Lecture 5 Sets and Functions
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mani5014Lecture 5 Sets and Functions
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mani5014Introduc)on
Sets
are
one
of
the
basic
building
blocks
for
the
types
of
objects
considered
in
discrete
mathematics.
Important
for
counting.
Programming
languages
have
set
operations.
Set
theory
is
an
important
branch
of
mathematics.
Many
different
systems
of
axioms
have
been
used
to
develop
set
theory.
Here
we
are
not
concerned
with
a
formal
set
of
axioms
for
set
theory.
Instead,
we
will
use
what
is
called
naïve
set
theory.
Sets
A
set
is
an
unordered
collection
of
objects.
the
students
in
this
class
the
chairs
in
this
room
The
objects
in
a
set
are
called
the
elements,
or
members
of
the
set.
A
set
is
said
to
contain
its
elements.
The
notation
a ∈ A denotes
that
a
is
an
element
of
the
set
A.
If
a
is
not
a
member
of
A,
write
a ∉ A
Describing
a
Set:
Roster
Method
S = {a,b,c,d}
Order
not
important
S = {a,b,c,d} = {b,c,a,d}
Each
distinct
object
is
either
a
member
or
not;
listing
more
than
once
does
not
change
the
set.
S = {a,b,c,d} = {a,b,c,b,c,d}
Elipses (…) may be used to describe a set without
listing all of the members when the pattern is clear.
S = {a,b,c,d, ……,z }
Roster
Method
Set
of
all
vowels
in
the
English
alphabet:
V = {a,e,i,o,u}
Set
of
all
odd
positive
integers
less
than
10:
O = {1,3,5,7,9}
Set
of
all
positive
integers
less
than
100:
S = {1,2,3,……..,99}
Set of all integers less than 0:
S = {…., -‐3,-‐2,-‐1}
Some
Important
Sets
N
=
natural
numbers
=
{0,1,2,3….}
Z
=
integers
=
{…,-‐3,-‐2,-‐1,0,1,2,3,…}
Z⁺
=
positive
integers
=
{1,2,3,…..}
R
=
set
of
real
numbers
R+
=
set
of
positive
real
numbers
C
=
set
of
complex
numbers.
Q
=
set
of
rational
numbers
Set-‐Builder
Nota)on
Specify
the
property
or
properties
that
all
members
must
satisfy:
S = {x | x is a positive integer less than 100}
O = {x | x is an odd positive integer less than 10}
O = {x ∈ Z⁺ | x is odd and x < 10}
A
predicate
may
be
used:
S = {x | P(x)}
Example:
S = {x | Prime(x)}
Positive
rational
numbers:
Q+ = {x ∈ R | x = p/q, for some positive integers p,q}
Interval
Nota)on
[a,b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b}
[a,b) = {x | a ≤ x < b}
(a,b] = {x | a < x ≤ b}
(a,b) = {x | a < x < b}
closed interval [a,b]
open interval (a,b)
Universal Set and Empty Set
The universal set U is the set containing everything
currently under consideration.
Sometimes implicit Venn Diagram
Sometimes explicitly stated.
Contents depend on the context. U
The empty set is the set with no V a e i
o u
elements. Symbolized ∅, but
{} also used.
John Venn (1834-‐1923)
Cambridge, UK
Russell’s Paradox
Let S be the set of all sets which are not members of
themselves. A paradox results from trying to answer
the question “Is S a member of itself?”
Related Paradox:
Henry is a barber who shaves all people who do not
shave themselves. A paradox results from trying to
answer the question “Does Henry shave himself?”
Bertrand Russell (1872-‐1970)
Cambridge, UK
Nobel Prize Winner
Some things to remember
Sets can be elements of sets.
{{1,2,3},a, {b,c}}
{N,Z,Q,R}
The empty set is different from a set containing the
empty set.
∅ ≠ { ∅ }
Set Equality
Definition: Two sets are equal if and only if they have
the same elements.
Therefore if A and B are sets, then A and B are equal if
and only if .
We write A = B if A and B are equal sets.
{1,3,5} = {3, 5, 1}
{1,5,5,5,3,3,1} = {1,3,5}
Subsets
Definition: The set A is a subset of B, if and only if
every element of A is also an element of B.
The notation A ⊆ B is used to indicate that A is a subset
of the set B.
A ⊆ B holds if and only if is true.
1. Because a ∈ ∅ is always false, ∅ ⊆ S ,for every set S.
2. Because a ∈ S → a ∈ S, S ⊆ S, for every set S.
Showing a Set is or is not a Subset
of Another Set
Showing that A is a Subset of B: To show that A ⊆
B, show that if x belongs to A, then x also belongs to B.
Showing that A is not a Subset of B: To show that A
is not a subset of B, A ⊈ B, find an element x ∈ A with
x ∉ B. (Such an x is a counterexample to the claim that
x ∈ A implies x ∈ B.)
Examples:
1. The set of all computer science majors at your school is
a subset of all students at your school.
2. The set of integers with squares less than 100 is not a
subset of the set of nonnegative integers.
Another look at Equality of Sets
Recall that two sets A and B are equal, denoted by
A = B, iff
Using logical equivalences we have that A = B iff
This is equivalent to
A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A
Proper Subsets
Definition: If A ⊆ B, but A ≠B, then we say A is a
proper subset of B, denoted by A ⊂ B. If A ⊂ B, then
is true.
U
Venn
Diagram
B
A
Set
Cardinality
Definition:
If
there
are
exactly
n
distinct
elements
in
S
where
n
is
a
nonnegative
integer,
we
say
that
S
is
finite.
Otherwise
it
is
infinite.
Definition:
The
cardinality
of
a
finite
set
A,
denoted
by
|
A|,
is
the
number
of
(distinct)
elements
of
A.
Examples:
1. |ø|
=
0
2. Let
S
be
the
letters
of
the
English
alphabet.
Then
|S|
=
26
3. |{1,2,3}|
=
3
4. |{ø}|
=
1
5. The
set
of
integers
is
infinite.
Power
Sets
Definition:
The
set
of
all
subsets
of
a
set
A,
denoted
P(A),
is
called
the
power
set
of
A.
Example:
If
A
=
{a,b}
then
P(A)
=
{ø,
{a},{b},{a,b}}
If
a
set
has
n
elements,
then
the
cardinality
of
the
power
set
is
2ⁿ.
(In
Chapters
5
and
6,
we
will
discuss
different
ways
to
show
this.)
Tuples
The
ordered
n-‐tuple
(a1,a2,…..,an)
is
the
ordered
collection
that
has
a1
as
its
first
element
and
a2
as
its
second
element
and
so
on
until
an
as
its
last
element.
Two
n-‐tuples
are
equal
if
and
only
if
their
corresponding
elements
are
equal.
2-‐tuples
are
called
ordered
pairs.
The
ordered
pairs
(a,b)
and
(c,d)
are
equal
if
and
only
if
a = c and
b = d.
René Descartes
(1596-‐1650)
Cartesian
Product
Definition:
The
Cartesian
Product
of
two
sets
A
and
B,
denoted
by
A
×
B
is
the
set
of
ordered
pairs
(a,b)
where
a
∈
A
and
b
∈
B
.
Example:
A
=
{a,b}
B
=
{1,2,3}
A
×
B
=
{(a,1),(a,2),(a,3),
(b,1),(b,2),(b,3)}
Definition:
A
subset
R
of
the
Cartesian
product
A
×
B
is
called
a
relation
from
the
set
A
to
the
set
B.
(Relations
will
be
covered
in
depth
in
Chapter
9.
)
Cartesian
Product
Definition:
The
cartesian
products
of
the
sets
A1,A2,……,An,
denoted
by
A1 × A2 × …… × An , is
the
set
of
ordered
n-‐tuples
(a1,a2,……,an)
where
ai
belongs
to
Ai
for
i
=
1,
…
n.
Example: What is A × B × C where A = {0,1}, B = {1,2} and
C = {0,1,2}
Solution: A × B × C = {(0,1,0), (0,1,1), (0,1,2),(0,2,0), (0,2,1),
(0,2,2),(1,1,0), (1,1,1), (1,1,2), (1,2,0), (1,2,1), (1,1,2)}
Truth Sets of Quan)fiers
Given a predicate P and a domain D, we define the
truth set of P to be the set of elements in D for which
P(x) is true. The truth set of P(x) is denoted by
Example:
The
truth
set
of
P(x)
where
the
domain
is
the
integers
and
P(x)
is
“|x|
=
1”
is
the
set
{-‐1,1}
Boolean
Algebra
Propositional
calculus
and
set
theory
are
both
instances
of
an
algebraic
system
called
a
Boolean
Algebra.
The
operators
in
set
theory
are
analogous
to
the
corresponding
operator
in
propositional
calculus.
As
always
there
must
be
a
universal
set
U.
All
sets
are
assumed
to
be
subsets
of
U.
Union
Definition:
Let
A
and
B
be
sets.
The
union
of
the
sets
A
and
B,
denoted
by
A ∪ B,
is
the
set:
Example:
What
is
{1,2,3}
∪ {3, 4, 5}?
Venn
Diagram
for
A ∪ B
Solution: {1,2,3,4,5} U
A B
Intersec)on
Definition:
The
intersection
of
sets
A
and
B,
denoted
by
A
∩ B,
is
Note if the intersection is empty, then A and B are
said to be disjoint.
Example: What is? {1,2,3} ∩ {3,4,5} ?
Venn Diagram for A ∩B
Solution: {3}
Example: What is? U
A
{1,2,3} ∩ {4,5,6} ? B
Solution: ∅
Complement
Definition:
If
A
is
a
set,
then
the
complement
of
the
A
(with
respect
to
U),
denoted
by
Ā
is
the
set
U -‐ A
Ā
= {x ∈ U | x ∉ A}
(The
complement
of
A
is
sometimes
denoted
by
Ac
.)
Example:
If
U
is
the
positive
integers
less
than
100,
what
is
the
complement
of
{x | x > 70}
Solution: {x
| x ≤ 70} Venn
Diagram
for
Complement
U
Ā
A
Difference
Definition:
Let
A
and
B
be
sets.
The
difference
of
A
and
B,
denoted
by
A
–
B,
is
the
set
containing
the
elements
of
A
that
are
not
in
B.
The
difference
of
A
and
B
is
also
called
the
complement
of
B
with
respect
to
A.
A
/
B = {x | x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B}
U Venn Diagram for A / B
A
B
The Cardinality of the Union of Two
Sets
• Inclusion-‐Exclusion
U
|A ∪ B| = |A| + | B| + |A ∩ B|
A B
Venn Diagram for A, B, A ∩ B, A ∪ B
• Example:
Let
A
be
the
math
majors
in
your
class
and
B
be
the
CS
majors.
To
count
the
number
of
students
who
are
either
math
majors
or
CS
majors,
add
the
number
of
math
majors
and
the
number
of
CS
majors,
and
subtract
the
number
of
joint
CS/math
majors.
• We
will
return
to
this
principle
in
Chapter
6
and
Chapter
8
where
we
will
derive
a
formula
for
the
cardinality
of
the
union
of
n
sets,
where
n
is
a
positive
integer.
Review
Ques)ons
Example:
U
=
{0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}
A
=
{1,2,3,4,5},
B
={4,5,6,7,8}
1. A ∪ B
Solution: {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
2. A ∩ B
Solution: {4,5}
3. Ā
Solution: {0,6,7,8,9,10}
4.
Solution:
{0,1,2,3,9,10}
5. A – B
Solution: {1,2,3}
6. B – A
Solution: {6,7,8}
Set
Iden))es
Identity
laws
Domination
laws
Idempotent
laws
Complementation
law
Continued on next slide à
Set Iden))es
Commutative laws
Associative laws
Distributive laws
Continued on next slide à
Set Iden))es
De Morgan’s laws
Absorption
laws
Complement
laws
Proving
Set
Iden))es
Different
ways
to
prove
set
identities:
1. Prove
that
each
set
(side
of
the
identity)
is
a
subset
of
the
other.
2. Use
set
builder
notation
and
propositional
logic.
3. Membership
Tables:
Verify
that
elements
in
the
same
combination
of
sets
always
either
belong
or
do
not
belong
to
the
same
side
of
the
identity.
Use
1
to
indicate
it
is
in
the
set
and
a
0
to
indicate
that
it
is
not.
Proof
of
Second
De
Morgan
Law
Example:
Prove
that
Solution:
We
prove
this
identity
by
showing
that:
1)
and
2)
Continued on next slide à
Proof of Second De Morgan Law
These steps show that:
Continued on next slide à
Proof of Second De Morgan Law
These steps show that:
Set-‐Builder Nota)on: Second De
Morgan Law
Func)ons
Definition: Let A and B be nonempty sets. A function f
from A to B, denoted f: A → B is an assignment of each
element of A to exactly one element of B. We write
f(a) = b if b is the unique element of B assigned by the
function f to the element a of A. Students Grades
Functions are sometimes A
Carlota Rodriguez
called mappings or B
transformations. Sandeep Patel C
Jalen Williams D
F
Kathy
Scott
Func)ons
A
function
f: A → B can
also
be
defined
as
a
subset
of
A×B
(a
relation).
This
subset
is
restricted
to
be
a
relation
where
no
two
elements
of
the
relation
have
the
same
first
element.
Specifically,
a
function
f
from
A
to
B
contains
one,
and
only
one
ordered
pair
(a,
b)
for
every
element
a∈
A.
and
Func)ons
Given
a
function
f: A → B:
We
say
f maps
A
to
B
or
f
is
a
mapping
from
A
to
B.
A
is
called
the
domain
of
f.
B
is
called
the
codomain
of
f.
If
f(a)
=
b,
then
b is
called
the
image
of
a under
f.
a
is
called
the
preimage
of
b.
The
range
of
f
is
the
set
of
all
images
of
points
in
A
under
f.
We
denote
it
by
f(A).
Two
functions
are
equal
when
they
have
the
same
domain,
the
same
codomain
and
map
each
element
of
the
domain
to
the
same
element
of
the
codomain.
Represen)ng
Func)ons
Functions
may
be
specified
in
different
ways:
An
explicit
statement
of
the
assignment.
Students
and
grades
example.
A
formula.
f(x) = x + 1
A
computer
program.
A
Java
program
that
when
given
an
integer
n,
produces
the
nth
Fibonacci
Number
(covered
in
the
next
section
and
also
inChapter
5).
Ques)ons
f(a)
=
?
z
A
B
a
The
image
of
d
is
?
z
x
b
The
domain
of
f
is
?
A
y
c
The
codomain
of
f
B
z
is
?
The
preimage
of
y
is
?
b
d
f(A)
=
?
The
preimage(s)
of
z
is
(are)
?
{a,c,d}
Ques)on
on
Func)ons
and
Sets
If
and
S
is
a
subset
of
A,
then
A
B
f
{a,b,c,}
is
?
{y,z}
a
x
b
f
{c,d}
is
?
{z}
y
c
d z
Injec)ons
Definition:
A
function
f
is
said
to
be
one-‐to-‐one
,
or
injective,
if
and
only
if
f(a)
=
f(b)
implies
that
a
=
b
for
all
a
and
b
in
the
domain
of
f.
A
function
is
said
to
be
an
injection
if
it
is
one-‐to-‐one.
A B
a x
v
b
y
c
z
d
w
Surjec)ons
Definition:
A
function
f
from
A
to
B
is
called
onto
or
surjective,
if
and
only
if
for
every
element
there
is
an
element
with
.
A
function
f
is
called
a
surjection
if
it
is
onto.
A
B
a x
b
y
c
z
d
Bijec)ons
Definition:
A
function
f
is
a
one-‐to-‐one
correspondence,
or
a
bijection,
if
it
is
both
one-‐to-‐one
and
onto
(surjective
and
injective).
A
a
B
x
b
y
c
d z
w
Showing
that
f
is
one-‐to-‐one
or
onto
Showing
that
f
is
one-‐to-‐one
or
onto
Example
1:
Let
f
be
the
function
from
{a,b,c,d}
to
{1,2,3}
defined
by
f(a)
=
3,
f(b)
=
2,
f(c)
=
1,
and
f(d)
=
3.
Is
f
an
onto
function?
Solution:
Yes,
f
is
onto
since
all
three
elements
of
the
codomain
are
images
of
elements
in
the
domain.
If
the
codomain
were
changed
to
{1,2,3,4},
f
would
not
be
onto.
Example
2:
Is
the
function
f(x)
=
x2
from
the
set
of
integers
onto?
Solution:
No,
f
is
not
onto
because
there
is
no
integer
x
with
x2
=
−1, for example.
Inverse
Func)ons
Definition:
Let
f
be
a
bijection
from
A
to
B.
Then
the
inverse
of
f,
denoted
,
is
the
function
from
B
to
A
defined
as
No
inverse
exists
unless
f
is
a
bijection.
Why?
Inverse
Func)ons
A
f
B
A
B
a
V V
a
b b
W W
c
c
d X X
d
Y Y
Ques)ons
Example
1:
Let
f
be
the
function
from
{a,b,c}
to
{1,2,3}
such
that
f(a)
=
2,
f(b)
=
3,
and
f(c)
=
1.
Is
f
invertible
and
if
so
what
is
its
inverse?
Solution: The function f is invertible because it is a
one-‐to-‐one correspondence. The inverse function f-‐1
reverses the correspondence given by f, so f-‐1 (1) = c,
f-‐1 (2) = a, and f-‐1 (3) = b.
Ques)ons
Example 2: Let f: Z à Z be such that f(x) = x + 1. Is f
invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?
Solution: The function f is invertible because it is a
one-‐to-‐one correspondence. The inverse function f-‐1
reverses the correspondence so f-‐1 (y) = y – 1.
Ques)ons
Example 3: Let f: R → R be such that . Is f
invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?
Solution: The function f is not invertible because it
is not one-‐to-‐one .
Composi)on
Definition: Let f: B → C, g: A → B. The composition of
f with g, denoted is the function from A to C
defined by
Composi)on
g f
A B C A C
V a
a h h
b i b
W i
c
c
X j
d
d j
Y
Composi)on
Example 1: If and ,
then
and
Composi)on
Ques)ons
Example
2:
Let
g
be
the
function
from
the
set
{a,b,c}
to
itself
such
that
g(a)
=
b,
g(b)
=
c,
and
g(c)
=
a.
Let
f
be
the
function
from
the
set
{a,b,c}
to
the
set
{1,2,3}
such
that
f(a)
=
3,
f(b)
=
2,
and
f(c)
= 1.
What
is
the
composition
of
f
and
g,
and
what
is
the
composition
of
g
and
f.
Solution:
The
composition
f∘g
is
defined
by
f∘g (a)= f(g(a)) = f(b) = 2.
f∘g (b)= f(g(b)) = f(c) = 1.
f∘g (c)= f(g(c)) = f(a) = 3.
Note
that
g∘f is not deuined, because the range of f is not a
subset of the domain of g.
Composi)on
Ques)ons
Example
2:
Let
f
and
g
be
functions
from
the
set
of
integers
to
the
set
of
integers
defined
by
f(x)
=
2x
+
3
and
g(x)
=
3x
+
2.
What
is
the
composition
of
f
and
g,
and
also
the
composition
of
g
and
f
?
Solution:
f∘g (x)= f(g(x)) = f(3x + 2) = 2(3x + 2) + 3 = 6x + 7
g∘f (x)= g(f(x)) = g(2x + 3) = 3(2x
+ 3) + 2 = 6x + 11
Graphs
of
Func)ons
Let
f
be
a
function
from
the
set
A
to
the
set
B.
The
graph
of
the
function
f
is
the
set
of
ordered
pairs
{(a,b) | a ∈A and f(a) = b}.
Graph of f(n) = 2n + 1 Graph of f(x) = x2
from Z to Z from Z to Z
Some Important Func)ons
The floor function, denoted
is the largest integer less than or equal to x.
The ceiling function, denoted
is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x
Example:
Floor
and
Ceiling
Func)ons
Graph of (a) Floor and (b) Ceiling Functions
Floor and Ceiling Func)ons
Proving Proper)es of Func)ons
Example: Prove that x is a real number, then
⌊2x⌋= ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋
Solution: Let x = n + ε, where n is an integer and 0 ≤ ε< 1.
Case 1: ε < ½
2x = 2n + 2ε and ⌊2x⌋ = 2n, since 0 ≤ 2ε< 1.
⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n, since x + ½ = n + (1/2 + ε ) and 0 ≤ ½ +ε < 1.
Hence, ⌊2x⌋ = 2n and ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n + n = 2n.
Case 2: ε ≥ ½
2x = 2n + 2ε = (2n + 1) +(2ε − 1) and ⌊2x⌋ =2n + 1,
since 0 ≤ 2 ε -‐ 1< 1.
⌊x + 1/2⌋ = ⌊ n + (1/2 + ε)⌋ = ⌊ n + 1 + (ε – 1/2)⌋ = n + 1 since
0 ≤ ε – 1/2< 1.
Hence, ⌊2x⌋ = 2n + 1 and ⌊x⌋ + ⌊x + 1/2⌋ = n + (n + 1) = 2n + 1.
Factorial Func)on
Definition: f: N → Z+ , denoted by f(n) = n! is the
product of the first n positive integers when n is a
nonnegative integer.
f(n) = 1 ∙ 2 ∙∙∙ (n – 1) ∙ n, f(0) = 0! = 1
Examples:
Stirling’s
Formula:
f(1) = 1! = 1
f(2) = 2! = 1 ∙ 2 = 2
f(6) = 6! = 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3∙ 4∙ 5 ∙ 6 = 720
f(20) = 2,432,902,008,176,640,000.
Par)al Func)ons (op$onal)
Definition: A partial function f from a set A to a set B is
an assignment to each element a in a subset of A, called
the domain of definition of f, of a unique element b in B.
The sets A and B are called the domain and codomain of f,
respectively.
We day that f is undefined for elements in A that are not in
the domain of definition of f.
When the domain of definition of f equals A, we say that f
is a total function.
Example: f: N → R where f(n) = √n is a partial function
from Z to R where the domain of definition is the set of
nonnegative integers. Note that f is undefined for negative
integers.
