CONTENTS

•PLC
•Introduction
•History
•Advantages
•Hardware
•PLC Operation
•Communications
•PLC Programming
•Ladder Logic
•Counters & Timers
•PLC application example
PREFACE
An industrial PLC and system is to for the development of automatic control of machinery.
PLC and SCADA system are methods to achieve Automation. Automation industry has fast growth potential
in a country like India, which has a large industry base.
This report focuses onbrief concepts of PLC and system,their development,andalsomentions
possible applications of these systems.
Almost every industry that has some electrical machinery may need Automation Services.
Attention is also paid to the security issues which have arisen with time.

Nasir Naim
21/07/2025
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
A PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC) is an industrial computer control system that continuously
monitors the state of input devices and makes decisions based upon a custom program to control the state
of output devices.
Almost any production line, machine function, or process can be greatly enhanced using this type of control
system. However, the biggest benefit in using a PLC is the ability to change and replicate the operation or
process while collecting and communicating vital information.
Another advantage of a PLC system is that it is modular. That is, you can mix and match the types of input
and Output devices to best suit your application.

History of PLCs
● The first Programmable Logic Controllers were designed and developed by Modicon as a relay re-
placer for GM and Landis.
● These controllers eliminated the need for rewiring and adding additional hardware for each new
configuration of logic.
● The new system drastically increased the functionality of the controls while reducing the cabinet
space that housed the logic.
● The first PLC, model 084, was invented by Dick Morley in 1969.
● The first commercial successful PLC, the 184, was introduced in 1973 and was designed by Michael
Greenberg.

Advantages of PLCs
PLCs not only are capable of performing the same tasks as hard-wired control, but are also capable of many
more complex applications. In addition, the PLC program and electronic communication lines replace much
of the interconnecting wires required by hard-wired control. Therefore, hard-wiring, though still required to
connect field devices, is less intensive. This also makes correcting errors and modifying the application
easier.
Some of the additional advantages of PLCs are as follows:

● Smaller physical size than hard-wire solutions.

● Easier and faster to make changes.
● PLCs have integrated diagnostics and override functions.
● Diagnostics are centrally available.
● Applications can be immediately documented.
● Applications can be duplicated faster and less expensively.
Inside A PLC

The Central Processing Unit (CPU), contains an internal program that tells the PLC how to perform the
following functions:
· Execute the Control Instructions contained in the User's Programs. This program is stored in "nonvolatile"
memory, meaning that the program will not be lost if power is removed
· Communicate with other devices, which can include I/O Devices, Programming Devices, Networks, and
even other PLCs.
· Perform Housekeeping activities such as Communications, Internal Diagnostics, etc.

THE CPU
The microprocessor or processor module is the brain of a PLC system. It consists of the microprocessor,
memory integrated circuits, and circuits necessary to store and retrieve information from memory. It also
includes communications ports to other peripherals, other PLC's or programming terminals. Today's
processors vary widely in their capabilities to control real world devices. Some control as few as 6 inputs
and outputs (I/O) and others 40,000 or more. One processor can control more than one process or
manufacturing line. Processors are often linked together in order to provide continuity throughout the
process. The number of inputs and outputs PLCs can control are limited by the overall capacity of the PLC
system hardware and memory capabilities. The job of the processor is to monitor status or state of input
devices, scan and solve the logic of a user program, and control on or off state of output devices.

RAM
RAM or Random Access Memory is a volatile memory that would lose its information if power were
removed. This is why some processor units incorporate a battery back-up. The type of RAM normally used is
CMOS or Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor. CMOS RAM is used for storage of the user's program
(ladder logic diagrams) and storage memory.

ROM
ROM or Read Only Memory is a non-volatile type of memory. This means you don't need an external power
source to keep information. In this type of memory, information can be read, but not changed. For this
reason the manufacture sometimes calls this firmware. It is placed there for the internal use and operation
of processor units.

EEPROM
EEPROM or Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory is usually an add-on memory module
that is used to back up the main program in CMOS RAM of the processor. In many cases, the processor can
be programmed to load theEEPOM's program to RAM if RAM is lost or corrupted.
Input Module

There are many types of input modules to choose from. The type of input module used is dependent upon
what real world input to the PLC is desired. Some examples of inputs are limit switches, electric eyes, and
pushbuttons. DC inputs, such as thumbwheel switches, can be used to enter integer values to be
manipulated by the PLC. DC input cards are used for this application. Since most industrial power systems
are inherently noisy, electrical isolation is provided between the input and the processor. Electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) can cause severe problems in most solid state
control systems. The component used most often to provide electrical isolation within I/O cards is called an
optical isolator or optocoupler. The wiring of an input is not complex. The object is to get a voltage at a
particular point on the card. Typically there are 8 to 32 input points on any one input module. Each point
will be assigned a unique address by the processor. Analog input modules are special input cards that use
analog to digital conversion (A to D) to sense variables such as temperature, speed, pressure, and position.
The external device normally is connected to a controller (transducer) producing an electrical signal the
analog input card can interpret. This signal is usually 4 to
20 Ma or a 0 to 10 volt signal.

Output Module

Output modules can be for used for ac or dc devices such as solenoids, relays, contractors, pilot lamps, and
LED readouts. Output cards usually have from 6 to 32 output points on a single module. The output device
within the card provides the connection from the user power supply to the load. Usually silicon controlled
rectifiers (SCR), triac, or dry contact relays are use for this purpose. Individual outputs are rated most often
at 2 to 3 amperes. Output cards, like input cards have electrical isolation between the load being connected
and the PLC. Analog output cards are a special type of output modules that use digital to analog conversion
(D to A). The analog output module can take a value stored in a 12 bit file and convert it to an analog signal.
Normally this signal is 0 -10 volts dc or 4 to 20 Ma. This analog signal is often used in equipment such as
motor operated valves and pneumatic position control devices.
PLC OPERATION

There are four basic steps in the operation of all PLCs : which continually take place in a repeating loop.
• Input Scan
• Program Scan
• Output Scan
• Housekeeping

• Input Scan : Detects the state of all input devices that are connected to the PLC
• Program Scan : Executes the user created program logic.
• Output Scan : Energizes or de-energize all output devices that are connected to the PLC.
• Housekeeping : This step includes communications with programming terminals, internal diagnostics
etc...

CHECK INPUT STATUS : First the PLC takes a look at each input to determine if it is on or off. In other words, is the sensor
connected to the first input on? Then the second input? Then the third and so on…. It records this data into its memory to
be used during the next step.
EXECUTE PROGRAM : Next the PLC executes your program one instruction at a time. Maybe the program says that if
the first input was on then it should turn on the first output. Since it already knows which inputs are on/off from the
previous step it will be able to decide whether the first output should be turned on based on the state of the first
input. It will store the execution results for use later during the next step.

UPDATE OUTPUT STATUS : Finally the PLC updates the status of the outputs. It updates the outputs based on which
inputs were on during the first step and the results of executing your program during the second step. Based on the
example in step 2 it would now turn on the first output because the first input was on and your program said to turn
on the first output when this condition is true.
After the third step the PLC goes back to step one and repeats the steps continuously. One scan time is
defined as the time it takes to execute the 3 steps listed above.
COMMUNICATIONS
There are several methods to communicate between a PLC and a programmer or even between two PLCs.
Communications between a PLC and a programmer (PC or Hand held) are provided by the makers and you
only have to plug in a cable from your PC to the programming port on the PLC. This communication can be
RS232; RS485 or TTY. Communications between two PLCs can be carried out by dedicated links
supplied/programmed by the makers (RS232 etc) or via outputs from one PLC to the inputs on another PLC.
This direct link method of communication can be as simple as, if an output on the first PLC is on then the
corresponding input on the second PLC will be on and then this input is used within the program on the
second PLC.
If a word of input/outputs (16 bits) are used then numerical data can be transferred from one PLC to the
other (refer back to the section on numbering systems).
There are many other methods of communication between PLCs and also from PLC to PC. Refer to the
manuals supplied with the PLC that you are using for full details on communications.
PLC PROGRAMMING

Various languages are used for programming of PLCs :

Ladder diagram (LD)

Ladder diagram is a graphic programming language derived from the circuit diagram of directly wired relay
controls. The ladder diagram contains contact rails to the left and the right of the diagram; these contact
rails are connected to switching elements (normally open / normally closed contacts) via current paths and
coil elements.

Function block diagram (FBD)

In the function block diagram, the functions and function blocks are represented graphically and
interconnected into networks. The function block diagram originates from the logic diagram for the design
of electronic circuits.

Sequential function chart (SFC)

The sequential function chart is a language resource for the structuring of sequence-oriented control
programs. The elements of the sequential function chart are steps, transitions, alternative and parallel
branching. Each step represents a processing status of a control program, which is active or inactive. A step
consists of actions which, identical to the transitions, are formulated in the IEC 1131-3 languages. Actions
themselves can again contain sequence structures. This feature permits the hierarchical structure of a
control program. The sequential function chart is therefore an excellent tool for the design and structuring
of control programs.
Instruction list (IL)
Statement list is a textual assembler-type language characterised by a simple machine model (processor
with only one register). Instruction list is formulated from control instructions consisting of an operator and
an operand.

LD Part_TypeA
OR Part_TypeB
AND Part_present
AND Drill_ok
ST Sleeve_in

With regard to language philosophy, the ladder diagram, the function block diagram and instruction list
have been defined in the way they are used in today’s PLC technology. They are however limited to basic
functions as far as their elements are concerned. This separates them
essentially from the company dialects used today. The competitiveness of these languages is maintained
due to the use of functions and function blocks.

Structured text (ST)

Structured text is high-level language based on Pascal, which consists of expressions and instructions.
Instructions can be defined in the main as : Selection instructions such as IF...THEN...ELSE etc., repetition
instructions such as FOR, WHILE etc. and function block invocations.

Sleeve_in := (Part_TypeA OR Fig. B5.7: Part_TypeB) AND Part_present AND Drill_ok;

Structured text enables the formulation of numerous applications, beyond pure function technology, such
as algorithmic problems (highorder control algorithms etc.) and data handling (data analysis, processing of
complex data structures etc.).
 LADDER LOGIC

Ladder Logic, or Ladder Diagrams is the most common programming language used to program a PLC.

Ladder logic was one of the first programming approaches used in PLCs because it borrowed heavily from
the Relay Diagrams that plant electricians already knew.

The symbols used in Relay Ladder Logic consists of a power rail to the left, a second power rail to the right,
and individual circuits that connect the left power rail to the right. The logic of each circuit (or rung) is
solved from left to right. The symbols of these diagrams look like a ladder - with two side rails and circuits
that resemble rungs on a ladder.

The picture above has a single circuit or "rung" of ladder.

• If Input1 is ON (or true) - power (logic) completes the circuit from the left rail to the right rail - and
Output1 turns ON (or true).
• If Output1 is OFF (or false) - then the circuit is not completed and logic does not flow to the right - and
Output 1 is OFF.

There are many logic symbols available in Ladder Logic - including Timers, Counters, Math, and Data Moves
- such that any logical condition or control loop can be represented in Ladder Logic. With just a handful of
basic symbols - a Normally Open Contact, Normally Closed Contact, Normally Open Coil, Normally Closed
Coil, Timer, Counter - most logical conditions can be represented.
CONTACTS AND COILS
With just the Normally Open Contact and Normally Open Coil - a surprising array of basic logical conditions
can be represented.

Normally Open Contact. This can be used to represent any input to the control logic - a switch or
sensor, a contact from an output, or an internal output.
When "solved" the referenced input is examined for an ON (logical 1) condition. If it is ON, the contact will
close and allow power (logic) to flow from left to right. If the status is OFF (logical 0), the contact is Open,
power (logic) will NOT flow from left to right.

Normally Open Coil. This can be used to represent any discrete output from the control logic.
When "solved" if the logic to the left of the coil is TRUE, the refrenced output is ON (logical 1).

Solving a Single Rung

Suppose a switch is wired to Input1, and a light bulb is wired through Output1 in such a way that the light is
OFF when Output1 is OFF, and ON when Output1 is ON.

When Input1 is OFF (logical 0) the contact remains open and power cannot flow from left to right.
Therefore, Output1 remains OFF (logical 0).

When Input1 is ON (logical 1) then the contact closes, power flows from left to right, and Output1 becomes
ON (the light turns ON).
The AND Rung
The AND is a basic fundamental logic condition that is easy to directly represent in Ladder Logic.

Suppose a switch is wired to Switch1, a second switch is wired to

Switch2, and a light bulb is wired through Light1 in such a way that the light is OFF when Light1 is OFF, and
ON when Light1 is ON.

In order for Light1 to turn ON, Switch1 must be ON, AND Switch2 must be ON.

If Switch1 is OFF, power (logic) flow from the left rail, but stops at Switch1. Light1 will be OFF regardless of
the state of Switch2.

If Switch1 is ON, power makes it to Switch2. If Switch2 is OFF, power cannot flow any further to the right,
and Light1 is OFF.

If Switch1 is ON, AND Switch2 is ON - power flows to Light1 solving its state to ON.
The OR Rung
The OR is a logical condition that is easy to represent in Ladder Logic.

Suppose a switch is wired to Switch1, a second switch is wired to Switch2, and a light bulb is wired through
Light1 in such a way that the light is OFF when Light1 is OFF, and ON when Light1 is ON. In this instance, we
want to the light to turn ON if either Switch1 OR Switch2 is ON.

If Switch1 is ON - power flows to Light1 turning it ON.

If Switch2 is ON - power flows through the Switch2 contact, and up the rail to Light1 - turning it ON.

If Switch1 AND Switch 2 are ON - Light1 is ON.

The only way Light1 is OFF is if Switch1 AND Switch2 are OFF.

* Another set of basic contacts and coils that can be used in Ladder Logic are the Normally Closed Contact
and the Normally Closed Coil. These work just like their normally open counterparts - only in the opposite.

When "solved" the referenced input is examined for an OFF condition. If the status is OFF (logical 0)
power (logic) will flow from left to right. If the status is ON, power will not flow.

When "solved" if the coil is a logical 0, power will be turned on to the device. If logical 1, power will
be OFF.
TIMERS AND COUNTERS

Many times we will want to take action in a control program based on more than the states of discrete
inputs and outputs. Sometimes, we will want to turn something on after a delay, or count the number of
times a switch is hit. To do these simple tasks, we will need Timers & Counters.

Simple Timers (TIM)

A timer is simply a control block that takes an input and changes an output based on time. There are two
basic timer types we will deal with initially (there are other advanced timers, but we will start with the
basics first) - On-Delay Timer and the Off-Delay Timer.

On-Delay Timer - this timer takes an input, waits a specific amount of time, then turns ON an output (or
allows logic to flow after the delay).
Off-Delay Timer - this timer takes turns ON an output (or allows logic to flow) and keeps that output ON
until the set amount of time has passed, then turns it OFF (hence off-delay)

Simple Counter (CNT)

A counter simply counts the number of events that occur on an input. There are two basic types of counters
- Up counter and a Down counter.

Up Counter - as its name implies, whenever a triggering event occurs, an up counter increments the
counter.
Down Counter - whenever a triggering event occurs, a down counter decrements the counter.
MOTOR STARTER EXAMPLE :

First consider a hardwired approach.

The following line diagram illustrates how a normally open and a normally closed pushbutton might be
connected to control a three-phase AC motor. In this example, a motor starter coil (M) is wired in series
with a normally open, momentary Start pushbutton, a normally closed, momentary Stop pushbutton, and
normally closed overload relay (OL) contacts.

Momentarily pressing the Start pushbutton completes the pathfor current flow and energizes the motor
starter (M). This closes the associated M and Ma (auxiliary contact located in the motor starter) contacts.
When the Start button is released, current
continues to flow through the Stop button and the Ma contact, and the M coil remains energized.
The motor will run until the normally closed Stop button is pressed, unless the overload relay (OL) contacts
open. When the Stop button is pressed, the path for current flow is
interrupted, opening the associated M and Ma contacts, and the motor stops.
Now consider PLC approach :

This motor control application can also be accomplished with a PLC. In the following example, a normally
open Start pushbutton is wired to the first input (I0.0), a normally closed Stop pushbutton is wired to the
second input (I0.1), and normally closed overload relay contacts (part of the motor starter) are connected
to the third input (I0.2). These inputs are used to control normally open contacts in a line of ladder logic
programmed into the PLC.

Initially, I0.1 status bit is a logic 1 because the normally closed (NC) Stop Pushbutton is closed. I0.2 status bit
is a logic 1 because the normally closed (NC) overload relay (OL) contacts are closed. I0.0 status bit is a logic
0, however, because the normally open Start pushbutton has not been pressed. Normally open output Q0.0
contact is also programmed on Network 1 as a sealing contact. With this simple network, energizing output
coil Q0.0 is required to turn on the motor.
The Operation

When the Start pushbutton is pressed, the CPU receives a logic 1 from input I0.0. This causes the I0.0
contact to close. All three inputs are now a logic 1. The CPU sends a logic 1 to output Q0.0. The motor
starter is energized and the motor starts.

The output status bit for Q0.0 is now a 1. On the next scan, when normally open contact Q0.0 is solved, the
contact will close & output Q0.0 will stay on even if the Start pushbutton is released.

.
When the Stop pushbutton is pressed, input I0.1 turns off, the I0.1 contact opens, output coil Q0.0 de-
energizes, and the motor turns off.