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AREA OF CONCENTRATION FOR PHYSICS: CELL ORGANIZATION, STRUCTURE & FUNCTIONS

Features Animal Cell Plant Cell

Cell Wall No Yes
Plastids No Yes
Glyoxysomes No Yes
Centrosome (Centrioles) Yes No (Higher plant)
Yes (Lower plant)
Lysosomes Yes No
Flagella Yes Rare (lower plants)
Pigments No Yes (as Chlorophyl)
Phagocytosis Yes No
Cilia Yes No
Nucleus Central Peripheral
Vacuoles Small, Many Large, One
Cell Shape Non-Rigid (change) and Rigid (no change)
round and rectangular
Cell size Smaller Larger and fixed
Cell Turgidity Rupture by water Turgid by water
Cytokinesis Furrowing process Phragmoplast formed
Gametogenesis By Meiosis By Mitosis
Food storage As glycogen As starch
Reproduction Sexual Sexual and Asexual
Movement Active Passive
Similarities
Cytoplasm Yes Yes
Ribosome Yes Yes
ER Yes Yes
Mitochondria Yes Yes
peroxisome Yes Yes
Golgi apparatus Yes (as dictyosomes) Yes
Plasma membrane Yes Yes
Microtubles / Microfilaments Yes Yes

Compare and contrast structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic

Features Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
History and Evolution Most primitive (about 3.5 billion years Latest (about 1.5 billion years ago)
ago)
Membrane Bounded Absent Present
Organelles
Nucleus Absent (with nucleus envelope) Present
Plasmid Present Present only in yeast
Pilli Present Absent
Cytoplasmic streaming Absent Present
movement (Cyclosis)
Occurrence • Bacteria • Protists
• Blue Green Algae • Fungi
• Plants
• Animals
Genetic Material (DNA) • Circular DNA in nucleid • Linear DNA in nucleus (thread-like)
• Submerged in cytoplasm • Present in nucleus
Histones Absent Present
Ribosomes • Small in size • Large in size
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• 50S+30S = 70S 60S+40S = 80S (70S in mitochondria)

Cytoplasm Gel like Gel + Sol like
Cell Wall • Peptidoglycan / Murein (in eubacteria) • Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharides (in archeabacteria) • Chitin (in fungi)
• A bag-like huge molecular complex • Cellulose (in plants)
called SACCULUS • Absent (in animals)
• Mannans / Xylans / Alginic acids / Saccharides etc
(in protist)
Cell membrane • Lack Sterols except Mycoplasmas • Have Sterols (except in some)
• Naturally Cloning • In inner mitochondrial membrane (cristae)
• At cell membrane • Less efficient
• More efficient • 1 glucose ⇌ 36 ATP
• 1 glucose ⇌ 38 ATP
Cell division Binary fission Mitosis / Meiosis
Mitotic apparatus Absent Present
Flagella Simple and single Complex, made of tubulin
Composition Flagellin protein (53 kiloDalton Tubulin protein (9+2 microtubule arrangement)
saturated)
Movement Rotary movement Bending movement
DNA Circular, double-stranded (DS) Linear, double-stranded (DS)
Nucleoid : Plasmids Nucleus : Mitochondria
DS : DS DS : DS
Circular : Circular Linear : Circular
DNA Polymerase 1 type 3 types
Chromosome One long single loop of DNA and More than one (DNA + Histone protein)
plasmid
Polidy Haploid • Diploid
• Haploid (germ cells)
Replication • At cytoplasm • In nucleus
• In origin (one) • Multiple origins
Transcription Promoter sequence -10, -35 Promoter sequence
-25, -75
Translation • Simple • Complex
• RNA polymerase (a, b, c) • RNA polymerase (specific)
Cell Size Small (0.1 to 5 µm) Larger (10 to 100 µm)
Organelles Absent or Membraneless • Membrane bounded
• Membraneless
Reproduction Binary fission, natural cloning Mitosis and meiosis
Growth rate / Growth Faster Slower
time
Energy Production Proton driven ATP driven
Photosynthesis • Pigments: Bacterio chlorophyll, • Pigments: Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and
• Pigments Chlorophyll a carotenoids
• Photosystem • Photosystem II (PSII - 𝑃𝑃680 ) • Photosystem I (PSI) and Photosystem II (PSII -
• 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂/𝐻𝐻2 𝑆𝑆 as source of hydrogen 𝑃𝑃680 )
• 𝐻𝐻2 𝑂𝑂 only
Respiration Aerobic or Anaerobic Aerobic along with anaerobic
Okazaki fragments 1000 – 2000 base units 100 – 200 base units
Cellular organization Unicellular Multicellular / Unicellular
Fluidity More Less
Maintenance of fluidity Less More
Cytoskeleton Absent Present
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Use the diagram below to answer questions 30 and 31

1. [JUPEB-Q30-2023]: The organelle responsible for heredity is A. IV B. III C. II D. I

2. [JUPEB-Q31-2023]: The part labelled I is the A. nuclear membrane. B. cell wall. C. endoplasmic reticulum.
D. Plasmallema.

[JUPEB-Q5-2022]: The organelle responsible for the breakdown of old organelles and the digestion of bacteria is
A. ribosome. B. nucleus. C. mitochondria. D. lysosome.

[JUPEB-Q43-2022]: Select the correct option that indicates the characteristics of a prokaryotic cell
OPTION DNA ENDOPLASMIC PLASMID RIBOSOMAL
STRUCTURE RETICULUM SIZE
A. Circular Absent Present Small
B. Circular Present Absent Large
C. Linear Absent Present Small
D. Linear Present Absent Large

[JUPEB-Q3-2021]: In a plant cell, the chloroplast is located

A. Inside the cell wall B. Outside the protoplasm
C. Within the vacuole D. Within the cytoplasm

Organelles found in plant cells

Single Gorgeous Girls Like Very Envious Partners.

• S - Sphaerosome
• G - Glyoxysome
• L - Golgi body/Apparatus/Complex
• V - Lysosome
• E - ER membrane
• P - Peroxisome

[JUPEB-Q19-2021]: Which of these organelles synthesize, refines, sorts, stores and secretes chemical products in
the cell A. Mitochondria B. Lysosomes C. Golgi apparatus D. Ribosomes

[JUPEB-Q31-2021]: The function of ribosome in cell is

A. Protein synthesis B. Starch synthesis C. Transport materials D. Lipid storage

[JUPEB-Q23-2020]: Which of these cell structures can be seen only with an electron microscope? A. Cell surface
membrane. B. Chromosome. C. Nucleolus. D. Vacuole.
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[JUPEB-Q38-2020]: The difference between the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and the rough endoplasmic reticulum
is that…… A. The smooth synthesis’s steroids, while the rough assembles protein. B. The smooth assembles protein,
while the rough synthesizes steroids. C. The smooth distributes steroids, while the rough distributes protein. D. The
smooth distributes protein, while the rough synthesizes steroids.

[JUPEB-Q1(a)-2020]: State ONE function of the following cell organelles: i. Nucleus ii. Plasma membrane
iii. Ribosome iv. Chloroplast
v. Ribosomal Endoplasimic Reticulum
vi. Golgi apparatus vii. Mitochondria
viii. Cell wall ix. Lysosome x. Vacuoles [5 Marks]

[JUPEB-Q1(b)-2020]: Mention THREE similarities between a prokaryotic and a eukaryotic cell. [3 Marks]

[JUPEB-Q1(c)-2020]: Mention TWO differences between a prokaryotic and a eukaryotic cell. [2 Marks]

[JUPEB-Q9-2019]: Cells consist of a number of different components present in both a prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cell?
OPTION LYSOSOME GOLGI RIBOSOME CELL
APPARATUS SURFACE
MEMBRANE
A. Absent present Absent Present
B. Present Present Absent Absent
C. Absent Absent Present Present
D. Present Absent Present Absent

[JUPEB-Q17-2019]: The fastest and simplest pathway of water in the _________A. cell wall B. cell membrane
C. cytoplasm D. vacuole

[JUPEB-Q1-2018]: The first scientist to discover a cell when observing a thin section of dead cork under a crude
compound microscope is A. Robert Hooke B. Anthony Van Leewenhoek
C. Theodore Schwann D. Matthias J. Schneiden

Scientists that contributed to Cell organization/ theory

Year Scientist Discovery/Contribution
1665 Robert Hooke Observed dead cells (cork)
1674 Antonie van Observed living cells (bacteria and protozoa)
Leeuwenhoek
1831 Robert Brown Nucleus discovery
1839 Theodore Schwann Co-founder of cell theory; proposed that all animals are made of cells
1855 Rudolph Virchow Omnis cellula e cellula (Cells arise from cells).
Proposed Modern cell theory
1860 Matthias Schleiden Co-founder of cell theory; proposed that all plants are made of cells
1881 Walter Flemming Coined the term “chromatin” for nucleus material and the triple helix structure.
1887 Edward van Beneden Chromosome behaviour in cell division
1898 Camillo Golgi Discovery of the Golgi apparatus
1905 Richard Altmann Discovery of mitochondria
1945 Palade and Claude Structure of the cell (cell organelles)
1949 Christian De Duve Discovery of lysosomes and peroxisomes
1955 Palade Discovery of ribosomes
1965 De Duve and Coworkers Discoveries related to cell structures
1972 Singer and Nicolson Fluid mosaic model of cell membrane structure

[JUPEB-Q7-2018]: The idea that cells always emerge from cell division i.e. Omnis cellula e cellula A. Robert
Hooke B. Anthony Van Leewenhoek C. Rudolph Virchow D. Matthias J. Schneider
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[JUPEB-Q11-2018]: The sac like structures which are present in the cell and function in the structure and transport
of the selected particles throughout the cell are called A. vacuoles B. Golgi bodies C. nuclei D. ribosome
Correct Answer: Option A
Explanation: These are membrane-bound sacs within a cell that store and transport materials. They can
hold various substances such as nutrients, waste products, or water. In plant cells, vacuoles are often large
and play a crucial role in maintaining turgor pressure, which helps keep the plant upright.
Note: AMembranous (without membrane) Cell Organelles
R = Ribosome
N = Nucleolus
M = Microtubules, Microfilaments
C = Centriole
Mnemonic: Rice, Nkwobi, Moi Moi & Chicken.
[JUPEB-Q16-2018]: What was the contribution of schleiden and Schwann to the knowledge of cell? A.
development of modern cell theory B. development of cell theory
C. development of cell structure D. development of prokaryotic cell

[JUPEB-Q3-2016]: Which of these organelles is involved in protein synthesis? A. ribosomes B. golgi apparatus
C. mitochondria D. endoplasmic reticulum.

[JUPEB-Q10-2016]: Proteins synthesized by the rough endoplasmic reticulum are A. for internal regulation B. to
build more membranes in the cell C. exported from the cell
D. for internal storage

[JUPEB-Q12-2016]: In what organelle are ribophorins located? A. mitochondria B. rough endoplasmic reticulum
C. nuclear membrane D. lysosomes

[JUPEB-Q6-2015]: The function of ribosomes in cells is

A. Protein synthesis B. Starch synthesis
C. Transport of materials D. Lipid storage

[JUPEB-Q43-2015]: Non-living bodies in the cell includes one of these, _________?

A. Starch grains B. Chloroplast C. Ribosomes D. Cell wall

CELL DIVISION, PRINCIPLES OF GENETICS, VARIATIONS AND HEREDITY

• Cell division and cycle

1. [JUPEB-Q2-2023]: At which stage of the cell cycle does uninterrupted mitosis occur among the following
options? A. G2 phase. B. S phase. C. G1 phase. D. M phase.

2. [JUPEB-Q9-2023]: The chronological sequence of stages in Meiosis 1 Prophase is. A. Leptotene, Zygotene,
Pachytene, Diplotene, Diakinesis. B. Zygotene, Diplotene, Pachytene, Lepiotene, Diakinesis. C. Pachytene,
Leplotene, Diakinesis, Diplotene, Diakinesis. D. Diplotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Leptotene, Diakinesis.

[JUPEB-Q39-2018]: Nuclear membrane disappears of_______ A. anaphase B. telophase C. early prophase

D. late prophase

[JUPEB-Q45-2018]: Chiasmata formation during meiosis occurs at which stage? A. Diplotene B. leptotene
C. zygotene D. pachytene
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• Cell Cycle & Cell Division (Mitosis)

Centriole duplication S-phase (Synthesis phase)
DNA replication S-phase
Synthesis of histone protein S-phase
Quiescent stage 𝐺𝐺0 phase
Interval between M & S phase 𝐺𝐺1 phase
Second gap phase 𝐺𝐺2 phase
uninterrupted mitosis M-phase (mitosis phase)
Duration of M-phase 5%
Division of cytoplasm Cytokinesis
Duration of Interphase 95%
• Cell Cycle & Cell Division (Meiosis)
chromosome compact and become visible (early Leptotene
stage)
Synapsis Zygotene
Crossing over Pachytene
Chiasmata appear Diplotene
Division of centromere Anaphase II
Terminalisation of chiasmata (final stage) Diakinesis
• Occurs in both (Meiosis &Mitosis)
Interphase Resting phase
Prophase Centrioles move to opposite poles
Condensation of chromosomal material
Late Prophase Golgi complex, ER, Nucleolus & Nuclear membrane
disappeared
Metaphase Chromosomes aligned at the metaphase plate
Spindle fibers attach to kinetochores of chromosomes
Anaphase (A) Splitting of centromeres
Chromatids move to opposite poles
Telophase (T) Golgi complex, ER, Nucleolus & Nuclear membrane
reform

[JUPEB-Q4-2019]: Which statement describes events during interphase of mitosis?

A. Chromosomes start to coil, becoming shorter and fatter.
B. Chromosome line up on the equator of the spindle.
C. Chromosome are pulled apart by spindle fibres
D. Chromosome are replicated ready for the next division.

[JUPEB-Q5-2019]: Which process occurs during

prophase of the mitotic cell cycle in animal cell?
A. division of centromere B. formation of chromosomes
C. replication of centrioles D. spindle attached at the centromere

[JUPEB-Q26-2015]: The type of cell division which forms the basis of Mendel’s law of segregation is _______?
A. Mitosis B. Meiosis C. Somatic D. Synoptic

[JUPEB-Q2-2017]: The process in which parental chromosomes change their materials with each other in cell
division is called…. A. Synapsis B. Crossing fever
C. Dyad forming D. Bivalent forming

[JUPEB-Q3-2017]: What is the key difference between mitosis in plant cells and mitosis in animal cells? A. The
chromosomes are not duplicated during interphase in plant cells. B. The mitosis in animal cell results in two
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daughter cells while in the plant cell it produces three C. The two daughter cells formed in plant cell mitosis are not
generally identical D. A cell plate is formed during mitosis in plant cells

[JUPEB-Q7-2015]: Which statement correctly describes homologous chromosomes? A. They are formed during
meiosis. B. They are held together by centromeres
C. They are identical D. They carry the same gene loci

[JUPEB-Q14-2015]: Genetic rearrangement between nonsister chromatids is known as A. Cross over

B. Synapsis C. Random fertilization D. Character

[JUPEB-Q47-2023]: If a genetic disease is transferred from a phenotypically normal but carrier female to only
some male progeny, the disease is A. autosomal dominant. B. autosomal recessive. C. sex-linked dominant.
D. sex-linked recessive.

[JUPEB-Q16-2022]: Snapdragon plant has three genotypes: RR; rr and Rr. What is responsible for a situation
where these genotypes produce three distinct phenotypes?
A. Polygenic inheritance. B. Incomplete dominance.
C. Complete dominance. D. Multiples alleles.

[JUPEB-Q37-2022]: People with sickle cell anaemia have haemoglobin A. S and are homozygous recessive.
B. A and are heterozygous recessive. C. S and are heterozygous recessive. D. A and are homozygous recessive.

[JUPEB-Q38-2022]: Down's syndrome is as a result of chromosomal abnormalities which results in an individual

with additional chromosome number of A. 12 B. 21 C. 13 D. 8
Correct Answer: Option B
Explanation: Down's syndrome, also known as Trisomy 21, is a genetic disorder caused by the presence of an extra
copy of chromosome 21.
General Summary of genetic disorders:
FEATURE DOWN'S KLINEFELTER'S TURNER'S
Sex Male or Female Male Female
Chromosome 21st Autosome Sex Chromosome Sex Chromosome
No of Trisomy Trisomy Monosomy
Chromosomes 2n+1 = 47 2n+1 = 47 2n+1 = 45
Gamete 24 Ova 24 Sperm 24 Egg
Abortions 1/40 0 1/18
Births Frequency Teen age mother = 1/1000 1/1500 1/600
40 years = 1/100
45 years = 3/100
Affected • Flat, broad face • Phenotypically male with enlarged • Often do not survive
Individuals • Squint eyes with skin folded in breasts pregnancy
the inner corner • Tall stature, reduced facial hair • Aborted mostly
• Protruding tongue • Obesity • If survived have female
• Mental retardation • Small testes appearance
• Defective development of CNS • No sperm ejaculation • Short stature
• Learning difficulties • Webbed neck
• Underdevelopment of secondary • No ovaries
sex character • Absence of germ cells
• May have breast tissue (complete)
development
Chromosomal 45 autosome + XY 44 autosome + XXY 45 autosome + XX
Relation

[JUPEB-Q46-2022]: Immediately after which stage in mitosis in an animal cell does the cytoplasm start to divide?
A. Anaphase. B. Metaphase. C. Prophase. D. Telophase.
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[JUPEB-Q47-2022]: Each of the following events takes place during mitosis: I. Centromeres divide
II. Chromatids move to opposite poles of the cell. III. Chromosomes line up along the equator of the spindle.
IV. Chromosomes uncoil V. Two sister chromatids are joined by a centromere.
In which order does the events take place?
A. I -IV-V B. III- II- IV V C. IV -V -III -II D. V -III -IV

[JUPEB-Q1(a)-2022]: Define the following:

i. Genes ii. Alleles iii. Homozygous organism iv. Heterozygous organism v. Dominant allele
vi. Recessive allele vii. Test cross vii. Sex-linked genes ix. Rhesus x. Albinism.

[JUPEB-Q1(c)-2022]: Define genetic variation.

[JUPEB-Q30-2021]: The phenotype ratio resulting from Mendel’s law of independent assortment is A. 9:3:3:1
B. 3:1 C. 3:1:1 D. 6:3:3:4

[JUPEB-Q37-2021]: The genotype ratio of a monohybrid cross in the F2 generation is A. 3:1 B. 1:2:1 C. 1:1:2
D. 1:2

[JUPEB-Q38-2021]: Chiasmata formation leads to A. Formation of gametes B. Creation of variability

C. Formation of genes D. Formation of the different sexes

[JUPEB-Q39-2020]: Identify the option that is not an anti sera used in blood grouping A. Anti sera A B. Anti sera
B C. Anti sera C D. Anti sera D

[JUPEB-Q2(a to c)-2020]: A breed of dog is said to have genes for hair colour and leg length. Allele ‘a’ is dominant
and gives brown hair. Allele ‘a’ is recessive and gives black hair. Allele ‘L’ is dominant and gives long legs, and allele
‘l’ is recessive and gives short legs. (a) Present in tabular form, the various types of genotypes and phenotypes that
the dogs may have.
(b) Construct a genetic table to show the offspring a breeder would expect between two dogs that are heterozygote for
both genes using Punnet square.
(c) State the phenotypic ratio of the cross.

[JUPEB-Q3-2019]: __________ is the basic unit of inheritance. A. Allele B. Locus C. Gene D. Chromosome

[JUPEB-Q1(a to d)-2019]: Two parents with normal skin and hair colouring had six (6) children, of whom three
(3) were albino. Albino people have no colouring in their skin or hair, due to having an inactive form of the enzyme
tyrosinase. Tyrasinase is essential for the formation of the formation of the brown pigment melanin. (a) The
normal allele of the tyrosinase gene is ‘A’ and the allele that produces faulty tyrosinase is ‘a’ state the genotype of
the parents and their albino children.
(b) Albinism is a relatively frequent condition in human, but one (1) of these albino children had a very unusual
phenotype. While most of her hair was white, the hair of her eye brows developed some brown colouring, as did the
hair on her hands and lower legs. Genetic analysis suggested that a mutation had occurred in the faulty tyrosinase
allele. Suggest why it is likely that this mutation had occurred in the child with brown coloured eye brows rather
than in the testes and ovaries of the parent. (c) A man with normal vision, married a lady with normal vision.
Incidentally, their first son is colour blind. Use a genetic diagram to prove that the man is the father of the colour
blind child. (d) What was the genotype of the man and his wife?

[JUPEB-Q1(a)-2018]: A breeder had rabbits with brown hair. Using a punnet square, describe how the breeder
could possible know if the rabbit is homozygous dominant or heterozygous dominant

[JUPEB-Q1(b)-2018]: For two parent with sickle cell trait work out the chances of producing a sickle cell anaemic
child and a normal.
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[JUPEB-Q1-2017]: If the chromosome number of a male mammal is 78. How many chromosomes are present in
the mammal’s sperm? A. 78 B. 39 C. 1 D. Cannot determine
Correct Answer: Option C
Explanation: In mammals, the total number of chromosomes in somatic (body) cells is diploid (2n), while the
number of chromosomes in gametes (sperm and egg cells) is haploid (n). The haploid number is half the diploid
number.
Calculating the Haploid Number for the Male Mammal
Given the diploid number of chromosomes in the male mammal is 78, the haploid number (n) can be calculated as
follows:
2𝑛𝑛 78
𝑛𝑛 = = = 39
2 2
[JUPEB-Q36-2017]: Genetically unique individuals are produced through A. Sexual through B. Parthenogenesis
C. Budding D. Fragmentation

[JUPEB-Q2(a)-2017]: Mention three modern applications of genetics

[JUPEB-Q2(b)-2017]: A woman has a rare abnormally of the eyelids called ptosis that is dropping of the upper
eyelids. The condition has been found to depend on a single dominant gene (P). The woman’s father had ptosis, but
her mother had normal eyelids. (i) What are the probable genotypes of the woman, her father and mother?
(ii) What proportion of her children will be expected to have ptosis if she marries a man with normal eyelids?

[JUPEB-Q6-2016]: Identify the statement that is wrong

A. recessive traits.ar not expressed in heterozygote
B. dominant traits are governed by an allele that can be expressed in the presence of another allele C. homozygous
means having the same allele at the same locus on both members of a pair of chromosomes D. heterozygous means
having two allele at two loci of a pair of chromosomes

[JUPEB-Q8-2016]: In Meiosis, the daughter cells differ from parent cell as well as amongst themselves due to an
allele that can be expressed in the presence of another allele
A. segregation, independent assortment and crossing over B. segregation and crossing over
C. independent assortment and Crossing over D. Segregation and independent assortment

FEATURE MITOSIS MEIOSIS

End result Two cells, having the same number of Normally four cells, each with half the number of
chromosomes as the parent chromo- somes as the parent
Function Cellular reproduction, growth, repair, Production of gametes (sex cells) in sexually
asexual reproduction reproducing eukaryotes
Where does it All proliferating cells in all eukaryotes Reproductive cells of all eukaryotes (animals, plants,
happen? fungi)
Stages Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I,
Telophase Prophase II, Metaphase II, Ana -phase II, Telophase II
Genetics Identical to parent Not identical to parent
Crossing over? No Yes, occurs between each pair of homolo -gous
chromosomes
Cytokinesis Occurs in Telophase Occurs in Telophase I and Telophase II
Centromeres split Occurs in Anaphase Does not occur in Anaphase I, but occurs in Anaphase
II

[JUPEB-Q2(a)-2015]: Define the following terms i. genotype ii. Phenotype iii. hybrid iv. dominant character

[JUPEB-Q2(b)-2015]: State clearly Mendel’s first and second laws of inheritance

[JUPEB-Q2(c)-2015]: If a pure breeding brown coloured rat BB is crossed with a pure breeding white rat bb,
using diagrams only, show the genotype of the offspring up to the second filial generation.