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The Olympic Games and Cultural Policy
Routledge Research in Sport, Culture and Society

1 Sport, Masculinities and the 9 Critical Readings in

Body Bodybuilding
Ian Wellard Edited by Adam Locks and Niall
Richardson
2 India and the Olympics
Boria Majumdar and Nalin Mehta 10 The Cultural Politics of
Post-9/11 American Sport
3 Social Capital and Sport Politics, Culture & Pedagogy
Governance in Europe Michael Silk
Edited by Margaret Groeneveld,
Barrie Houlihan and Fabien Ohl 11 Ultimate Fighting and
Embodiment
4 Theology, Ethics and Violence, Gender and Mixed
Transcendence in Sports Martial Arts
Edited by Jim Parry, Mark Nesti Dale C. Spencer
and Nick Watson
12 The Olympic Games and
5 Women and Exercise Cultural Policy
The Body, Health and Beatriz Garcia
Consumerism
Edited by Eileen Kennedy and
Pirkko Markula

6 Race, Ethnicity and Football

Persisting Debates and Emergent
Issues
Edited by Daniel Burdsey

7 The Organisation and

Governance of Top Football
Across Europe
An Institutional Perspective
Edited by Hallgeir Gammelsæter
and Benoît Senaux

8 Sport and Social Mobility

Crossing Boundaries
Ramón Spaaij
The Olympic Games
and Cultural Policy

Beatriz Garcia

NEW YORK LONDON

First published 2012
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Simultaneously published in the UK
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group,
an informa business
© 2012 Taylor & Francis
The right of Beatriz Garcia to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs
and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Garcia, Beatriz.
The Olympic games and cultural policy / Beatriz Garcia.
p. cm. — (Routledge research in sport, culture and society ; 12)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Olympics—Social aspects. 2. Olympics—History. 3. Olympic
Games (27th : 2000 : Sydney, N.S.W.) I. Title.
GV721.5.G37 2012
796.48—dc23
2011042226
ISBN: 978-0-415-99563-4 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-203-12292-1 (ebk)

Typeset in Sabon
by IBT Global.
To Xa
Contents

List of Figures ix
List of Tables xi
List of Acronyms xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xxi

PART I
Cultural Policy and the Olympic Movement

1 Introduction: The Cultural Policy of Global Events 3

2 The Olympic Games Cultural Programme 28

3 The Cultural Policy of the International Olympic Committee 50

PART II
The Olympic Games Cultural Programme:
Olympic Arts Festivals in Sydney 2000

4 Defining the Vision 69

5 Managing the Programme: Internal Operations 93

6 Managing the Programme: External Operations 117

7 Marketing and Communications 135

8 Stakeholder Contributions 174

9 Media Coverage 202

viii Contents
PART III
Towards a Culture-Led Olympic Games?

10 The Future of Cultural Policy at the Olympic Games 229

Appendix 1: Olympic Arts Festivals Programme Description 249

Appendix 2: Olympic Arts Festival Budget 257
Appendix 3: SOCOG Cultural Commission and Committees 259
Notes 261
References 271
Index 283
Figures

5.1 SOCOG corporate governance in 1998. 94

5.2 SOCOG structure by the fi nancial year ending June 1998. 95
5.3 SOCOG structure during Games time in 2000. 96
5.4 OAF staff structure. 98
5.5 Festival of the Dreaming. 108
5.6 Book publication for A Sea Change. 110
7.1 General marketing and advertising structure in SOCOG. 144
7.2 Look of the Games. 147
7.3a–d Central imagery for each of the four Olympic Arts Festivals. 154
7.4 OAF’2000 city banners imagery. 155
7.5 OAF’2000 billboards in 2000. 156
7.6a–b The evolution of the OAF logo (generic 1997–1999;
specific 2000). 157
7.7 Sydney maps in August 2000, including the OAF’2000
and LiveSites logos. 158
7.8 OAF’2000 brochures, flyers and pocket guide. 168
9.1 Percentage of articles by year. 206
9.2 Percentage of articles by month. 207
9.3 Percentage of articles by festival. 208
9.4 Percentage of festival mentions by year. 209
9.5 Percentage of articles about specific festivals and chosen
denomination. 210
9.6 Percentage of articles referring explicitly to the Olympic
context/OAF. 212
9.7 (a) Centrality of OAF references by year, and (b) by
Festival (in %) 213
9.8 Percentage of articles by key subject. 215
9.9a–d Percentage of key subjects by festival. 217
9.10 Distribution of attitudes by key subjects (in %). 221
Tables

2.1 Cultural Programme as Presented in the Olympic Charter

(1999a) 30
3.1 Composition of IOC Commissions in 2000 53
4.1 OAF Mission Statements and Key Deliverables (1997–2000) 87
4.2 OAF Length, Themes, Objectives and Main Components 89
5.1 OAF Team Job Descriptions 99
5.2 OAF Budget Estimates as Published on the Press from 1993
to 1999 (in A$) 104
5.3 OAF Budget Cuts as Announced in 1999 (in A$) 105
5.4 Budget Estimates by OAF General Manager at Final Festival
Launch 105
5.5 Budget for 4-Year Cultural Olympiads 1992—2004 111
5.6 Ticketing Strategy for ‘The Harbour of Life’ Olympic Arts
Festival 2000 113
6.1 The Harbour of Life 2000—Government Funding Strategy 124
6.2 Publicity Strategy for The Harbour of Life 130
7.1 SOCOG Marketing and Communications Programmes in
2000 139
7.2 Involvement of Media Groups as Olympic Partners 145
7.3 Evolution of the OAF’2000 Design Plan 158
7.4 OAF’2000: Media Distribution Plan 162
7.5 Fairfax OAF’2000 Media Placements 164
8.1 Commonwealth Government Support for the Olympic Arts
Festivals 180
8.2 Olympic Sponsors’ Involvement on Cultural and
Entertainment Programmes in 2000 191
9.1 List of Analysed Papers, Area of Distribution and Publishing
Company 201
Acronyms

ABC: Australian Broadcasting Commission

AC: Australia Council
CoS: City of Sydney
IOC: International Olympic Committee
NSW: New South Wales
OAF: Olympic Arts Festivals
OAF’2000: abbreviation for the Olympic Arts Festival taking place in
year 2000
OCA: Olympic Coordination Authority
OCOG: Organising Committee for the Olympic Games
ORTA: Olympic Roads and Transport Authority
SMC: Sydney Media Centre
SMH: Sydney Morning Herald
SOCOG: Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games
TOK: Transfer of Knowledge
VIK: Value in Kind
Preface

When Pierre de Coubertin developed his vision for the modern Olympic
Games, the union of sport and art was a central part of his philosophy of
Olympism. Yet, the cultural and artistic dimensions of the Games are typi-
cally regarded as being of secondary importance to the supposedly more
media friendly and more lucrative Olympic sports programme, which is
underpinned by the powerful global sports industries. This book challenges
this trend and argues that the cultural dimensions of the Games should
be considered as pivotal to the Olympic programme for both the host city
and the international Games stakeholders—the Olympic Movement. These
cultural dimensions, and the Games cultural programme as their imple-
mentation vehicle, are the main mechanism through which the Olympic
Movement can fulfi l its ideological aspirations and the host city can achieve
a lasting and meaningful Games legacy.
This is not to say that delivering a successful Olympic cultural pro-
gramme is easy. Indeed, achieving the right balance between representing
the cultural identity of the local host and embracing the cultural aspirations
of communities worldwide is one of the most ambitious and less under-
stood dimensions of the Olympic Games staging process. As well, devel-
oping audiences for new cultural activities is a challenge, not to mention
trying to convince audiences—and producers—that arts and cultural activ-
ities can be in any way connected to an event that has sport at heart. These
and other related challenges inform the research underpinning this book,
which offers the most comprehensive and detailed ethnographic study of an
Olympic Games cultural programme, and provides a thorough account of
how current Olympic organisational structures limit the ability of culture
and the arts to fulfi l their potential within the Games and the Movement.
While delivering a cultural programme during Games time is a for-
mal requirement from the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the
research within this book shows how there are only limited guidelines and
evaluation structures to inform this process. In contrast, almost all other
dimensions of the Games involve extensive and detailed guidelines and
knowledge transfer to inform (and monitor) the host city’s decisions. These
circumstances have led to the marginalisation of cultural programming at
xvi Preface
the Games since very early in their modern life. Nevertheless, on the few
occasions where these circumstances have not prevented a host city from
giving prominence to culture, it is apparent how much of an advantage these
Games have had in making their mark on Olympic history and, indeed, on
the importance given to their Games by their host population.
It is also apparent that, while the delivery of an Olympic cultural pro-
gramme can often be left wanting, it can play a central part in distinguish-
ing an Olympic bid and setting a candidate proposal apart from the rest.
For example, Barcelona 1992 introduced the idea of a four-year Cultural
Olympiad to ensure maximum inclusiveness and diversity in the Olym-
pic programme, and to overcome the heavy restrictions of a 16-day city-
focused elite-sport competition. Atlanta 1996 promised to use its cultural
programme to celebrate the American South and its black-communities.
Sydney 2000 gained advantage over its main bid rival at the time, Bei-
jing, thanks to its promise to use the cultural programme to advance soci-
etal issues over Aboriginal reconciliation and multicultural understanding
and thus addressing international concerns over Australia’s human rights
record. Athens 2004 aspired to use its cultural programme to reinvigorate
the ancient symbols and values of Olympism and to promote Greece as the
cradle of the Games. Beijing 2008 promised to use its cultural programme
to explore contemporary notions of Chinese culture and its worldwide con-
nections, which resonated with a period whereby China was becoming a
global economic superpower. Finally, London 2012 became a last minute,
unexpected favourite over its rival candidate, Paris, partly thanks to its
emphasis on its cultural and educational ambitions, reflecting the higher
ideals of Olympism as a Movement dedicated to the promotion of peace,
intercultural understanding and the fulfi lment of youth’s potentials. The
challenge, therefore, is to address the gap between the bid promises and the
eventual delivery of the programme to ensure that culture remains a cen-
tral part of the Games hosting process, well connected with other Games
programmes and integral to the priorities and values of the organisations
involved with their delivery.
To develop an understanding of the existing opportunities and chal-
lenges, this book provides an in-depth analysis of the cultural policy
implications of hosting the Olympic Games, extracting lessons from the
experience of one of the key referents in recent Olympic Games history:
the Sydney 2000 Olympic Summer Games. The central ambition of the
book is to provide a critical examination of the principles behind the offi-
cial Olympic cultural discourse and to highlight how these reflect ongo-
ing tensions between the Games global communication aspirations and its
local community dependencies and responsibilities. A detailed study of the
Games official cultural programme or Cultural Olympiad is pertinent, as
it provides much needed clarity on how the event’s simultaneous local and
global imperatives may come to clash to their mutual detriment or flourish
to their mutual advantage.
 Preface xvii
The Sydney 2000 Olympic Games has been celebrated for placing the
city at the heart of the Games experience and providing a very strong fes-
tival atmosphere to rival that of Barcelona in 1992. In particular, Sydney
2000 introduced new hosting techniques that have been adopted by sub-
sequent Games editions, such as the provision of coordinated crowd enter-
tainment outside official sports venues (the so-called ‘Live/Sites’). Sydney
also remains distinct in how it developed a strong cultural narrative around
the value of hosting the Games, placing a celebration of Australia’s multi-
culturalism and the aspiration to advance reconciliation with its Aboriginal
communities at the heart of its original Games bid. From a strict cultural
policy point of view, Sydney is also relevant as Australia has led the way in
terms of policy discourses for culture, pioneering many of the techniques
and research tools that today we take for granted in this field. Many of
these were being tested at the time of the Sydney Games. These experiences
have been influential for subsequent Games hosts, including London 2012.
In this context, a detailed review and critique of Sydney 2000 provides
an insight into an influential Games edition as well as an opportunity to
reflect on issues that retain their full currency today in terms of how cul-
tural activity is defi ned, managed and promoted during an Olympic Games
hosting process.
Each chapter within this book provides a detailed examination of a spe-
cific dimension of the Olympic cultural programme. This work is based on
original research conducted over the last eleven years through fieldwork
in every Summer and Winter Games edition from Sydney 2000 onwards.
Much of the evidence presented here emerged from a two-year residency in
Sydney, from early 1999 to the end of 2000. During this time, I conducted
over 90 interviews with key Olympic cultural programme stakeholders,
undertook direct observations within the Sydney Organising Committee
for the Games and gained access to a wide range of unpublished materi-
als that provide an unparalleled insight into the changing design priori-
ties, management needs and relationships development that explain how an
Olympic cultural programme is delivered and promoted.
Since my residency in Sydney, I have been funded by the British Acad-
emy to investigate each subsequent Olympic Games with fieldwork resi-
dencies lasting between two and six weeks at a time. This has involved
direct observations, documentary analysis and over 35 interviews with
organising committee representatives, cultural partners, media, artists,
sponsors and public authorities in Salt Lake City (2002), Athens (2004),
Torino (2006), Beijing (2006, 2008), Vancouver (2010) and London (bid
stage in 2004 onwards). I have also benefited from the funding and sup-
port of the IOC to research the organisation’s historical archives in the
area of culture. Further, my work is informed by repeated interviews
with key decision makers within the IOC and ongoing conversations with
international scholars dedicated to the study of the Olympic Games and
the Olympic Movement.
xviii Preface
The book is structured in three parts and ten chapters. Part I presents
the book’s conceptual framework, explaining the background to the Olym-
pic Games cultural programme and providing an overview of Olympic
cultural policies. Chapter 1 provides a defi nition of cultural policy and
explains why mega-events are an important referent into the uses and impli-
cations of cultural programming. In particular, it explains how globali-
sation has affected cultural policy discourses, how cultural policies have
become intimately related to, and dependent on, communication policies,
and how cities have become the primary site for such policy experimenta-
tion, with major events becoming a key city aspiration to progress local
and international cultural policy agendas. Chapter 2 locates these issues
within the Olympic Games cultural programme specifically, providing a
detailed assessment of the programme. The chapter provides an analysis of
relevant terminology as defi ned by the IOC and discussion about how the
programme has evolved since its inception at the turn of the 20th century.
Chapter 3 explains and assesses official IOC cultural provisions to estab-
lish how the organisation has articulated its cultural policy over the years.
This involves an analysis of the positioning of cultural activities within the
structure of the Olympic Movement, the IOC in particular, and an analysis
of how cultural references and commitments are reflected within the insti-
tution’s working agenda.
Part II focuses on the four annual Olympic Arts Festivals (1997–2000)
of the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games, in order to highlight key issues in the
design, management and promotion of any given Olympic cultural pro-
gramme. Chapter 4 analyses the historical, political and cultural context
for the Olympic bid and the ensuing vision for the Games cultural pro-
gramme. Chapter 5 focuses on the Games structures of management, in
particular, the way the cultural programme is embedded within the Orga-
nising Committee for the Games (OCOG). This overview extends to Chap-
ter 6, which discusses how the programme fits within the OCOG’s external
operations and stakeholder relationships. In this case, the emphasis is on
key cultural stakeholders including the public sector, the local arts commu-
nity, the corporate sector and the media. Chapter 7 moves on to the Games
communications and marketing framework, providing an overview of the
IOC communications policy, which has resulted in one of the most widely
recognised and lucrative global brands. The chapter then assesses how this
policy is implemented within a specific Games context and how this in turn
impacts on the Olympic cultural programme. Chapter 8 moves away from
OCOG structures of management to explore the expectations and policy
choices of cultural programme stakeholders. In particular, it discusses the
cultural priorities of public authorities, arts groups, corporations and media
partners when engaging with the Games hosting process. Finally, Chapter 9
shows how the issues noted within previous chapters are reflected in media
coverage of Sydney’s four-year Olympic cultural programme.
 Preface xix
To conclude, Part III considers the future of cultural policy at the Olympic
Games. Chapter 10 draws together the different strands of assessment that
have been presented throughout the monograph, identifying key ongoing
tensions and providing some commentary about ways to overcome current
limitations. The main emphasis is on the need to reconcile global communi-
cation imperatives with the Games (and Movement) self-proclaimed social
mission, which is expected to involve locally sensitive as well as historically
informed cultural responsibilities.
Acknowledgments

This book has been possible thanks to the support of many individuals and
institutions over the years. Many thanks to Miquel de Moragas i Spà and
the team at the Olympic Studies Centre at Universitat Autònoma de Barce-
lona (UAB), who provided invaluable assistance to coordinate fieldtrips and
key contacts at the Sydney Olympic Games and the International Olympic
Committee back in 1999, 2000 and 2001. In particular, thanks to Ana
Belén Moreno, Berta Cerezuela, Miquel Gómez and Marta Civil. Thanks
also to Manuel Parés i Maicas for providing the original contact point with
the Centre.
My fieldwork in Sydney was possible thanks to the continued support of
academic colleagues at the University of Technology, Sydney (UTS), and the
Centre for Olympic Studies at the University of New South Wales (UWS).
My thanks go to Christine Burton, Janet Cahill, Tania Tambiah, Richard
Cashman and Anthony Hugues.
I was based at the Sydney Organising Committee for the Olympic Games
for over six months to develop a detailed ethnography of the Olympic Arts
Festivals (OAF) hosting process. Special thanks to Alex Hesse and Kristine
Toohey, with whom I was lucky to collaborate at the Publications team, to
Angie Rizakos for providing access to the Documentation Centre, and to
the OAF team at a very busy and demanding time: Craig Hassall, Karilyn
Brown, Stephanie Sulway and Sue Couttie. My work also relied on close
conversations with Sydney’s diverse artistic community. Particular thanks
go to Justo Díaz for his insights into Australia’s cultural production net-
works. I am also indebted to Jonathan Nolan from CostaDesign for his
assistance with tracing back relevant images a decade on.
The historical review of archives and documentation about the Olympic
Movement’s evolving cultural policies was supported by an IOC postgradu-
ate grant and undertaken at the Olympic Study Centre in Lausanne, Swit-
zerland. My very special thanks go to the team that assisted me back in
2001: Nuria Puig, Ruth Beck-Perrenoud, Yoo-Mi Steffen, Patricia Eckert
and Marie Villemin. I have also benefited from attending the International
Olympic Academy (IOA) Postgraduate Seminar and accessing the Academy’s
specialist collections. Thank you to Kostas Georgiadis and Themis Artalis.
xxii Acknowledgments
Between 2001 and 2010, I have been fortunate to continue receiving
grant support to develop my work at every subsequent summer and winter
Olympic Games edition. My thanks go to the funders, the British Acad-
emy and the Universities’ China Committee in London, and to the many
people that have given me their time to access key documents and share
their insights at respective Organising Committees for the Olympic Games
and selected cultural key stakeholders. Thanks as well to Jude Kelly for
supporting my role as observer of the London 2012 Culture, Ceremonies
and Education bid preparations.
I also want to highlight my appreciation of the support received by the
network of international scholars dedicated to the study of the Olympic
Movement that provided encouragement for this work in the early days,
and have remained an invaluable point of contact for the exchange of ideas
and access to key informants and documentation at every Olympic Games.
Very special thanks to Norbert Müller, Manfred Messing, Holger Preuss,
Bruce Kidd, John MacAloon, Laurence Chalip and Jean-Loup Chappelet.
Finally, thanks to my family and especially my husband, Andy Miah,
who is my best critic.
Part I

Cultural Policy and the

Olympic Movement
1 Introduction
The Cultural Policy of Global Events

This chapter explores the relevance of cultural policy frameworks to inter-

rogate global event hosting processes, the Olympic Games in particular.
It starts by reviewing the impact of globalisation on the definition and
application of cultural policy principles, arguing that this has led to a con-
vergence between cultural and communication frameworks. The chapter
then touches on the implications of such trend for cities and regions and
moves on to reflect on the role of mega-events as catalysts for locally-based
cultural policies with a global outreach. The last section of the chapter
introduces the Olympic Games as a paradigm of all these processes com-
bined. Throughout the chapter, I focus particularly on revisiting the state
of cultural policy debates in the late 1990s, as this is the period leading to
the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games and the distinct cultural policy choices
that framed its four year cultural programme, which will be the main case
study explored throughout the monograph.

CULTURAL POLICY AND GLOBALISATION

From the mid 1990s, the United Nations Education, Science, and Culture
Organisation (UNESCO) has assessed the impact of globalisation on cul-
tural activity. Numerous studies have been published since then, notably
after the publication of the report ‘Our Creative Diversity’ in 1995, which
led to the ‘World Culture Report’ (UNESCO 1996, 1998a). Both docu-
ments included a passage that analysed the effect of globalisation in the
shaping of cultural matters and cultural policy making. An important effect
was the realisation that culture has an important economic dimension and,
thus, that it is possible to talk of cultural goods. These works revealed
that, in a global era, cultural goods are likely to grow their prominence
within contemporary production and industrial systems. Subsequently, in
1998, UNESCO began a series of meetings to study the potential of the
trilogy ‘culture, the market and globalisation’ (UNESCO 1998b). In 2000,
this research process resulted in the publication of various working docu-
ments on ‘Cultural Diversity and Globalisation’ (UNESCO 2000a, 2000b,
4 The Olympic Games and Cultural Policy
2000c). These papers emphasised that, as a result of globalisation, there is
an increasing influence of new technologies on shaping trends and aspira-
tions within the cultural sector. In particular, they noted that there is a
need to consider the role of communication media as a vehicle to transmit
these aspirations.
In order to understand the influence of these conclusions on the devel-
opment and shaping of cultural policy making, it is relevant to start by
framing the variety of meanings and uses of the term cultural policy in the
last quarter of the 20th century. The term cultural policy has only become
widely used since the mid to late 1960s. Moreover, it is a term that has
never been understood in a homogeneous way throughout the globe. Nev-
ertheless, the origin of cultural policies can be traced to other kinds of
concepts, which would appear to address similar concerns for culture. Such
roots deserve recognition as they extend earlier than the UNESCO docu-
mentation and have significantly influenced today’s international cultural
policy discourse.

Defining Cultural Policy

To explain the various ambiguities surrounding the term ‘cultural policy’
Fernández Prado (1991) refers to the wide diversity of uses and associations
depending on the language used and country of application. For instance,
in English speaking countries it is more frequent to see the term ‘arts pol-
icy’, while in many parts of Africa and Asia the term ‘cultural policy’ is
used interchangeably with ‘education policy’ (p. 17). According to Fernán-
dez Prado,

differences in the defi nition of what encompasses the cultural sector . . .

derive from important differences in historical processes that have led
different states to intervene massively in the most emblematic aspects
of cultural life (p. 17, Spanish in the original)

Prado offers some examples of these historical references by pointing out

the vast intervention of the state on the management of national communi-
cation media in communist countries, while in Western Europe it is com-
mon to see a strong presence of the state in the protection of traditional
artistic production. These different emphases have influenced the current
understandings of cultural policy that are held in respective countries.
Prado considers that cultural policy encompasses artistic creation, scien-
tific research and the diff usion of new ideas that lack immediate appli-
cation and/or are the result of leisure activities, pleasure and the search
for personal development (p. 18). However, he acknowledges that these
areas are blurring into other spheres. This is due to the growing synergies
between cultural and communication policies, and the increasing interac-
tion between cultural, industrial and economic policies that encompass,
 Introduction 5
‘not only the communication media, cinema and audiovisual productions,
but also some aspects associated with cultural tourism’ (p. 26).
Historically, one can identify a series of key periods that offer a distinc-
tive perspective on the meanings and uses of the term cultural policy. I
will focus on Europe and the western world, which are the key referent
areas for this monograph. An initial period is found in the 18th century,
with the appearance of various forms of state and aristocratic patronage
of the arts and the support to academies that would establish aesthetic
and scientific criteria. This changed radically in the 19th century, a time
dominated by the expansion of social class confl icts and the emergence of
grassroots movements that would oppose the power of the state and the
domination of the Academy in defi ning criteria for culture and the arts.
During this period, the notion of the welfare state emerged. This resulted
in the creation of policies for the support of cultural endeavours that
transferred the emphasis from the traditional arts to the protection and
expansion of educational programmes.
The beginning of the 20th century saw the options and evolution of
cultural policy uses marked by World Wars I and II. Prior to and during
wartime, most European states emphasised the role of national identity
through the regulation and control of national educational institutions and
the growing presence of the mass media. In the 1940s, during the post-
war era, the dominance of national state organisations was substituted
by the cultural leadership of major international institutions, such as the
United Nations and the Council of Europe. These institutions supported
the moral and cultural reconstruction of nations during the 1950s. During
this decade, national and international organisations emphasised cultural
democratisation as the most important aspiration of cultural leaders and
administrators. This meant that the policies of governments and cultural
institutions ensured that the kind of arts and culture they were in charge
of protecting was appreciated and understood by the general population.
The focus was to facilitate access to the arts and cultural experiences that
had traditionally excluded the participation of the masses. Typical cultural
policy actions at this time were the reduction of prices to attend arts events
and the organisation of workshops to explain their value and meaning.
However, it was not until the mid 1960s that cultural policy started
to embed itself into the discourse of opinion leaders and was referred to,
explicitly, as a tool for protecting and ensuring the fair development of
the cultural sector. It was a time when UNESCO focused on guarantee-
ing the existence of public institutions dedicated to cultural matters in all
country members of the United Nations system. Consequently, from the
mid 1960s, a series of meetings were arranged to place cultural policy onto
the international agenda. This culminated in 1970 in Venice with the fi rst
World Conference on Culture, which, according to Ander-Egg (1991), was
the fi rst conference to clearly address the question of what cultural policy
is and what it can do. A series of conferences followed and culminated in
6 The Olympic Games and Cultural Policy
Mexico in 1982 with the ‘World Conference on Cultural Policies’. These
conferences focused on debating cultural democracy as a substitute to the
principle of cultural democratisation, which was so popular in the 1950s.
Influenced by the expansion of social movements, such as the youth move-
ments of the late 1960s, this process promoted the acceptance of wider
notions of culture. However, on this occasion culture was not defi ned by
the elite to keep their supremacy, or to educate the masses. Rather, it was
captured at grassroots levels. As summarised by Kelly,

Cultural democracy (as opposed to the democratisation of culture)

is an idea which revolves around the notion of plurality, and around
equality of access to the means of cultural production and distribution.
(1984: 101)

In this context, the concept of popular culture would be revisited and the
traditional distinctions between high and low culture would begin to blur
(see Gans 1974).
The last two decades of the 20th century can be seen as another remark-
able turning point in the defi nition and use of cultural policy. The pro-
cess started in the 1980s, when it became evident that cultural matters
were of interest for the private sector and would, increasingly, be funded
and promoted by corporations independently from public administrations
(see Kong 2000). This process has been termed privatisation of culture
and motivated dedicated research programmes in institutions such as New
York University, under the guidance of Toby Miller and George Yúdice (see
Goldstein 1998) leading to defi ning publications such as Lewis and Miller
(2003) and Miller and Yúdice (2002). The work of García Canclini is cen-
tral to these studies as it argues that this process of privatisation is a direct
effect of the movement towards globalisation:

Néstor García Canclini approached the debate on the privatisation

of culture as symptomatic of the broader processes of contemporary
global restructuring, linking these processes to the attendant recon-
figuration of the concept of modernity. He identified four principal
tendencies of the modern project, each of which are eroded in the con-
frontation between multinational corporations and national societies
that attempted to maintain their cultural differences: ‘emancipation’
(the secularisation of the cultural field); ‘expansion’ (the conquest of
nature, scientific advance, mass education, industrial development,
and the diff usion of material and symbolic commodities); ‘renewal’
(innovation and the endemic obsolescence suggested by [Octavio] Paz’s
‘tradition of rupture’); and ‘democratisation’ (dissemination of special-
ized knowledges through education and mass participation in rational
and moral evolution). (Goldstein 1998: Contexts and Conditions of the
Support of Culture, paragraph 3)
 Introduction 7
However, this brief history is not the only antecedent of the modern uses
of cultural policy. The evolution of these terms within the process of pri-
vatisation is complemented by the re-emergence of the concept cultural
industries. This concept was fi rst used in the 1940s by Horkheimer and
Adorno in reference to ‘all existing processes of mercantilisation of culture
that have led it to lose its autonomy’ (Adorno & Horkheimer 1979). For
them, industrialisation of culture involved culture becoming a means for
achieving non-cultural ends, such as economic benefits and political con-
trol (Adorno 1991). In contrast, by the end of the century, the term cultural
industries has lost its critical taint, more innocuously referring to the wide
range of media vehicles that produce and reproduce culture, information,
entertainment and promotional activities (see Hesmondhalgh 2007). Since
the turn of the new millennium, the term creative industries has become an
even more dominant term, particularly within Anglo-Saxon countries (see
DCMS 1998, 2001). Its rise has led to major debates on the appropriate-
ness and implications of using the terms creativity or culture in the context
of policy-making (eg. Galloway 2007, Garnham 2007, Hearn et al 2007,
Hesmondhalgh & Pratt 2005).
Cultural policies in Europe and around the world were revisited
throughout the 1990s in order to face these new trends. Since the end of
the 1980s, cultural policy initiatives have grown exponentially—this time
without the leadership of UNESCO. Many academic professional institu-
tions have emerged with a clear vocation to explore and promote cultural
policy. These have ranged from cultural observatories, frequently found in
Europe and many South American countries (International Network on
Cultural Policy 2002, IFACCA 2008)1, to specialised university research
centres—mostly in the UK, Australia, New Zealand and Canada—and a
wide array of foundations and other private groups—in particular, in the
United States. These various trends and histories suggested the need to re-
defi ne what is meant by cultural policy today and how it affects governance
and the debate over critical issues such as social inclusion, international
understanding, multiculturalism, representation and identity among many
others. The establishment of The International Journal of Cultural Policy,
regularly dedicated international conferences and symposiums, innumer-
able online networks and platforms, as well as the publication of a growing
number of special monographs and dedicated journal editions centred on
the cultural policy debate has offered increasingly visible and influential
platforms to address these concerns.
The contested concept of cultural policy and its area of influence reflects
how the debate has expanded beyond the remit of organisations such as
UNESCO and the Council of Europe. Cultural policy has been incorpo-
rated into key debates about economic and social questions (eg. DCMS
2004). Consequently, the defi nition and application of cultural policy prin-
ciples has become an instrument of analysis and regulation for all kinds
of cultural actors, not only traditional governmental organisations and
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Ohio, and first located at Cambridge, Guernsey county, where he
studied law, and in January, i860, he was admitted to the bar at
Columbus, Ohio. He at once entered upon the practice of law, and
his entire attention has been devoted to it ever since. During the
first six years his professional labors were performed at Cambridge.
In the summer of 1866 he removed to Steubenville, and he is now a
prominent and honored member of the bar of that city. Shortly after
locating in Steubenville, he became employed as counsel for the
Pittsburgh, Cincinnati & St. Louis railway, and he has been one of
the attorneys of that road ever since, so that, while his practice has
been general in its character and considerable of it has come from
other sources, the railway practice has occupied the greater portion
of his time. Mr. Dunbar was married in the state of New York to
Jemima Bates, who still survives, and who has borne to him an only
daughter, Fannie L., who is now the wife of Alexander Sweeney, and
whose marriage to him has resulted
 256 HISTORY OF THE UPPER OHIO VALLEY. in the birth of
two children: May, who is now a young lady of eighteen, and at
present is traveling in Europe, and Jay R., who is a young man of
sixteen, and at present is a student in Scio college. The political
affiliations of Mr. Dunbar were formerly with the whig party, but
since 1856 he has been an ardent republican. In former years he
took an active part in political campaigns, and during the time he
rendered his party very effectual service. In the fall of 1868 he was
elected to the office of state senator, and served in a very creditable
manner for one term of two years. He was once a member of the
city council in Steubenville, and while a member of that body he
bore a conspicuous part in securing the construction of the present
handsome city building. Mr. Dunbar possesses a calm and dignified
manner and much executive ability. His judgment is recognized as
one worthy of confidence, and his record, both as a citizen and
lawyer, is beyond reproach. O. P. Dunbar, a prominent jeweler of
Steubenville, was born in Wayne township, Jefferson county, April
19, 1843. His parents, John and Mary (Fulton) Dunbar, were both
natives of Pennsylvania. His father was the son of Samuel Dunbar, a
native of Scotland, and his mother was the daughter of Robert
Fulton, a native of Ireland. He is the fourth of five children of his
parents, all now living: The oldest, Mary, married in 1864, William
Bigham, a grocer of Pittsburgh, who died in 1875. ^n 1886 she was
married to Mr. Howell, an influential citizen of Centreville, Iowa. He
died in 1888 from injuries by the kick of a horse, and his widow has
since removed to Tacoma, Washington. Mr. Plowell left to her a large
estate. The other children are: Jane, who was married in 1867, to
William McFarland, with whom she resides on their fruit farm near
Tacoma; John F., who married Annie Scott in 1869, and is now in
business at Steubenville as a queensware merchant; O. P., the
subject of this mention; Maggie, who was graduated by the
Steubenville Female seminary, and in 1875 went as a missionary to
Alaska, as a representative of the St. Louis Foreign Mission society of
the Presbyterian church. She was married in 1884 to John
McFarland, a native of Washington county, Penn., and brother of the
husband of Jane. Pier husband is laboring with her as a missionary.
The mother of these children died in 1848. Their father was
afterward married to Jane Hartford, who, now eighty years of age,
survives her husband, who died in January, 1853. O. P. Dunbar came
to Steubenville to learn the jewelry trade in the spring of 1861. After
an apprenticeship of nearly four years, in the fall of 1864 he
engaged in the jewelry business for himself, with such success that
he is now one of Steubenville's leading jewelers. He was married
August 3, 1864, to Emma A., daughter of Michael McKinney, of
Steubenville, who was accidentally killed in a planingmill in 1870. His
wife, Rebecca Johnson, a native of Jefferson county, still survives.
Mr. Dunbar has had four children: Charles, Maud, Edna and Pearce,
of whom Edna died aged three years. Their mother died January 13,
1877. Mr. Dunbar served in the war of the rebellion four months in
Company C, One Hundred and Fifty-seventh
 JEFFERSON COUNTY, OHIO. 257 Ohio volunteer infantry.
He is a republican in politics. In business he is successful and as a
citizen commands confidence and esteem. Dr. Andrew A. Elliott, a
prominent young physician of Steubenville, was born in Columbiana
county, Ohio, October 6, 1853. He is the son of John Elliott, who was
born in Scotland in 1818. In early manhood his father accompanied
his parents to America, and located with them in Beaver county,
Penn., where shortly afterward they removed to Athens county,
Ohio^ where they spent the remainder of their lives. John, about
that time, made his permanent residence in Columbiana county,
Ohio, where he was married to Catharine Adams, who was born in
Ireland about 1824. He was a teacher by profession, and was so
engaged for twenty-seven consecutive years, mostly in Columbiana
county. He also gave much attention to farming during his vacations,
and dealt extensively in live stock. He died April 29, 1870. When
Catharine, the mother of our subject was thirteen years of age, she
accompanied her mother to America, and took up her residence with
an uncle in Columbiana county, Ohio. She bore to her husband six
children, of whom three are now living. Her home is at Wellsville,
Ohio. Dr. Elliott, the fourth of the children mentioned, was reared to
manhood on a farm in his native county. He attended a district
school until he reached the age of seventeen, after which he was a
student for a few months in an academy at Beaver, Penn. He then
entered the National Normal school of Lebanon, Ohio, which he
attended three years, graduating in 1878. Returning home, he
entered upon the study of medicine with Dr. J. W. Hammond, of
Wellsville. During the winters of 1879-80 and 1880-81 he was a
student in the medical department of the university of the City of
New York, graduating in March, 1881. He at once entered upon his
professional career at Steubenville. Dr. Elliott was married September
5, 1883, to Rachel S., only daughter of James Gallagher, a
distinguished citizen of Steubenville. Dr. Elliott and wife are members
of the Episcopal church. Politically he is a republican. Dr. Elliott has
shown himself to possess much skill in the practice of medicine and
surgery, and, though young, he already occupies a creditable rank
among the leading physicians of southeastern Ohio. He is a member
of the Jefferson County Medical society and of the Association of the
Surgeons to the Pennsylvania Railway company. He is now the
surgeon of that company at Steubenville. William Elliott, an old
settler and very prominent business man and citizen of Steubenville,
Ohio, was born in Lancaster, Penn., July 9, 1809. He was the son of
John and Nancy Jane (Caughey) Elliott, both of whom were natives
of Ireland, but who were married in this country. When he was a
small child his parents removed to Burgestown, Penn., and in his
youth he accompanied them to Jefferson county, Ohio. The family
first located in Island Creek township, but later on they removed to
Cross Creek township, where our subject began to learn the tanning
business. He served an apprenticeship of three years, after which he
spent nearly two years in a tannery in Philadelphia, Penn. Returning
to Jefferson county he located in 17— B.
 258 HISTORY OF THE UPPER OHIO VALLEY. Steubenville,
where he has resided ever since, and where he was engaged in a
tanning business for over fifty years. From that he retired about five
years ago, since which time his attention has been given to the
wholesale leather business. Throughout his business career he has
been very successful and he has accumulated much property. His
home residence on North Market street is one of the most beautiful
and most desirable properties of the kind in Steubenville. Besides
this he is the owner of another good residence and a large business
block. Mr. Elliott was married in 1835 to Sarah Anderson, who still
survives, and who has borne to him a family of seven children, only
three of whom are living. They are as follows: George, Ellen, Valara,
Virginia D., Emma C, Frank M. and Edward L., of whom George,
Ellen, Emma C. and Edward L., are dead. Emma C. was married to
James McConville, formerly of Steubenville, but now of Cincinnati.
She died in April, 1882. Valara was married to Alvin S. McEldowney,
who is now deceased. Virginia D. is now the wife of Henry H.
McEldowney, of Detroit, Mich. Frank M.. Elliott, the youngest living
child, was born July 13, 1849. He was married June 3, 1883, to Ida
M. Bracken, daughter of John T. Bracken, of Steubenville. He is in
partnersnip with his father in the wholesale and retail trade of hides
and leather, the firm name being William Elliott & Son. He also is a
dealer in furs, pelts and ginseng. He is a member of the Royal
Arcanum, and is a republican. He is a director in the Steubenuille
National bank. William Elliott, the father, is a director in the Miners'
and Mechanics' bank of Steubenville. Mr. and Mrs. Elliott have lived
together as husband and wife for fifty-four years. Both are devoted
members of the Second Presbyterian church of Steubenville. The
former is a member of the Masonic lodge, in which he has reached
the degree of Knight Templar. He is a republican in politics. Every
vote he ever cast has been deposited in the ballot box of the Third
ward. His first vote was for Andrew Jackson, in 1832. He is one of
Steubenville's oldest business men, and one of her most highly
respected and honored citizens. Charles S. Ferguson, an enterprising
retail grocer, of Steubenville, was born in Saline township, Jefferson
county, March 9, 1839. He is the youngest of ten children, seven
sons and three daughters, of Charles and Nancy (Close) Ferguson,
the former of whom died when our subject was but five months old.
His mother is still living, a venerable lady eighty-nine years of age.
Her home, since 1854, has been in Steubenville. Charles S. came to
Steubenville with his mother at fifteen years of age, and this has
since been his home. At twenty-one years of age he began to learn
the trade of puddler, and he followed this in the Jefferson Iron Works
for twenty-seven years. In 1864 he was in the war in the one
hundred days' service. Since retiring from his trade he has been
engaged in the grocery business, having started in it July 1, 1888.
He was married July 3, 186 1, to Eliza Jane Johnson, who has borne
to him a family of eleven children: Thomas E., James H. (deceased),
Frank, Cora E., Laura, Charles S. (deceased), Austin, Eliza Jane,
Robert O., Maggie W. and Susann. Mr. and Mrs. Fergu 
 JEFFERSON COUNTY, OHIO. 259 son are members of the
Methodist Episcopal church. He is an Odd Fellow and a republican,
having cast his first vote for Abraham Lincoln. Mr. Ferguson is a
reliable and successful business man, and a citizen who possesses
the confidence and esteem of all who know him. George J. Fickes, a
prominent contractor, architect and brick manufacturer, of
Steubenville, was born in that city, June 29, 1850. His parents,
Andrew J. and Elizabeth (Hukill) Fickes, were also natives of
Steubenville, the former having been born July 4, 1816, and the
latter August 12, 1823. His father, whose occupation was contracting
and brick manufacturing, was the son of Jacob Fickes, a native of
Berks county, Penn., who located in Steubenville about the time that
place began to have an existence. By trade, he was a carpenter, and
he also gave some attention to nail making and to boating. He made
several trips to New Orleans, and on one of these trips he died of
yellow fever at New Orleans, about 1820. His wife survived him
many years, her death occurring during the late war. In 1856, when
George was six years old, his parents emigrated to Oskaloosa, Iowa,
where the family resided eight years. In 1864 they returned to
Steubenville, where the father spent the remainder of his life, his
death occurring September 11, 1S76. His widow still resides here.
The subject of this sketch completed a course in the Steubenville
high school at sixteen years of age, and then began the brick-
mason's trade with his father. To this, and to contracting, and the
manufacture of brick, he has ever since given his attention. He
residence, since 1S64, has been at Steubenville. Mr. Fickes was
married, October 19, 1871, to Mar}/ J., daughter of John Aiken, a
former resident of Steubenville, and they have a family of four
children: Edwin S., Bessie, Walter M., and Frank. Mr. and Mrs. Fickes
are members of the Fifth Street Methodist Protestant church. He is a
member of the I. O. O. F., the Knights of Honor, the National Union,
and the Order of the Mystic Circle. In politics he is an ardent
republican. Mr. Fickes is one of Steubenville's enterprising and active
citizens. Henry H. Fickes, of Steubenville, was born in that city, May
n, 1846, the son of Andrew J. and Elizabeth (Hukell) Fickes. Both
parents were born at Steubenville, the father, July 4, 1816, and the
mother in August, 1823. His father was the son of Jacob Fickes, who
located in Steubenvillein a very early day, and who died at New
Orleans, of yellow fever. His mother was the daughter of Henry J.
Hukill, who came to Steubenville with his mother in his boyhood,
and resided here until his death, in 1858, at the age of fifty-eight.
Fie was a brick manufacturer and contractor by occupation, and was
a prominent Mason, having been High Priest of Union Chapter, No.
15, of Steubenville, from 1835 to 1848, and from 1850 to 1857,
altogether twentytwo years. He was a Knight Templar, of
Steubenville Commandery, No. 11. Andrew Fickes was, by
occupation, a contractor and builder. He died September 9, 1876. His
wife, who is still living, resides with Henry H. The latter is the eldest
of three sons, only one other of whom, George J., is living. In the
spring of 1856 he accompanied his
 260 HISTORY OF THE UPPER OHIO VALLEY. parents to
Oskaloosa, Iowa, where the family resided eight years. In the spring
of 1864 they returned to Steubenville. In July of the same year he
went to Pittsburgh, and there became clerk in the general ticket
office of the Pittsburgh, Ft. Wayne & Chicago railway, under F. R.
Myers, and held it about two years. Returning to Steubenville he
accepted a clerkship in the general ticket office of the Pittsburgh,
Cincinnati & St. Louis railway, under Capt. S. F. Scull, and he
continued in the same capacity about eight years. For about seven
years after retiring from the railway he was chiefly employed as a
clerk and accountant. In September, 1880, he engaged in the
insurance business. He has been very successful at this and, with
one exception, he now possesses the best business of that kind in
Steubenville. Mr. Fickes was married in February, 1878, to Jennie,
daughter of James Hawkins, and they have two daughters: Helen E.
and Mary F. Mr. and Mrs. Fickes are members of the Methodist
Protestant church. He is a Mason and a Knight Templar. In politics he
is a republican. He has served as a member of the city council one
term, having been elected in 1881. In 1885 he was elected justice of
the peace, an office he held one term. In January, 1888, he was
appointed township clerk to fill the vacancy caused by the death of
his uncle, George Fickes, and in April, 1888, he was elected to that
office. Mr. Fickes possesses the full confidence and respect of the
public. Davison Filson, an honored and worthy citizen of
Steubenville, was born in Franklin county, Penn., June 5, 1829. He
was the son of Josiah and Sarah (Stinger) Filson; both were also
born in Franklin county, Penn. His father was the son of Robert and
Elizabeth (Snyder) Filson, who also were natives of the same county
in Pennsylvania. His paternal grandfather's name was also Robert
Filson, who was a native of Chester county, Penn., and who was a
brother of John Filson, who was very prominent in the early history
of Kentucky. He was a surveyor by profession, and made the first
map of the state of Kentucky, which he dedicated to George
Washington. Robert Filson, the great-grandfather of our subject, was
the son of Davison Filson, who was the son of John Filson, all of
whom resided in Chester county, Penn. The Filson family originally
came from Ireland. The subject of this sketch was reared to the age
of sixteen in his native county. At that age he accompanied his
parents to Monongahela city, Penn., and a year later, to Freedom,
Beaver county, Penn. Shortly after, however, our subject returned to
Monongahela city, where he began to learn the carpenter's trade. In
1848 he came to Steubenville, but, in 1850, he returned to
Monongahela city, and at that place, and Port Perry, Penn., he
worked at his trade until 1851. In that year he returned to
Steubenville, where he has resided ever since, with the exception of
three months in 1867, during which he resided in Kansas City, Mo.,
three months in 1881, during which which he resided in Reno, Nev.,
and three months in 1882, during which he resided in San Francisco,
Cal. While in Nevada and California he gave his attention to mining.
For a short time after locating in Steubenville, in 1851, he worked at
the carpenter's trade.
 JEFFERSON COUNTY, OHIO. 261 In 1S52 he engaged at
the painter's trade and followed it until 1S63. In that year he turned
his attention to photography, and with the exception of the short
periods of time spent in the west, he has given it his entire attention
ever since, being now one of the leading photographers of this
section of country. Since 1883 his son, Charles P. Filson, has been
his partner, and the gallery has been conducted under the firm name
of Filson & Son. Mr. Filson was married, March 25, 1852, to Martha
Ann Filson, Avho was born in Steubenville, June 20, 1831, being the
daughter of Samuel and Anna (Starr) Filson, the former of whom
came to Steubenville in about 1806. Mr. and Mrs. Filson are the
parents of four children, as follows: Anna, Sarah, Mary S., and
Charles P. He and wife are members of the Presbyterian church. In
politics the former is a republican. He has served as a member of
the city council one term and as a member of the school board four
years. Mr. Filson is a true gentleman in every sense, and a citizen
who is respected and esteemed by all. Mary S., the third child, is
now the wife of E. B. Caswell, of Portsmouth, Ohio. Charles R. Filson
married Estella Priest. Benjamin H. Fisher, M. D., an able physician of
Steubenville, was born within the present limits of that city, February
21, 1839. He is the son of John and Jane (Hart) Fisher, the former of
whom was born at Winchester, Va., October 30, 1800, and the latter
in Pennsylvania, November 10, 1801. His father, who devoted his life
to farming and the manufacture of copperas, was the son of John C.
Fisher. He was married February 27, 1822, and had eleven children,
of whom Benjamin was the ninth, and of whom eight are now living.
The mother died November 9, 1871, and her husband, November 5,
1853. Dr. Fisher has resided in Steubenville all his life. He received
his literary education in the public schools of the city, and in early
manhood he taught two terms of school. He then took up the study
of medicine under the preceptorship of Dr. Benjamin Tappan. In the
fall of 1862 he entered the medical college of Ohio, at Cincinnati,
where he was graduated in March, 1864. In May, of the same year,
he entered the Union army, in company D, One Hundred and
Fiftyseventh Ohio volunteer infantry, and was soon promoted
assistant surgeon of his regiment. He served in that capacity until
September, 1864, when he was honorably discharged at Colombus,
Ohio. Returning home, ge began the practice of his profession in
partnership with his former preceptor, Dr. Tappan. At the end of
three years the partnership was mutually dissolved, since which time
Dr. Fisher has practiced alone. He was married, November 30, 1865,
to Elizabeth A., daughter of William and Elizabeth Rittenhouse,
natives of Pennsylvania. Mrs. Fisher was born near Hopedale,
Harrison county, Ohio, June 21, 1842. She has borne to her husband
four children: John Bartley, Jennie D., Benjamin F., and Clarence A.,
the first_ of whom died, aged six years. Mrs. Fisher is a member of
the Christian church. The doctor is a member of the Methodist
Episcopal church, and also of the Royal Arcanum lodge. He is a
member of the Jeffererson County Medical society and of the
American Medical associ 
 262 HISTORY OF THE UPPER OHIO VALLEY. ation. In
politics he is a republican. He was formerly a member of the
examining board for pensions, at Steubenville, serving three years.
He has a large practice and is a physician and surgeon of much
ability. Dr. James C. M. Floyd, a successful physician and prominent
citizen of Steubenville, was born in Cross Creek township, Jefferson
Co., Ohio, January 30, 1852. His great-grandfather, on his mother's
side, William Floyd, located in Jefferson county in the year 1804. He
was a native of Wales and came to America with his mother in about
1760. Dr. Floyd's parents, John and Catherine (Winters) Floyd, were
also natives of this county, the former having been born in Cross
Creek township, inFebruary, 1827, and the latter in Island Creek
township, January, 1827. By occupation his father is a farmer. He
and wife are both living, their home being in Cross Creek township.
Dr. Floyd was raised on a farm in his native township. He was a
student in the district school until he reached the age of eighteen,
after which he attended Scio college one year and the Hopedale
normal college one term. At the age of twenty-one he began the
study of medicine with Dr. William Willigmann, of Wintersville,
Jefferson county. During the winter of 1874-5 he attended the
Bellevue Hospital Medical college, of New York city. In March, 1875,
he entered the Long Island college hospital, of Brooklyn, in which he
took his second course of lectures, graduating June 24, 1875. In
September, 1S75, he entered upon his professional career, at
Richmond, Jefferson county. In the spring of 1883 he opened an
office in Steubenville, where he has since been actively engaged in
the practice of medicine and surgery. Dr. Floyd was married
December 27, 1878, to Rachel E., daughter of Jackson and Eliza
(Connor) Aber, natives of Allegheny county, Penn. This marriage has
resulted in the birth of two children: Altai A. and Cora M. The doctor
and wife are members of the Second Presbyterian church, of
Steubenville. He is a member of the Jefferson County Medical
society, and of the Ohio State Medical society. Politically he is a
republican. He is a successful practitioner and both socially and
professionally he stands high. Robert P. Foreman, a leading
merchant tailor and furnisher of Steubenville, was born in Brooke
county W. Va., June 24, 1824. He is the son of Charles and Ann
(Parks) Foreman, the former a native of Allegheny county, and the
latter of Washington county, Penn. He was but ten years old when
his father died. Immediately after his death the mother removed
with her six children to Washington county, Penn.,' and between
three and four years later she removed to New Cumberland, W. Va.,
where the mother spent the rest of her life. The latter part of his
youth and the first years of his manhood were spent in New
Cumberland. At fifteen years of age he began to learn the tailor's
trade and served an apprenticeship of six years, after which he
engaged in business for himself at New Cumberland. In 1862 he
removed to Steubenville, where he has ever since conducted a
tailoring establishment which is deservedly popular. He was married
at 1 h<: age="" of="" twenty-five="" to="" rosanna="" daughter=""
lewis="" shaw="" then=""/>
 JEFFERSON COUNTY, OHIO. 263 New Cumberland. Mr. and
Mrs. Foreman have had five children: Christia A., George B., Lenora
S., Adolphus and Charles L., all of whom are living except Adolphus,
who died aged six years. Mr. Foreman is a member of the Masonic
Lodge, and in politics he is a republican. Arthur M. Foster, druggist of
Steubenville, Ohio, was born February 22, 1837, in Allegheny county,
Penn., of which county his parents, William and Eliza (Sill) Foster,
were also natives. His mother was the daughter of Col. Jesse Sill,
who served in the war of 1812. Mr. Foster spent the first years of his
boyhood at Pittsburgh. When he was ten years old he accompanied
his parents to Mansfield, Penn., and in 1856 they removed to
Dubuque, Iowa, where they resided two years, Arthur being
employed at farm work during the time near Dubuque. In the spring
of 1858 they removed to Steubenville, where the father still resides.
In the fall of 1858 Mr. Foster returned to Dubuque, in the vicinity of
which place he was engaged at farming until early in 1864.
Returning to Steubenville, he engaged with the Pittsburgh Paper
Manufacturing company, as a traveling salesman, and he continued
with them until 1870. He was then engaged with the paper firm of
Christy & Benham, of Pittsburgh, one year. For a few years following
this Mr. Foster was variously employed in different places in the west
and northwest. In 1874 he made his permanent home at
Steubenville, and entered the drug store of his brother, J. S. Foster,
and remained with him until after the latter's death in February,
1883. He then embarked in the drug trade for himself, and has
continued in the business. Mr. Foster has been twice married. His
present wife, whose maiden name was Kate May, has borne to him
one son, John M., who was born February 5, 1881. In politics Mr.
Foster is a republican. He is an honest man, a good citizen, and
successful in business. James Gallagher, who is probably one of the
oldest living citizens of the upper Ohio valley, was born on Callow Hill
street, in the city of Philadelphia, October 31, 1806. He was the son
of Charles and Eleanor (Maloy) Gallagher, who were both natives of
Ireland, the former having been born in county Derry, and the latter
in county Donegal. His father was born in about the year 1780, and
his mother in the year 1782. His parents were married in their native
country and emigrated to America in 1804. They located in
Philadelphia, Penn., where the father followed the trade of a tanner
until his death, which occurred when the subject of this sketch was
five years old. The latter was the second of three children, the eldest
of whom, Catherine, was born in Ireland, and the youngest, Eleanor,
was born in Philadelphia. The former died in Philadelphia when
about seven or eight years old, and the latter also died in that city at
about the age of sixteen. In 1816 our subject emigrated with his
mother from Philadelphia to Steubenville, Ohio, in which place the
latter died in 1830. ' In the spring of 1817 her son James was
apprenticed to Joseph Walker, with whom- he served seven years at
the saddler's trade, After this he worked at his trade as a
journeyman, until 1830, being,
 264 HISTORY OF THE UPPER OHIO VALLEY. during much of
the time, in the employ of Mr. Walker as foreman. From 1830 until
1838 he devoted his attention to the life of a riverman, having
become initiated into this pursuit by becoming a half owner of a flat-
boat, William G. Murdoch, an old fellow workman of his, owning the
other half. While on the river Mr. Gallagher accumulated some means
and acquired much valuable experience. He made fourteen trips to
New Orleans and back, and upon one occasion he made the trip
from Natchez home on horseback. That was in 1833, and his reason
for selecting this mode of travel was to avoid the cholera, with which
the river towns were then pervaded. For a short time after quitting
the river, Mr. Gallagher indulged some in the pork packing business.
In 1839 he had the misfortune to meet with an accident which,
though only a sprained ankle, resulted in permanently disabling him
for the rest of his life. For many years he was almost totally disabled,
and he has never recovered to such an extent that he could walk
with impunity without the use of a cane. Being thus unfitted for any
pursuit that required bodily activity, Mr. Gallagher now began to pay
some attention to banking. As early as 1836 he had become a
stockholder in the Farmers' and Mechanics' bank of Steubenville, and
in 1839 he was elected a director in the same, and continued as
such until the expiration of the bank's charter. Soon after this the
state bank of Ohio was organized, and of the Jefferson branch of
that bank at Steubenville, Mr. Gallagher was a director and
stockholder throughout its entire existence, which covered a period
of twenty years. From 1842 until 1848 he also served in the capacity
of justice of the peace. In 1865 the Jefferson National bank of
Steubenville was organized, and he was a director and stockholder in
it for twenty years, and for more than half the time he served as its
president. In 1885 this bank was succeeded by the Steubenville
National bank, and since that time Mr. Gallagher has been a
stockholder in it. He was one of the incorporators of the old
Steubenville & Indiana railway, and he is the only surviving one. For
a number of years he was a stockholder in the Cleveland &
Pittsburgh railroad. Mr. Gallagher was married September 27, 1836,
to Rachel Shaw, daughter of Ambrose Shaw, who was an esteemed
and highly respected citizen of Steubenville, throughout its early
history. She bore to him seven children, only three of whom are now
living. They are: Charles, who> is now cashier of the Steubenville
National bank; John D., who is an attorney-at-law of Cincinnati; and
Rachel S., who is the wife of Dr. A. A. Elliott, of Steubenville. The
wife of Mr. Gallagher died May 20, 1854. Mr. Gallagher's political
affiliations were formerly with the whig party, and since 1856 he has
been a republican. Mr. Gallagheris a man of superior intelligence,
keen perception, and notwithstanding his advanced age, his faculties
are in an excellent state of preservation. He is thoroughly familiar
with the early history of the upper Ohio valley, and is also well
versed in general history and literature. His acquaintance is
extensive and by all all who know him he is most highly esteemed
and respected. He possesses a genial nature, and he is both a kind-
hearted and liberal man.
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