes contain

granules filled with chemicals
Macrophages perform a variety of immune functions, including scavenging for worn-
out cells and debris, initiating specific immune responses, and secreting a
variety of chemicals that break down the cell membranes of invaders.
inflammation which works to restore tissues damaged by invaders. When an injury
occurs, blood vessels in the injured area dilate, increasing blood flow to
the tissues and causing the warmth and redness that accompany
inflammation.
Specific Immune Systems Specific immune responses are specific to one invader, such as a certain
Responses virus or bacterium. Two types of lymphocytes—T-cells and B-cells—carry
out specific immune responses.

lymphocyte encounters a foreign substance for the first time, both the
general response and a specific response occur.
e B-cell, mobilizes an indirect attack on invading microorganisms. With
the help of one variety of T-cell
antigens Foreign substances that provoke antibody manufacture
immunity This specifically tailored rapid response to foreign microorganisms that
occurs with repeated exposure is what most people
humoral immunity This system of immune response through B-cell recognition of antigens
and their manufacture of antibodies
Creating Immunity One widely used method to induce immunity is vaccination.
- In vaccination, a weakened form of a virus or a bacterium is
introduced into the body, stimulating the production of
antibodies. These antibodies then confer immunity for an
extended period.
Immune System Immune deficiency, an inadequate immune response, may occur for
Disorders several reasons. Immune deficiency also occurs naturally. Although the
immune system is not fully functional at birth, infants are protected by
antibodies they receive from their mothers through the placenta, and
infants who breastfeed receive antibodies from their mothers’ milk.
These antibodies offer protection until the infant’s own immune system
develops during the first months of life

the immune system fails to develop, leaving the child without immune
protection.
acquired immune This disease is caused by a virus, the human immunodeficiency virus
deficiency syndrome (HIV), which destroys the T-cells and macrophages in the immune
(AIDS) system.
are another immune system disorder. An allergic response is an
Allergies abnormal reaction to a foreign substance that normally elicits little or no
immune reaction.
autoimmune diseases In autoimmune diseases, the immune system loses the ability to
distinguish the body from an invader, and it mounts the same vicious
attack against itself that it would against an intruder.
psychoneuroimmunology a multidisciplinary field that focuses on the interactions among behavior,
(PNI) the nervous system, the endocrine system, and the immune system
cytokines chemical messengers secreted by cells in the immune system
proinflammatory because it promotes inflammation. These cytokines, which include
cytokine several types of interleukins, may underlie a number of states, including
feelings associated with sickness, depression, and social withdrawal.
psychoneuroimmunology aims to develop an understanding of the role of behavior in changes in
the immune system and the development of disease. To reach this goal,
researchers must establish a connection between psychological factors
 and changes in immune function and demonstrate a relationship
between this impaired immune function and changes in health status.

all three components:

✓ psychological factors such as stress,
✓ immune system malfunction, and
✓ disease development—to establish the connection between
stress and disease
immune system’s ability to mount an effective attack against a biological invader is amazing
in both its complexity and effectiveness. However, the immune system
may have evolved to respond to more than simply pathogens that
already entered the body. The immune system may mount defenses
against pathogens that the brain anticipates may soon enter the body.
Psychoneuroimmunology research demonstrates that various functions of the immune system
respond to both short-term and long-term psychological stress.
Researchers are making progress toward linking psychological factors,
immune system function, and disease, but few studies have included all
three elements
diathesis–stress model suggests that some individuals are vulnerable to stress-related diseases
because either genetic weakness or biochemical imbalance inherently
predisposes them to those diseases.
- explaining the development of psychological disorder, as well as
schizophrenic episodes, depression, and anxiety disorders.

predisposition (diathesis) is usually thought to be inherited through

biochemical or organ system weakness, but some theorists also consider
learned patterns of thought and behavior as components of vulnerability.
(people with a strong predisposition to a disease, even a mild
environmental stressor may be sufficient to produce an illness episode)

assumes that two factors are necessary to produce disease.

1. First, the person must have a relatively permanent predisposition
to the disease, and
2. that person must experience some sort of stress. Diathetic
individuals respond pathologically to the same stressful
conditions with which most people can cope.
Hans Selye’s concept of stress, included suppression of the immune response, and a
growing body of evidence now supports this hypothesis through
interactions among the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems.
- These interactions are similar to the responses hypothesized by
Selye and provide strong evidence that stress could be involved
in a variety of physical ailments.
telomere is a region of repetitive nucleotide sequences appearing at each end of a
chromosome.
- Telomeres serve as a protective cap that prevents a chromosome
from deterioration, much in the same way that the tip of a
shoelace prevents it from fraying apart. Each time a cell divides
 and a chromosome replicates, however, the length of the
telomere shortens.
Headaches Stress, in particular daily hassles, can lead to occasional headaches,
chronic headaches, and worsen headache pain.
Infectious Disease Chronic stress can increase susceptibility to cold infections, weaken
effects of vaccines, worsen progression of HIV, and lead to outbreaks of
herpes simplex virus.
Cardiovascular Disease Stress can trigger heart attacks and worsen progression of heart disease,
by increasing inflammation and increasing artery damage
Stress Reactivity Stress reactivity, including stress of low socioeconomic status and racism,
increases risk of cardiovascular problems
Ulcers Together with H. pylori infection, stress—including health behaviors
associated with stress—can precipitate development of ulcers
Diabetes Stress can increase inflammation, which can lead to insulin resistance.
Stress can also worsen the management of existing diabetes
Asthma Stress can increase inflammation, which can lead to both development of
asthma and asthma attacks.
Rheumatoid arthritis Stress increases inflammation and sensitivity to pain
Birth Outcomes Chronic stress during pregnancy can lead to lower birth weight
Stress and Psychological Stress can put people in a bad mood. For some people, these emotional
Disorders responses of stress are short lived. For other people, stress may lead to
persistent emotional difficulties that can qualify as psychological
disorders.

• the study of stress as a factor in psychological disorders parallels

other research about stress and disease by adopting the
diathesis–stress model.
• Mood changes can also lead to changes in immune function.
Changes in immune functioning may underlie several
psychological disorders
Depression There is clear evidence that stress contributes to the development of
depressive symptoms. Much of the research focusing on this relationship
attempts to answer two questions.
Anxiety Disorders Anxiety disorders include a variety of fears and phobias, often leading to
avoidance behaviors. Included in this category are conditions such as
panic attacks, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety, obsessive-compulsive
disorders, and posttraumatic stress disorder (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013). This section looks at stress as a possible contributor
to anxiety states

One anxiety disorder that, by definition, is related to stress is

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) “the development of characteristic
symptoms following exposure to one or more traumatic events.