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Analysis and Design of Analog Integrated Circuits 5th
Edition Paul R. Gray Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Paul R. Gray, Paul J. Hurst, Stephen H. Lewis, Robert G. Meyer
ISBN(s): 9780470245996, 0470245999
Edition: 5
File Details: PDF, 7.91 MB
Year: 2009
Language: english
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
OF ANALOG INTEGRATED
CIRCUITS
Fifth Edition

PAUL R. GRAY
University of California, Berkeley

PAUL J. HURST
University of California, Davis

STEPHEN H. LEWIS
University of California, Davis

ROBERT G. MEYER
University of California, Berkeley

New York / Chichester / Weinheim / Brisbane / Singapore / Toronto

PUBLISHER Don Fowley

ACQUISITIONS EDITOR Daniel Sayre

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DESIGNER Arthur Medina

PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT SERVICES Elm Street Publishing Services

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Cover courtesy of Chi Ho Law.

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∞

Copyright 2009 © John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Analysis and design of analog integrated circuits / Paul R. Gray . . . [et al.]. — 5th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-470-24599-6 (cloth: alk. paper)
1. Linear integrated circuits-Computer-aided design. 2. Metal oxide
semiconductors-Computer-aided design. 3. Bipolar transistors-Computer-aided design.
I. Gray, Paul R., 1942-
TK7874.A588 2009
621.3815–dc21 08-043583
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 3 2 1
To Liz, Barbara, Robin, and Judy
Preface

Since the publication of the first edition of this book, the field of analog integrated circuits has
developed and matured. The initial groundwork was laid in bipolar technology, followed by
a rapid evolution of MOS analog integrated circuits. Thirty years ago, CMOS technologies
were fast enough to support applications only at audio frequencies. However, the continu-
ing reduction of the minimum feature size in integrated-circuit (IC) technologies has greatly
increased the maximum operating frequencies, and CMOS technologies have become fast
enough for many new applications as a result. For example, the bandwidth in some video
applications is about 4 MHz, requiring bipolar technologies as recently as about twenty-three
years ago. Now, however, CMOS easily can accommodate the required bandwidth for video
and is being used for radio-frequency applications. Today, bipolar integrated circuits are used in
some applications that require very low noise, very wide bandwidth, or driving low-impedance
loads.
In this fifth edition, coverage of the bipolar 741 op amp has been replaced with a low-
voltage bipolar op amp, the NE5234, with rail-to-rail common-mode input range and almost
rail-to-rail output swing. Analysis of a fully differential CMOS folded-cascode operational
amplifier (op amp) is now included in Chapter 12. The 560B phase-locked loop, which is no
longer commercially available, has been deleted from Chapter 10.
The SPICE computer analysis program is now readily available to virtually all electrical
engineering students and professionals, and we have included extensive use of SPICE in this
edition, particularly as an integral part of many problems. We have used computer analysis as
it is most commonly employed in the engineering design process—both as a more accurate
check on hand calculations, and also as a tool to examine complex circuit behavior beyond the
scope of hand analysis.
An in-depth look at SPICE as an indispensable tool for IC robust design can be found in
The SPICE Book, 2nd ed., published by J. Wiley and Sons. This text contains many worked
out circuit designs and verification examples linked to the multitude of analyses available in
the most popular versions of SPICE. The SPICE Book conveys the role of simulation as an
integral part of the design process, but not as a replacement for solid circuit-design knowledge.
This book is intended to be useful both as a text for students and as a reference book for
practicing engineers. For class use, each chapter includes many worked problems; the problem
sets at the end of each chapter illustrate the practical applications of the material in the text. All
of the authors have extensive industrial experience in IC design and in the teaching of courses
on this subject; this experience is reflected in the choice of text material and in the problem
sets.
Although this book is concerned largely with the analysis and design of ICs, a considerable
amount of material also is included on applications. In practice, these two subjects are closely
linked, and a knowledge of both is essential for designers and users of ICs. The latter compose
the larger group by far, and we believe that a working knowledge of IC design is a great
advantage to an IC user. This is particularly apparent when the user must choose from among a
number of competing designs to satisfy a particular need. An understanding of the IC structure
is then useful in evaluating the relative desirability of the different designs under extremes of
environment or in the presence of variations in supply voltage. In addition, the IC user is in a
 Preface v

much better position to interpret a manufacturer’s data if he or she has a working knowledge
of the internal operation of the integrated circuit.
The contents of this book stem largely from courses on analog integrated circuits given at
the University of California at the Berkeley and Davis campuses. The courses are senior-level
electives and first-year graduate courses. The book is structured so that it can be used as the
basic text for a sequence of such courses. The more advanced material is found at the end of
each chapter or in an appendix so that a first course in analog integrated circuits can omit this
material without loss of continuity. An outline of each chapter is given below with suggestions
for material to be covered in such a first course. It is assumed that the course consists of three
hours of lecture per week over a fifteen-week semester and that the students have a working
knowledge of Laplace transforms and frequency-domain circuit analysis. It is also assumed
that the students have had an introductory course in electronics so that they are familiar with
the principles of transistor operation and with the functioning of simple analog circuits. Unless
otherwise stated, each chapter requires three to four lecture hours to cover.
Chapter 1 contains a summary of bipolar transistor and MOS transistor device physics.
We suggest spending one week on selected topics from this chapter, with the choice of topics
depending on the background of the students. The material of Chapters 1 and 2 is quite important
in IC design because there is significant interaction between circuit and device design, as will
be seen in later chapters. A thorough understanding of the influence of device fabrication on
device characteristics is essential.
Chapter 2 is concerned with the technology of IC fabrication and is largely descriptive.
One lecture on this material should suffice if the students are assigned the chapter to read.
Chapter 3 deals with the characteristics of elementary transistor connections. The material
on one-transistor amplifiers should be a review for students at the senior and graduate levels and
can be assigned as reading. The section on two-transistor amplifiers can be covered in about
three hours, with greatest emphasis on differential pairs. The material on device mismatch
effects in differential amplifiers can be covered to the extent that time allows.
In Chapter 4, the important topics of current mirrors and active loads are considered. These
configurations are basic building blocks in modern analog IC design, and this material should
be covered in full, with the exception of the material on band-gap references and the material
in the appendices.
Chapter 5 is concerned with output stages and methods of delivering output power to a load.
Integrated-circuit realizations of Class A, Class B, and Class AB output stages are described,
as well as methods of output-stage protection. A selection of topics from this chapter should
be covered.
Chapter 6 deals with the design of operational amplifiers (op amps). Illustrative examples
of dc and ac analysis in both MOS and bipolar op amps are performed in detail, and the limita-
tions of the basic op amps are described. The design of op amps with improved characteristics
in both MOS and bipolar technologies are considered. This key chapter on amplifier design
requires at least six hours.
In Chapter 7, the frequency response of amplifiers is considered. The zero-value time-
constant technique is introduced for the calculations of the –3-dB frequency of complex circuits.
The material of this chapter should be considered in full.
Chapter 8 describes the analysis of feedback circuits. Two different types of analysis are
presented: two-port and return-ratio analyses. Either approach should be covered in full with
the section on voltage regulators assigned as reading.
Chapter 9 deals with the frequency response and stability of feedback circuits and should
be covered up to the section on root locus. Time may not permit a detailed discussion of root
locus, but some introduction to this topic can be given.
vi Preface

In a fifteen-week semester, coverage of the above material leaves about two weeks for
Chapters 10, 11, and 12. A selection of topics from these chapters can be chosen as follows.
Chapter 10 deals with nonlinear analog circuits and portions of this chapter up to Section
10.2 could be covered in a first course. Chapter 11 is a comprehensive treatment of noise
in integrated circuits and material up to and including Section 11.4 is suitable. Chapter 12
describes fully differential operational amplifiers and common-mode feedback and may be
best suited for a second course.
We are grateful to the following colleagues for their suggestions for and/or evaluation of
this book: R. Jacob Baker, Bernhard E. Boser, A. Paul Brokaw, Iwen Chao, John N. Churchill,
David W. Cline, Kenneth C. Dyer, Ozan E. Erdoğan, John W. Fattaruso, Weinan Gao, Edwin
W. Greeneich, Alex Gros-Balthazard, Tünde Gyurics, Ward J. Helms, Kaveh Hosseini, Tim-
othy H. Hu, Shafiq M. Jamal, John P. Keane, Haideh Khorramabadi, Pak Kim Lau, Thomas
W. Matthews, Krishnaswamy Nagaraj, Khalil Najafi, Borivoje Nikolić, Keith O’Donoghue,
Robert A. Pease, Lawrence T. Pileggi, Edgar Sánchez-Sinencio, Bang-Sup Song, Richard R.
Spencer, Eric J. Swanson, Andrew Y. J. Szeto, Yannis P. Tsividis, Srikanth Vaidianathan, T. R.
Viswanathan, Chorng-Kuang Wang, Dong Wang, and Mo Maggie Zhang. We are also grateful
to Darrel Akers, Mu Jane Lee, Lakshmi Rao, Nattapol Sitthimahachaikul, Haoyue Wang, and
Mo Maggie Zhang for help with proofreading, and to Chi Ho Law for allowing us to use on the
cover of this book a die photograph of an integrated circuit he designed. Finally, we would like
to thank the staffs at Wiley and Elm Street Publishing Services for their efforts in producing
this edition.
The material in this book has been greatly influenced by our association with the late
Donald O. Pederson, and we acknowledge his contributions.

Berkeley and Davis, CA, 2008 Paul R. Gray

Paul J. Hurst
Stephen H. Lewis
Robert G. Meyer
 Contents

CHAPTER 1 1.5.2 Comparison of Operating Regions of

Models for Integrated-Circuit Active Bipolar and MOS Transistors 45
Devices 1 1.5.3 Decomposition of Gate-Source
Voltage 47
1.1 Introduction 1
1.5.4 Threshold Temperature
1.2 Depletion Region of a pn Junction 1 Dependence 47
1.2.1 Depletion-Region Capacitance 5 1.5.5 MOS Device Voltage Limitations
1.2.2 Junction Breakdown 6 48
1.3 Large-Signal Behavior of Bipolar 1.6 Small-Signal Models of MOS
Transistors 8 Transistors 49
1.3.1 Large-Signal Models in the 1.6.1 Transconductance 50
Forward-Active Region 8 1.6.2 Intrinsic Gate-Source and
1.3.2 Effects of Collector Voltage on Gate-Drain Capacitance 51
Large-Signal Characteristics in the 1.6.3 Input Resistance 52
Forward-Active Region 14
1.6.4 Output Resistance 52
1.3.3 Saturation and Inverse-Active
Regions 16 1.6.5 Basic Small-Signal Model of the
MOS Transistor 52
1.3.4 Transistor Breakdown Voltages 20
1.6.6 Body Transconductance 53
1.3.5 Dependence of Transistor Current
Gain βF on Operating Conditions 1.6.7 Parasitic Elements in the
23 Small-Signal Model 54
1.6.8 MOS Transistor Frequency
1.4 Small-Signal Models of Bipolar
Response 55
Transistors 25
1.7 Short-Channel Effects in MOS
1.4.1 Transconductance 26
Transistors 59
1.4.2 Base-Charging Capacitance 27
1.7.1 Velocity Saturation from the
1.4.3 Input Resistance 28 Horizontal Field 59
1.4.4 Output Resistance 29 1.7.2 Transconductance and Transition
1.4.5 Basic Small-Signal Model of the Frequency 63
Bipolar Transistor 30 1.7.3 Mobility Degradation from the
1.4.6 Collector-Base Resistance 30 Vertical Field 65
1.4.7 Parasitic Elements in the 1.8 Weak Inversion in MOS Transistors 65
Small-Signal Model 31
1.8.1 Drain Current in Weak Inversion 66
1.4.8 Specification of Transistor
1.8.2 Transconductance and Transition
Frequency Response 34
Frequency in Weak Inversion 69
1.5 Large-Signal Behavior of
1.9 Substrate Current Flow in MOS
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor
Transistors 71
Field-Effect Transistors 38
A.1.1 Summary of Active-Device
1.5.1 Transfer Characteristics of MOS
Devices 38
Parameters 73
viii Contents

CHAPTER 2 2.9 Active Devices in MOS Integrated

Bipolar, MOS, and BiCMOS Circuits 131
Integrated-Circuit Technology 78 2.9.1 n-Channel Transistors 131
2.1 Introduction 78 2.9.2 p-Channel Transistors 144
2.2 Basic Processes in Integrated-Circuit 2.9.3 Depletion Devices 144
Fabrication 79 2.9.4 Bipolar Transistors 145
2.2.1 Electrical Resistivity of Silicon 79 2.10 Passive Components in MOS
2.2.2 Solid-State Diffusion 80 Technology 146
2.2.3 Electrical Properties of Diffused 2.10.1 Resistors 146
Layers 82
2.10.2 Capacitors in MOS Technology 148
2.2.4 Photolithography 84
2.10.3 Latchup in CMOS Technology 151
2.2.5 Epitaxial Growth 86
2.11 BiCMOS Technology 152
2.2.6 Ion Implantation 87
2.12 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors 153
2.2.7 Local Oxidation 87
2.2.8 Polysilicon Deposition 87
2.13 Interconnect Delay 156
2.3 High-Voltage Bipolar 2.14 Economics of Integrated-Circuit
Integrated-Circuit Fabrication 88 Fabrication 156
2.14.1 Yield Considerations in
2.4 Advanced Bipolar Integrated-Circuit
Integrated-Circuit Fabrication 157
Fabrication 92
2.14.2 Cost Considerations in
2.5 Active Devices in Bipolar Analog Integrated-Circuit Fabrication 159
Integrated Circuits 95
A.2.1 SPICE Model-Parameter Files 162
2.5.1 Integrated-Circuit npn Transistors
96
CHAPTER 3
2.5.2 Integrated-Circuit pnp Transistors Single-Transistor and Multiple-Transistor
107 Amplifiers 169
2.6 Passive Components in Bipolar
3.1 Device Model Selection for
Integrated Circuits 115
Approximate Analysis of Analog
2.6.1 Diffused Resistors 115 Circuits 170
2.6.2 Epitaxial and Epitaxial Pinch 3.2 Two-Port Modeling of Amplifiers 171
Resistors 119
3.3 Basic Single-Transistor Amplifier
2.6.3 Integrated-Circuit Capacitors 120
Stages 173
2.6.4 Zener Diodes 121
3.3.1 Common-Emitter Configuration
2.6.5 Junction Diodes 122 174
2.7 Modifications to the Basic Bipolar 3.3.2 Common-Source Configuration 178
Process 123
3.3.3 Common-Base Configuration 182
2.7.1 Dielectric Isolation 123 3.3.4 Common-Gate Configuration 185
2.7.2 Compatible Processing for 3.3.5 Common-Base and Common-Gate
High-Performance Active Devices Configurations with Finite r0 187
124 3.3.5.1 Common-Base and
2.7.3 High-Performance Passive Common-Gate Input
Components 127 Resistance 187
2.8 MOS Integrated-Circuit Fabrication 3.3.5.2 Common-Base and
127 Common-Gate Output
Resistance 189
 Contents ix

3.3.6 Common-Collector Configuration 3.5.6.8 Offset Voltage Drift in the

(Emitter Follower) 191 Source-Coupled Pair 236
3.3.7 Common-Drain Configuration 3.5.6.9 Small-Signal Characteristics
(Source Follower) 194 of Unbalanced Differential
Amplifiers 237
3.3.8 Common-Emitter Amplifier with
Emitter Degeneration 196 A.3.1 Elementary Statistics and the Gaussian
3.3.9 Common-Source Amplifier with Distribution 244
Source Degeneration 199
3.4 Multiple-Transistor Amplifier Stages CHAPTER 4
201 Current Mirrors, Active Loads, and
References 251
3.4.1 The CC-CE, CC-CC, and Darlington
Configurations 201 4.1 Introduction 251
3.4.2 The Cascode Configuration 205 4.2 Current Mirrors 251
3.4.2.1 The Bipolar Cascode 205
4.2.1 General Properties 251
3.4.2.2 The MOS Cascode 207
4.2.2 Simple Current Mirror 253
3.4.3 The Active Cascode 210
4.2.2.1 Bipolar 253
3.4.4 The Super Source Follower 212 4.2.2.2 MOS 255
3.5 Differential Pairs 214 4.2.3 Simple Current Mirror with Beta
3.5.1 The dc Transfer Characteristic of an Helper 258
Emitter-Coupled Pair 214 4.2.3.1 Bipolar 258
4.2.3.2 MOS 260
3.5.2 The dc Transfer Characteristic with
Emitter Degeneration 216 4.2.4 Simple Current Mirror with
Degeneration 260
3.5.3 The dc Transfer Characteristic of a
4.2.4.1 Bipolar 260
Source-Coupled Pair 217
4.2.4.2 MOS 261
3.5.4 Introduction to the Small-Signal
4.2.5 Cascode Current Mirror 261
Analysis of Differential Amplifiers
4.2.5.1 Bipolar 261
220
4.2.5.2 MOS 264
3.5.5 Small-Signal Characteristics of
4.2.6 Wilson Current Mirror 272
Balanced Differential Amplifiers
4.2.6.1 Bipolar 272
223
4.2.6.2 MOS 275
3.5.6 Device Mismatch Effects in
Differential Amplifiers 229 4.3 Active Loads 276
3.5.6.1 Input Offset Voltage and 4.3.1 Motivation 276
Current 230 4.3.2 Common-Emitter–Common-Source
3.5.6.2 Input Offset Voltage of the Amplifier with Complementary
Emitter-Coupled Pair 230 Load 277
3.5.6.3 Offset Voltage of the
4.3.3 Common-Emitter–Common-Source
Emitter-Coupled Pair:
Amplifier with Depletion Load 280
Approximate Analysis 231
3.5.6.4 Offset Voltage Drift in the 4.3.4 Common-Emitter–Common-Source
Emitter-Coupled Pair 233 Amplifier with Diode-Connected
3.5.6.5 Input Offset Current of the Load 282
Emitter-Coupled Pair 233 4.3.5 Differential Pair with Current-Mirror
3.5.6.6 Input Offset Voltage of the Load 285
Source-Coupled Pair 234 4.3.5.1 Large-Signal Analysis 285
3.5.6.7 Offset Voltage of the 4.3.5.2 Small-Signal Analysis 286
Source-Coupled Pair: 4.3.5.3 Common-Mode Rejection
Approximate Analysis 235 Ratio 291
x Contents

4.4 Voltage and Current References 297 5.3.1 Transfer Characteristics of the Source
Follower 353
4.4.1 Low-Current Biasing 297
4.4.1.1 Bipolar Widlar Current 5.3.2 Distortion in the Source Follower
Source 297 355
4.4.1.2 MOS Widlar Current 5.4 Class B Push–Pull Output Stage 359
Source 300
5.4.1 Transfer Characteristic of the Class B
4.4.1.3 Bipolar Peaking Current
Stage 360
Source 301
4.4.1.4 MOS Peaking Current 5.4.2 Power Output and Efficiency of the
Source 302 Class B Stage 362
4.4.2 Supply-Insensitive Biasing 303 5.4.3 Practical Realizations of Class B
4.4.2.1 Widlar Current Sources Complementary Output Stages 366
304 5.4.4 All-npn Class B Output Stage 373
4.4.2.2 Current Sources Using Other 5.4.5 Quasi-Complementary Output Stages
Voltage Standards 305 376
4.4.2.3 Self-Biasing 307
5.4.6 Overload Protection 377
4.4.3 Temperature-Insensitive Biasing
315 5.5 CMOS Class AB Output Stages 379
4.4.3.1 Band-Gap-Referenced 5.5.1 Common-Drain Configuration 380
Bias Circuits in Bipolar 5.5.2 Common-Source Configuration with
Technology 315 Error Amplifiers 381
4.4.3.2 Band-Gap-Referenced
Bias Circuits in CMOS 5.5.3 Alternative Configurations 388
Technology 321 5.5.3.1 Combined Common-Drain
Common-Source
A.4.1 Matching Considerations in Current Configuration 388
Mirrors 325 5.5.3.2 Combined Common-Drain
A.4.1.1 Bipolar 325 Common-Source
A.4.1.2 MOS 328 Configuration with High
A.4.2 Input Offset Voltage of Differential Swing 390
Pair with Active Load 330 5.5.3.3 Parallel Common-Source
A.4.2.1 Bipolar 330 Configuration 390
A.4.2.2 MOS 332
CHAPTER 6
Operational Amplifiers with
CHAPTER 5 Single-Ended Outputs 400
Output Stages 341
6.1 Applications of Operational Amplifiers
5.1 Introduction 341 401
5.2 The Emitter Follower as an Output Stage 6.1.1 Basic Feedback Concepts 401
341 6.1.2 Inverting Amplifier 402
5.2.1 Transfer Characteristics of the 6.1.3 Noninverting Amplifier 404
Emitter-Follower 341
6.1.4 Differential Amplifier 404
5.2.2 Power Output and Efficiency 344
6.1.5 Nonlinear Analog Operations 405
5.2.3 Emitter-Follower Drive
6.1.6 Integrator, Differentiator 406
Requirements 351
6.1.7 Internal Amplifiers 407
5.2.4 Small-Signal Properties of the
6.1.7.1 Switched-Capacitor
Emitter Follower 352
Amplifier 407
5.3 The Source Follower as an Output Stage 6.1.7.2 Switched-Capacitor
353 Integrator 412
 Contents xi

6.2 Deviations from Ideality in Real CHAPTER 7

Operational Amplifiers 415 Frequency Response of Integrated
6.2.1 Input Bias Current 415 Circuits 490
6.2.2 Input Offset Current 416 7.1 Introduction 490
6.2.3 Input Offset Voltage 416 7.2 Single-Stage Amplifiers 490
6.2.4 Common-Mode Input Range 416 7.2.1 Single-Stage Voltage Amplifiers and
6.2.5 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio the Miller Effect 490
(CMRR) 417 7.2.1.1 The Bipolar Differential
6.2.6 Power-Supply Rejection Ratio Amplifier: Differential-
(PSRR) 418 Mode Gain 495
7.2.1.2 The MOS Differential
6.2.7 Input Resistance 420
Amplifier: Differential-
6.2.8 Output Resistance 420 Mode Gain 499
6.2.9 Frequency Response 420 7.2.2 Frequency Response of the
6.2.10 Operational-Amplifier Equivalent Common-Mode Gain for a
Circuit 420 Differential Amplifier 501
6.3 Basic Two-Stage MOS Operational 7.2.3 Frequency Response of Voltage
Amplifiers 421 Buffers 503
7.2.3.1 Frequency Response of the
6.3.1 Input Resistance, Output Resistance, Emitter Follower 505
and Open-Circuit Voltage Gain 422 7.2.3.2 Frequency Response of the
6.3.2 Output Swing 423 Source Follower 511
6.3.3 Input Offset Voltage 424 7.2.4 Frequency Response of Current
6.3.4 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio Buffers 514
427 7.2.4.1 Common-Base Amplifier
6.3.5 Common-Mode Input Range 427 Frequency Response 516
7.2.4.2 Common-Gate Amplifier
6.3.6 Power-Supply Rejection Ratio Frequency Response 517
(PSRR) 430
7.3 Multistage Amplifier Frequency
6.3.7 Effect of Overdrive Voltages 434
Response 518
6.3.8 Layout Considerations 435
7.3.1 Dominant-Pole Approximation 518
6.4 Two-Stage MOS Operational Amplifiers
7.3.2 Zero-Value Time Constant Analysis
with Cascodes 438
519
6.5 MOS Telescopic-Cascode Operational
7.3.3 Cascode Voltage-Amplifier
Amplifiers 439 Frequency Response 524
6.6 MOS Folded-Cascode Operational 7.3.4 Cascode Frequency Response 527
Amplifiers 442
7.3.5 Frequency Response of a Current
6.7 MOS Active-Cascode Operational Mirror Loading a Differential Pair
Amplifiers 446 534
6.8 Bipolar Operational Amplifiers 448 7.3.6 Short-Circuit Time Constants 536
6.8.1 The dc Analysis of the NE5234 7.4 Analysis of the Frequency Response of
Operational Amplifier 452 the NE5234 Op Amp 539
6.8.2 Transistors that Are Normally Off 7.4.1 High-Frequency Equivalent Circuit of
467 the NE5234 539
6.8.3 Small-Signal Analysis of the 7.4.2 Calculation of the −3-dB Frequency
NE5234 Operational Amplifier 469 of the NE5234 540
6.8.4 Calculation of the Input Offset Voltage 7.4.3 Nondominant Poles of the NE5234
and Current of the NE5234 477 542
xii Contents

7.5 Relation Between Frequency Response 9.3 Instability and the Nyquist Criterion
and Time Response 542 626
9.4 Compensation 633
CHAPTER 8
9.4.1 Theory of Compensation 633
Feedback 553
9.4.2 Methods of Compensation 637
8.1 Ideal Feedback Equation 553 9.4.3 Two-Stage MOS Amplifier
8.2 Gain Sensitivity 555 Compensation 643
8.3 Effect of Negative Feedback on 9.4.4 Compensation of Single-Stage
Distortion 555 CMOS Op Amps 650
8.4 Feedback Configurations 557 9.4.5 Nested Miller Compensation 654

8.4.1 Series-Shunt Feedback 557 9.5 Root-Locus Techniques 664

8.4.2 Shunt-Shunt Feedback 560 9.5.1 Root Locus for a Three-Pole Transfer
Function 665
8.4.3 Shunt-Series Feedback 561
9.5.2 Rules for Root-Locus Construction
8.4.4 Series-Series Feedback 562
667
8.5 Practical Configurations and the Effect 9.5.3 Root Locus for Dominant-Pole
of Loading 563 Compensation 676
8.5.1 Shunt-Shunt Feedback 563 9.5.4 Root Locus for Feedback-Zero
8.5.2 Series-Series Feedback 569 Compensation 677
8.5.3 Series-Shunt Feedback 579 9.6 Slew Rate 681
8.5.4 Shunt-Series Feedback 583 9.6.1 Origin of Slew-Rate Limitations
8.5.5 Summary 587 681
8.6 Single-Stage Feedback 587 9.6.2 Methods of Improving Slew-Rate in
Two-Stage Op Amps 685
8.6.1 Local Series-Series Feedback 587
9.6.3 Improving Slew-Rate in Bipolar Op
8.6.2 Local Series-Shunt Feedback 591 Amps 687
8.7 The Voltage Regulator as a Feedback 9.6.4 Improving Slew-Rate in MOS Op
Circuit 593 Amps 688
8.8 Feedback Circuit Analysis Using Return 9.6.5 Effect of Slew-Rate Limitations
Ratio 599 on Large-Signal Sinusoidal
8.8.1 Closed-Loop Gain Using Return Performance 692
Ratio 601 A.9.1 Analysis in Terms of Return-Ratio
8.8.2 Closed-Loop Impedance Formula Parameters 693
Using Return Ratio 607
A.9.2 Roots of a Quadratic Equation 694
8.8.3 Summary—Return-Ratio Analysis
612
8.9 Modeling Input and Output Ports in CHAPTER 10
Feedback Circuits 613 Nonlinear Analog Circuits 704
10.1 Introduction 704
CHAPTER 9
10.2 Analog Multipliers Employing the
Frequency Response and Stability of Bipolar Transistor 704
Feedback Amplifiers 624
10.2.1 The Emitter-Coupled Pair as a Simple
9.1 Introduction 624 Multiplier 704
9.2 Relation Between Gain and Bandwidth 10.2.2 The dc Analysis of the Gilbert
in Feedback Amplifiers 624 Multiplier Cell 706
 Contents xiii

10.2.3 The Gilbert Cell as an Analog 11.6.2 Effect of Practical Feedback on

Multiplier 708 Noise Performance 765
10.2.4 A Complete Analog Multiplier 711 11.7 Noise Performance of Other Transistor
10.2.5 The Gilbert Multiplier Cell as a Configurations 771
Balanced Modulator and Phase 11.7.1 Common-Base Stage Noise
Detector 712 Performance 771
10.3 Phase-Locked Loops (PLL) 716 11.7.2 Emitter-Follower Noise
10.3.1 Phase-Locked Loop Concepts 716 Performance 773
10.3.2 The Phase-Locked Loop in the 11.7.3 Differential-Pair Noise
Locked Condition 718 Performance 773
10.3.3 Integrated-Circuit Phase-Locked 11.8 Noise in Operational Amplifiers 776
Loops 727 11.9 Noise Bandwidth 782
10.4 Nonlinear Function Synthesis 731
11.10 Noise Figure and Noise Temperature
786
CHAPTER 11
Noise in Integrated Circuits 736 11.10.1 Noise Figure 786
11.10.2 Noise Temperature 790
11.1 Introduction 736
11.2 Sources of Noise 736
11.2.1 Shot Noise 736 CHAPTER 12
Fully Differential Operational
11.2.2 Thermal Noise 740
Amplifiers 796
11.2.3 Flicker Noise (1/f Noise) 741
11.2.4 Burst Noise (Popcorn Noise) 742
12.1 Introduction 796
11.2.5 Avalanche Noise 743 12.2 Properties of Fully Differential
Amplifiers 796
11.3 Noise Models of Integrated-Circuit
Components 744 12.3 Small-Signal Models for Balanced
Differential Amplifiers 799
11.3.1 Junction Diode 744
12.4 Common-Mode Feedback 804
11.3.2 Bipolar Transistor 745
12.4.1 Common-Mode Feedback at Low
11.3.3 MOS Transistor 746
Frequencies 805
11.3.4 Resistors 747
12.4.2 Stability and Compensation
11.3.5 Capacitors and Inductors 747 Considerations in a CMFB
11.4 Circuit Noise Calculations 748 Loop 810
11.4.1 Bipolar Transistor Noise Performance 12.5 CMFB Circuits 811
750 12.5.1 CMFB Using Resistive Divider and
11.4.2 Equivalent Input Noise and the Amplifier 812
Minimum Detectable Signal 754 12.5.2 CMFB Using Two Differential
11.5 Equivalent Input Noise Generators 756 Pairs 816
11.5.1 Bipolar Transistor Noise Generators 12.5.3 CMFB Using Transistors in the
757 Triode Region 819
11.5.2 MOS Transistor Noise Generators 12.5.4 Switched-Capacitor CMFB 821
762 12.6 Fully Differential Op Amps 823
11.6 Effect of Feedback on Noise 12.6.1 A Fully Differential Two-Stage Op
Performance 764 Amp 823
11.6.1 Effect of Ideal Feedback on Noise 12.6.2 Fully Differential Telescopic Cascode
Performance 764 Op Amp 833
xiv Symbol Convention

12.6.3 Fully Differential Folded-Cascode Op 12.9 Analysis of a CMOS Fully Differential

Amp 834 Folded-Cascode Op Amp 845
12.6.4 A Differential Op Amp with Two 12.9.1 DC Biasing 848
Differential Input Stages 835
12.9.2 Low-Frequency Analysis 850
12.6.5 Neutralization 835
12.9.3 Frequency and Time Responses in a
12.7 Unbalanced Fully Differential Circuits Feedback Application 856
838
12.8 Bandwidth of the CMFB Loop 844 Index 871

Symbol Convention
Unless otherwise stated, the following symbol convention is used in this book. Bias or dc
quantities, such as transistor collector current IC and collector-emitter voltage VCE , are
represented by uppercase symbols with uppercase subscripts. Small-signal quantities, such
as the incremental change in transistor collector current ic , are represented by lowercase
symbols with lowercase subscripts. Elements such as transconductance gm in small-signal
equivalent circuits are represented in the same way. Finally, quantities such as total col-
lector current Ic , which represent the sum of the bias quantity and the signal quantity, are
represented by an uppercase symbol with a lowercase subscript.
CHAPTER 1

Models for Integrated-Circuit

Active Devices

1.1 Introduction
The analysis and design of integrated circuits depend heavily on the utilization of suitable
models for integrated-circuit components. This is true in hand analysis, where fairly simple
models are generally used, and in computer analysis, where more complex models are encoun-
tered. Since any analysis is only as accurate as the model used, it is essential that the circuit
designer have a thorough understanding of the origin of the models commonly utilized and the
degree of approximation involved in each.
This chapter deals with the derivation of large-signal and small-signal models for
integrated-circuit devices. The treatment begins with a consideration of the properties of pn
junctions, which are basic parts of most integrated-circuit elements. Since this book is primarily
concerned with circuit analysis and design, no attempt has been made to produce a comprehen-
sive treatment of semiconductor physics. The emphasis is on summarizing the basic aspects
of semiconductor-device behavior and indicating how these can be modeled by equivalent
circuits.

1.2 Depletion Region of a pn Junction

The properties of reverse-biased pn junctions have an important influence on the character-
istics of many integrated-circuit components. For example, reverse-biased pn junctions exist
between many integrated-circuit elements and the underlying substrate, and these junctions
all contribute voltage-dependent parasitic capacitances. In addition, a number of important
characteristics of active devices, such as breakdown voltage and output resistance, depend
directly on the properties of the depletion region of a reverse-biased pn junction. Finally, the
basic operation of the junction field-effect transistor is controlled by the width of the depletion
region of a pn junction. Because of its importance and application to many different problems,
an analysis of the depletion region of a reverse-biased pn junction is considered below. The
properties of forward-biased pn junctions are treated in Section 1.3 when bipolar-transistor
operation is described.
Consider a pn junction under reverse bias as shown in Fig. 1.1. Assume constant doping
densities of ND atoms/cm3 in the n-type material and NA atoms/cm3 in the p-type material.
(The characteristics of junctions with nonconstant doping densities will be described later.)
Due to the difference in carrier concentrations in the p-type and n-type regions, there exists a
region at the junction where the mobile holes and electrons have been removed, leaving the
fixed acceptor and donor ions. Each acceptor atom carries a negative charge and each donor
atom carries a positive charge, so that the region near the junction is one of significant space
charge and resulting high electric field. This is called the depletion region or space-charge
2 Chapter 1 䊏 Models for Integrated-Circuit Active Devices

– +
p n VR
(a) Applied external
Charge density ␳ reverse bias

q ND
+
x
Distance
–
–q NA
(b)
Electric field


(c)
V
Potential

V2
␺ 0 + VR
V1 Figure 1.1 The abrupt junction
x under reverse bias VR .
–W1 W2 (a) Schematic. (b) Charge
density. (c) Electric field.
(d) (d ) Electrostatic potential.

region. It is assumed that the edges of the depletion region are sharply defined as shown in
Fig. 1.1, and this is a good approximation in most cases.
For zero applied bias, there exists a voltage ψ0 across the junction called the built-in
potential. This potential opposes the diffusion of mobile holes and electrons across the junction
in equilibrium and has a value1
NA ND
ψ0 = VT ln (1.1)
n2i

where
kT
VT =  26 mV at 300◦ K
q
the quantity ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration in a pure sample of the semiconductor and
ni  1.5 × 1010 cm−3 at 300◦ K for silicon.
In Fig. 1.1 the built-in potential is augmented by the applied reverse bias, VR , and the total
voltage across the junction is (ψ0 + VR ). If the depletion region penetrates a distance W1 into
the p-type region and W2 into the n-type region, then we require

W1 NA = W2 ND (1.2)

because the total charge per unit area on either side of the junction must be equal in magnitude
but opposite in sign.
 1.2 Depletion Region of a pn Junction 3

Poisson’s equation in one dimension requires that

d2V ρ qNA
2
=− = for −W1 < x < 0 (1.3)
dx  
where ρ is the charge density, q is the electron charge (1.6 × 10−19 coulomb), and  is the
permittivity of the silicon (1.04 × 10−12 farad/cm). The permittivity is often expressed as
 = KS 0 (1.4)
where KS is the dielectric constant of silicon and 0 is the permittivity of free space (8.86 ×
10−14 F/cm). Integration of (1.3) gives
dV qNA
= x + C1 (1.5)
dx 
where C1 is a constant. However, the electric field  is given by
 
dV qNA
=− =− x + C1 (1.6)
dx 
Since there is zero electric field outside the depletion region, a boundary condition is
=0 for x = −W1
and use of this condition in (1.6) gives
qNA dV
=− (x + W1 ) = − for −W1 < x < 0 (1.7)
 dx
Thus the dipole of charge existing at the junction gives rise to an electric field that varies
linearly with distance.
Integration of (1.7) gives
 
qNA x2
V = + W1 x + C2 (1.8)
 2
If the zero for potential is arbitrarily taken to be the potential of the neutral p-type region, then
a second boundary condition is
V =0 for x = −W1
and use of this in (1.8) gives
 
qNA x2 W2
V = + W1 x + 1 for −W1 < x < 0 (1.9)
 2 2
At x = 0, we define V = V1 , and then (1.9) gives
qNA W12
V1 = (1.10)
 2
If the potential difference from x = 0 to x = W2 is V2 , then it follows that
qND W22
V2 = (1.11)
 2
and thus the total voltage across the junction is
q
ψ0 + VR = V1 + V2 = (NA W12 + ND W22 ) (1.12)
2
4 Chapter 1 䊏 Models for Integrated-Circuit Active Devices

Substitution of (1.2) in (1.12) gives

 
qW12 NA NA
ψ 0 + VR = 1+ (1.13)
2 ND
From (1.13), the penetration of the depletion layer into the p-type region is
⎡ ⎤1/2
⎢ 2(ψ0 + VR ) ⎥
W1 = ⎢
⎣  ⎥ (1.14)
NA ⎦
qNA 1 +
ND
Similarly,
⎡ ⎤1/2
⎢ 2(ψ0 + VR ) ⎥
W2 = ⎢
⎣  ⎥ (1.15)
ND ⎦
qND 1 +
NA
Equations 1.14 and 1.15 show that the depletion regions extend into the p-type
√ and n-type
regions in inverse relation to the impurity concentrations and in proportion to ψ0 + VR . If
either ND or NA is much larger than the other, the depletion region exists almost entirely in
the lightly doped region.

EXAMPLE

An abrupt pn junction in silicon has doping densities NA = 1015 atoms/cm3 and ND = 1016
atoms/cm3 . Calculate the junction built-in potential, the depletion-layer depths, and the max-
imum field with 10 V reverse bias.
From (1.1)

1015 × 1016
ψ0 = 26 ln mV = 638 mV at 300◦ K
2.25 × 1020
From (1.14) the depletion-layer depth in the p-type region is
 1/2
2 × 1.04 × 10−12 × 10.64
W1 = = 3.5 × 10−4 cm
1.6 × 10−19 × 1015 × 1.1
= 3.5 ␮m (where 1 ␮m = 1 micrometer = 10−6 m)

The depletion-layer depth in the more heavily doped n-type region is

 1/2
2 × 1.04 × 10−12 × 10.64
W2 = = 0.35 × 10−4 cm = 0.35 ␮m
1.6 × 10−19 × 1016 × 11
Finally, from (1.7) the maximum field that occurs for x = 0 is

qNA 1015 × 3.5 × 10−4

max = − W1 = −1.6 × 10−19 ×
 1.04 × 10−12
= −5.4 × 10 V/cm
4

Note the large magnitude of this electric field.

Other documents randomly have
different content
giving astringency to Port wine. According to recent analysis the root
contains a peculiar modification of Tannin, with only a trace of Gallic
acid; Gum; Fecula; and certain salts of Lime. It may be used either
in decoction, or tincture, the latter of which may be made by
dissolving two ounces of the root in a pint of proof spirit. In all its
forms it is eminently astringent. I have used it with much success in
Leucorrhæa, and in uterine hemorrhages. The extract may be
distinguished from Kino, to which it bears a great resemblance in
appearance and taste, by being very fusible by heat, whereas Kino
does not possess that character.

LICHEN. L.E.D. (Lichen Islandicus.) Lichen.

Iceland Liverwort. Iceland Moss.

Qualities. Odour, none; Taste, mucilaginous and bitter. Solubility.
The effect of water upon this vegetable substance is materially
modified by temperature; if cold, the lichen absorbs nearly its own
weight by maceration, but gives out to the menstruum little or none
of its virtues; if the water be warm, it soon acquires a bitter
impregnation; by ebullition, a decoction is obtained, which, as it
cools, gelatinizes. See Decoct. Lichen. Chemical Composition. Proust
has shewn by analysis that 100 parts of this moss contain 64 parts
of a substance bearing some analogy to vegetable gluten, 33 of
matter, soluble in hot water, and resembling starch, and 3 parts of a
bitter principle. Medicinal Uses. This vegetable was introduced to the
notice of the profession by Linnæus, who recommended its
decoction, as having been administered with great success for
coughs in Sweden. Upon its introduction into this country, its patrons
bestowed so many extravagant eulogiums upon its powers, that the
less sanguine practitioner at once abandoned its use in disgust, and
it fell into unmerited disrepute. It would be idle to speak of its
specific effects in phthisis; but, as a demulcent, it is certainly very
superior to the mucilaginous mixtures in ordinary use, and its simple
bitter principle at the same time tends to produce a tonic effect,
which is frequently desirable in the debilitated condition which
characterizes the latter stages of this disease. There are
circumstances, however, which may render the removal of the bitter
advantageous; in which case, maceration in successive waters, or in
a weak alkaline ley, as recommended by Westring, will be found to
answer the intended purpose. Officinal Preparation. Decoct. Lichen.
Island. E. D. Sir Alexander Crichton has offered some observations
upon the genuineness of this article which deserve attention. He
says that there are two varieties in the market; the best of which
has a horny texture, and yields a bitter mucilage. It is that which
comes from Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and Finland. The inferior kind
has a membranous texture, and yields little bitter or mucilage in
comparison with the former. Where it comes from he knows not, but
he suspects it to be British, as it is much cheaper than the other.

LIMONES. L.E.D. (Citrus Medica. Baccæ.)

Lemons.
Succus—The Juice consists of Citric acid, mucilage, extractive
matter, and small portions of sugar and water. Specific gravity,
1·0384. It may be preserved for a considerable length of time, by
covering its surface with fixed oil.
Its use in making saline draughts has been already noticed, see
Acid. Citric. Its principal medicinal value consists in its
antiscorbutic[549] virtues; indeed it may be fairly asserted that this
disease, so peculiarly incident to a sea life, has been nearly
eradicated by the juice of lemons. Sir Gilbert Blane, in speaking of its
efficacy, asserts that “those only who have made themselves
acquainted with the early part of the Naval history of this country, or
those who have perused the interesting, popular, and eloquent
narrative of Commodore Anson’s voyage, can duly appreciate the
value of this simple remedy.” Lemonade, as a beverage in putrid
diseases, was first introduced by the French physicians in the
beginning of the 17th century, and about the year 1660, an Italian
from Florence, having learnt a process of freezing confectionary,
conceived the happy idea of converting such beverage into ice. This
found a ready sale, and was the occasion of so great an increase in
the number of sellers of Lemonade, that in the year 1676, the
Lemonadiers of Paris were formed into a company, and received a
patent from the government.
Cortex—The Rind or Peel is composed of two distinct parts; the
exterior, which contains glands, filled with a fragrant volatile oil,
upon which all its properties depend, and the interior coat, which is
tasteless and indigestible. The flavour may be obtained by rubbing
lump sugar upon it, which will imbibe the oil, and if it be then dried
by a very gentle heat, may be preserved unimpaired for any length
of time, and will be preferable to the volatile oil obtained by
distillation, for the fire generally imparts an unpleasant or
empyreumatic flavour.[550]
It has been already stated, that “the different parts of the same
plant have frequently very different properties.” The Lemon offers a
good example of this fact, for its juice is acid, its seeds bitter, and its
peel aromatic.

LINIMENTA. L.E.D. Liniments.

These are external applications, having the consistence of oil or
balsam. If we except the Liniment. Æruginis, all the officinal
liniments are decomposed by the substances which are incompatible
with soaps.
Linimentum Æruginis. L. Oxymel Æruginis. P.L. 1787. Mel
Ægyptiacum. P.L. 1745. Unguentum Ægyptiacum. P.L. 1720. Diluted
with water, it has been recommended as a gargle in venereal
ulcerations, but its use is hazardous; it is a detergent escharotic
preparation.
Linimentum Ammoniæ Fortius. L. Oleum Ammoniatum. E. Linimentum
Ammoniæ. D. It consists of liquor ammoniæ one part, olive oil two
parts, (oil eight parts, E.D.) The alkali forms with the oil a soap,
which is held dissolved by the water in the liquor ammoniæ. Is an
excellent rubefacient, and penetrating liniment.
 Linimentum Ammoniæ Sub-carbonatis. L. Linimentum Ammoniæ. P.L.
1787. Linimentum Volatile. P.L. 1745. The carbonic acid prevents the
perfect formation of soap in this liniment; unlike the former one,
therefore, it deposits the soapy matter on standing. It is much less
stimulating than the preceding one.
Linimentum Calcis. E.D. Oil and lime water, equal parts. This is an
earthy soap, formed by the combination of lime and oil; the soapy
matter separates on standing, it should therefore be
extemporaneous. In cases of burns and scalds where the cuticle has
been destroyed, it is an advantageous application.
Linimentum Camphoræ. L. Oleum Camphoratum. E.D. Camphor one,
olive oil four parts. It is a simple solution of camphor in fixed oil, and
forms a very useful embrocation to sprains, bruises, glandular
swellings, and in rheumatic affections.
Linimentum Camphoræ compositum. L. Camphor two, liquor ammoniæ
six, spirits of lavender sixteen parts. It is highly stimulating.[551]
Linimentum Hydrargyri. L. A pound of this liniment contains nearly
℥iv of mercury; it affects the mouth more rapidly than strong
mercurial ointment, although it will be seen by the Medicinal
Dynameter to contain less Mercury. This effect is to be attributed to
the stimulating properties of its adjuncts, viz. Camphor and
Ammonia.
Linimentum Saponis compositum. L. Hard soap iij, camphor j, spirit of
rosemary xvj parts. It is a stimulant and anodyne application, and in
local pains opium may be advantageously added to it. It is
commonly used under the name of Opodeldoc.[552] See Sapo.
Linimentum Terebinthinæ. This liniment was introduced by Mr.
Kentish of Newcastle, as a dressing to recent burns, which he
continued until the eschars became loose.

LINUM CATHARTICUM. L.D. Purging Flax.

The qualities of this plant reside in extractive matter, hence water
extracts, but long decoction injures them. Medicinal Uses. It is
strongly purgative. Forms of Exhibition. ʒij of the dried herb infused in
oj of boiling water. Dose, f℥ij.

LINI USITATISSIMI SEMINA. L.E.D.

Linseed, or Common Flax Seed.

These seeds contain a large proportion of mucilage, and one-sixth
of their weight of fixed oil; the former of which resides principally in
the cuticle, the latter, in the parenchymatous portion of the seed; by
infusion in boiling water, a clear, colourless, inodorous, and nearly
insipid mucilage is obtained; ℥ss of the unbruised seed is sufficient
for oj of water; cold water does not extract any mucilage from them
when unbruised; the farina of the seeds is well adapted for
cataplasms. Officinal Prep. Infus. Lini Comp: L. Oleum Lini. L. E. D.

LIQUOR ALUMINIS COMPOSITUS. L.

Aqua Aluminosa Bateana. P. L. 1745.

This is a compound solution of alum and sulphate of zinc; a fluid-
ounce containing about seven grains of each ingredient, it is
powerfully astringent, and is successfully used as a detergent lotion
to old ulcers; as a collyrium, or as an injection in gleet and fluor
albus; it will also often answer in removing chilblains, and in curing
slight excoriations.

LIQUOR AMMONIÆ. L. Aqua Ammoniæ. E.

Aqua Ammoniæ Causticæ. D.

Solution of Ammonia.
Qualities. Form, a limpid, colourless fluid; specific gravity, ·960, or
f℥j weighs about 438 grs. Odour, strong and pungent; Taste,
extremely caustic. Chemical Composition. A solution of ammoniacal gas
in water, which varies considerably in strength in the different
pharmacopœias. When prepared according to the London and
Edinburgh Colleges, it contains nearly 25 per cent. of ammonia,
whereas the Dublin preparation does not contain more than 16.
Solvent Powers. It is an active solvent of many vegetable principles,
e. g. oils, resins, &c. With alcohol it unites in every proportion; it
assists the oxidizement of copper and zinc, and dissolves many of
the metallic oxides. Med. Uses. Stimulant, rubefacient, and antacid.
Forms of Exhibition. In milk, or any liquid vehicle; if in decoctions, or
infusions, they must be previously cooled; for at 130° the ammonia
will escape in the form of gas. Dose, ♏︎x to xxx. Officinal Prep.
Linimentum Ammoniæ. L.D. Oleum Ammon. E. Spir. Ammoniæ. L.
Spir. Ammoniæ comp. L. Spir. Ammon. succinat. L. Liniment.
Camphor. comp. L. Adulterations. The presence of other salts in the
solution may be discovered by saturating a portion with pure nitric
acid, and applying the test for sulphuric acid, (Barytes) and that for
muriatic acid, (Nitrate of Silver.) Carbonic acid is detected by its
effervescing with acids, or by its forming with lime water, a
precipitate, soluble with effervescence in nitric acid; it ought to be
free from all fetor; its strength can only be determined by taking its
specific gravity. It should be preserved in well closed bottles, and
their dimensions should be small, for when in large vessels it often
becomes carbonated before it is half used.

LIQUOR AMMONIÆ ACETATIS. L. Aqua Acetatis Ammoniæ. E.D.

Solution of Acetate of Ammonia.

olim, Spirit of Mindererus.

This preparation is a solution of the neutral acetate of ammonia,
with a proportion of carbonic acid diffused through it; it is made by
saturating the sub-carbonate of ammonia with distilled vinegar, for
which purpose it will generally be found that ℥j of the alkali will
saturate oiss of the vinegar; since, however, the quantity of acid in
distilled vinegar as well the strength of the ammonia, are liable to
constant variation, the exact point of neutralization should be
ascertained by the alternate application of litmus and turmeric
papers; for if the proportions be not accurately adjusted, some of
the metallic salts, especially those of antimony, which are often
prescribed in conjunction with it, are decomposed, and thus
rendered inefficacious; and on this account an excess of alkali is to
be feared more than that of acid. This preparation is also not
unfrequently employed as a collyrium, when much serious mischief
may arise from the carbonate of ammonia predominating. It has
been already stated that a very minute proportion of extractive
matter is rendered sensible on the addition of an alkali; hence this
preparation frequently derives from the vinegar a brown hue, which
may be removed by filtering the solution through a little well burnt
charcoal. It also deserves notice that the presence of a trace of
copper, derived from the copper cocks through which the vinegar
has passed, will impart a brown tinge, whilst in larger quantities this
metal yields a blue colour with ammonia. Incompatible Substances.
Acids; fixed alkalies; alum; lime water; sulphate of magnesia;
corrosive sublimate; nitrate of silver; and the sulphates of zinc,
copper, and iron. Acetate of lead produces also a copious
precipitation, but this depends upon the presence of the carbonic
acid diffused through the solution, which decomposes the salt and
forms an insoluble carbonate of lead. Magnesia likewise, contrary to
what might be supposed, decomposes the solution and renders it
pungent, from the extrication of ammoniacal gas; this phenomenon
depends upon the magnesia forming a triple acetate with one part of
the ammonia, and setting the remainder at liberty. Med. Uses. When
assisted by warmth and plentiful dilution, it is an excellent
diaphoretic, and produces its effects without quickening the
circulation: (Form: 117, 126,) by keeping the surface of the body
cool, its action is determined to the kidneys, and it proves diuretic,
especially when combined with remedies of a similar tendency.
(Form: 111.) Dose, fʒiv to fʒxij. Externally it furnishes a lotion,
valuable as a refrigerant, especially when combined with some
spirituous preparation. See Form: 148.
 LIQUOR AMMONIÆ SUB-CARBONATIS. L.

Solutio Sub-Carbonatis Ammoniæ. E.

Aqua Carbonatis Ammoniæ. D.

This is merely a solution of the solid sub-carbonate in distilled
water, see Ammoniæ Sub-carbonas. Dose, fʒss to fʒj in any bland
liquid. Adulterations. There is frequently a deficient quantity of the
sub-carbonate in solution, its pungency being kept up by the
addition of liquor ammoniæ; this may be discovered by shaking it
with twice its bulk of alcohol, when a coagulum of considerable
density should occur, the absence of which will denote the
sophistication of the article. Its specific gravity should be 1·150. The
Incompatibles are those enumerated under the history of Ammoniæ
Sub-carbonas.

LIQUOR ARSENICALIS. L.

Solutio Arsenicalis. E.
This is a solution of the Arsenite of Potass, coloured and flavoured
by the Compound Spirit of Lavender, fʒj of which contains gr. ½ of
arsenious acid. It was introduced into practice by Dr. Fowler of
Stafford, as a substitute for the empirical remedy known by the
name of “The Tasteless Ague Drop.” It is a powerful tonic, and has
been very successfully administered in the cure of intermittent and
remittent fevers, periodical headaches, and as an alterative in many
anomalous diseases of the skin. It has been also given, with decided
effect, in certain visceral obstructions; its use however is to a great
degree empirical, although we may observe, generally, that
wherever strong arterial action exists, arsenic will do harm. The
addition of a few drops of Vinum Opii is said to render its operation
safer and more efficacious. Incompatible Substances. Lime water;
nitrate of silver; the salts of copper; hydro-sulphuret of potass, and
the infusions and decoctions of bark. Dose, ♏︎iv, gradually increased
to ♏︎xxx, twice a day. See Arsenicum Album.

LIQUOR CALCIS. L. Aqua Calcis. E. D.

Lime Water.
It is a saturated solution of lime in water; f℥j of which contains 3/4
of a grain.[553] Incompatible Substances. All alkaline and metallic salts;
borates; tartrates; citrates; acids; sulphur; spirituous preparations,
and the infusions of all astringent vegetables. It should be kept in
close vessels, for if exposed to the air, the lime will attract carbonic
acid, and become an insoluble carbonate; the addition of an alkaline
carbonate produces the same effect instantaneously.[554] If animal
charcoal be boiled with lime-water, it will precipitate the whole of the
lime, an effect which is not produced by charcoal of vegetable origin.
Med. Uses. It is an antacid, and is therefore useful in dyspepsia
attended with acidity; Form. 149. Mixed with an equal quantity of
milk, it furnishes an excellent remedy in infantile complaints
connected with bowel affections; it is likewise astringent in
leucorrhæa, in the last stages of dysentery, and in protracted
diarrhœa. It dissolves also the slimy mucus with which disordered
bowels are so generally infested; on account of this latter property, it
has been exhibited in calculous affections,[555] with the view of
dissolving the cementing ingredient of the concretion, and thereby of
destroying its cohesion: see page 123. Not being very nauseous, it is
easily given under any circumstances, and it is not liable to produce
that irritability of stomach which frequently attends the long
continued use of the fixed alkalies. It also frequently forms the basis
of astringent gargles. Lime water moreover affords a successful
remedy in certain cutaneous affections, particularly those affecting
the face, as Gutta Rosea. Sir G. Blane has also seen some
remarkable cures of herpetic complaints of the legs by large doses;
he has also employed it with effect as a lotion. Forms of Exhibition.
Milk disguises its flavour, without impairing its virtues. Dose, f℥j to
f℥vj. Sugar has the curious property of rendering lime more soluble
in water. See Saccharum.

LIQUOR CALCIS MURIATIS. L.D.

Solution of Muriate of Lime.

This solution is said to be tonic and deobstruent, and to have been
advantageously given in scrofula. It has also been found useful in
Urticaria, and several other forms of cutaneous disease. Incompatibles.
Sulphuric acid, and the Sulphates; the fixed alkalies and their
carbonates; ammonia produces no change in the solution, but its
carbonate decomposes it, and precipitates carbonate of lime. Dose,
♏︎xx to fʒij.

LIQUOR CUPRI AMMONIATI. L.

Solution of Ammoniated Copper.

This is a simple solution of the salt in distilled water. The
preparation, although perfectly transparent when first formed, soon
becomes turbid and deposits oxide of copper; this arises from the
escape of ammonia, and may be prevented by the occasional
addition of a small quantity of the volatile alkali. See Cuprum
Ammoniatum. The Medicinal Dynameter will show the proportion of
salt in any given quantity of the solution.

LIQUOR FERRI ALKALINI. L.

Solution of Alkaline Iron.

This preparation is nearly the same as Stahl’s Tinctura Martis
Alkalina. Chemical Composition. It is by no means ascertained.
Incompatible Substances. It is a most injudicious preparation, for it
cannot be exhibited in any form without decomposition; water,
especially if not distilled, and vegetable infusions and decoctions,
produce dense precipitates; pure acids, alkalies, and spirit, also
decompose it. I must confess my regret at the College having
retained this preparation in their Pharmacopœia; the committee
agreed to reject it, but their judgment was reversed by the votes of
the Comitia Majora. Should any practitioner be unable to procure this
preparation, I will give him an easy receipt for producing it, viz. Let
him keep the Mistura Ferri composita in an open vessel, until it is
entirely spoilt!

LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI OXY-MURIATIS. L.

This solution of corrosive sublimate is intended to facilitate the
exhibition of minute doses of the salt; f℥j contains gr. ½; when long
kept, or exposed to light, the oxy-muriate is decomposed, and
calomel is precipitated; (see Hydrag: Oxymuriatis:) or, what is more
dangerous, it is sometimes deposited in crystals, without
decomposition; a small portion of muriatic acid, or muriate of
ammonia in the solution, prevents this precipitation. Dose, fʒss to
fʒij, in an infusion of linseed.

LIQUOR PLUMBI SUB-ACETATIS. L.

Liquor Sub-Acetatis Lithargyri. D.

Aqua Lithargyri Acetati, P. L. 1767.

Solution of Sub-acetate of Lead: olim, Extract of Saturn.

This preparation was introduced by M. Goulard of Montpellier,
hence it has been commonly known by the name of Goulard’s
Extract. Qualities. It is of a greenish straw colour, and has an
austere, sweetish taste; when kept it deposits a quantity of oxide,
and becomes lighter coloured. Chemical Composition. It is a saturated
solution of the sub-acetate of lead, consisting, according to
Berzelius, of one proportional of acid, and three proportionals of
oxide of lead; hence its name is correct. It is the only instance with
which we are acquainted of a real sub-salt being soluble in water.
Incompatible Substances. Alkalies and their carbonates precipitate a
white sub-salt; alkaline sulphates and sulphurets; mucilage. Spring
Water, from the salts which it contains, produces with it a very milky
and turbid appearance; and even when distilled, in consequence of
the carbonic acid diffused through it, it occasions precipitation. The
Surgeon will remember that the Linimentum Saponis cannot be
mixed with it, without mutual decomposition. See Sapo. Med. Uses. It
is only used externally, in superficial and phlegmonic inflammations
of the skin, and in herpetic affections. It has been a question
whether Lead, in any form, should ever be applied to an open
wound, or to an abraded surface;[556] as a general rule, it should not
certainly be applied to such as are recent, nor to those whose
character indicates a diminished state of vitality in the parts, and
exhibits a disposition to gangrene. The abuse of Saturnine lotions
has been frequently descanted upon by foreign writers, and, among
the evils which are supposed to be thus induced, impotence is
mentioned as one of not unfrequent occurrence. See Institutioni di
Medicina Forens: di Tortosa, vol. 1. p. 58. also Fritze Compend:
sopra le Malat: Vener: p. 189. and Monteggia Annotat: sopra i Mali
Venerei, p. 36. There is a paper in the third volume of the Medical
Transactions, by Dr. Reynolds, in which the case of a gentleman is
detailed, who brought on a temporary paralysis of the Sphincter Ani,
by freely using Goulard’s lotion for the cure of the Piles. The value of
Saturnine applications in common inflammation most probably arises
from a partial paralysis of the nerves of the part, produced by the
sedative agency of the lead.

LIQUOR PLUMBI SUB-ACETATIS DILUTUS. L.

As the former preparation is very rarely employed in its
concentrated form, the College has directed its dilution, and added a
portion of spirit, with a view to accelerate its evaporation, and thus
to produce a refrigerating effect; but for such a purpose the quantity
of spirit is far too small, and should therefore be increased by
extemporaneous addition.

LIQUOR POTASSÆ. L. Aqua Potassæ. E.

Aqua Kali Caustica. D.

Aqua kali puri. P.L. 1787. Lixivium Saponarium, 1745.

Qualities. A limpid, dense, colourless solution; a pint should weigh
℥xvj; when rubbed between the fingers it feels soapy, in
consequence of a partial solution of the cuticle. The solution, as
usually prepared, contains small portions of muriate and sulphate of
potass, silica and lime; but these incidental impurities do not
invalidate its virtues; it ought not to effervesce with acids. Med. Uses.
Antacid, diuretic, alterative, and lithonthryptic; and externally, when
diluted, it acts as a stimulating lotion,[557] and if concentrated, as a
caustic; see Potassa Fusa. The operation of this and other alkaline
remedies, have at different periods been celebrated as powerful
lithonthriptics, and whilst experience has in some cases confirmed
the value of the practice, it has in others proved no less decidedly its
mischievous agency; these contradictory results are at length
capable of explanation, for Chemistry has drawn aside the veil that
has so long obscured the history, origin, and cure of calculous
diseases, and has demonstrated that these extraneous bodies vary
in composition, and are consequently very differently affected by the
same chemical solvents; but this subject has already been so fully
discussed in the first part of this work, under the chapter on
“Antilithics and Lithonthryptics,” that it is unnecessary to dwell upon
it in this place.
It has also been found highly useful in the cure of several species
of cutaneous affections; as in Lepra, Psoriasis, &c. which diseases
generally appear to have some connection with a morbid state of the
digestive functions; see Form: 149. Dose of the solution of potass,
♏︎x to fʒss, in veal broth[558] or table beer; this latter vehicle
disguises its nauseous flavour completely. In many cases, the
infusion of some bitter tonic will be the most eligible liquor in which
it can be exhibited, especially where our object is to promote its
absorption: the theory of such a combination has been already
explained in the first part of this work, p. 153. Officinal Prep. Potassa
fusa, L.E.D. Potassa cum calce, L.E.D. Liquor Sulphureti Kali, D.
Antimonii Sulphuretum Præcipitatum, L.E.

LIQUOR POTASSÆ SUB-CARBONATIS. L.

Aqua Sub-carbonatis Kali. D.

Aqua Kali præparati, P.L. 1787.

Lixivium Tartari. 1745.

Oleum Tartari per deliquium, P.L. 1720.

Qualities. It is a clear, colourless, and inodorous solution; Spec.
grav. 1·446. Dose, ♏︎x to fʒj. See Potassæ Sub-carbonas, and Form:
39, 41. The proportion of the salt contained in any quantity of the
solution may be learnt by referring to the Dynameter.

LIRIODENDRON TULIPIFERA.

American Tulip bearing poplar.

Cortex.
[This is a native tree of America, and one of the most magnificent
to be found in our forests—distinguished no less by its great altitude
than by its beautiful foliage. It grows in almost every part of the
United States. The part used in medicine is the Bark. This has a
rough, fibrous appearance and is of a whitish colour. Its taste is
bitter, astringent, and somewhat acrid and aromatic. By analysis, it
yields gum, resin, muriatic acid, iron, mucus, &c. In its action on the
system, it is decidedly tonic, exhibiting at the same time, to a certain
extent, stimulant properties. If given in considerable quantities it
acts also on the skin and kidneys. It has been used with advantage
and success in intermittent fever, chronic rheumatism, gout,
hysteria, and in debilitated states of the stomach. It may be given in
substance, which is the most efficacious form of using it, in doses of
from ʒss to ʒij.]

LOBELIA INFLATA.

Indian Tobacco. Herba.

[This is a plant very common in the United States. It has an acrid
taste, very similar to that of green tobacco. By analysis it is found to
contain an acrid principle, caoutchouc, and extractive. It is soluble
both in water and alcohol. In its medicinal effects, the lobelia is
analogous to common tobacco, and varies very much according to
the dose in which it is given. It may thus be made to act either as an
emetic, antispasmodic, expectorant, or diaphoretic. The diseases in
which it has been found useful are asthma, croup, hooping cough,
and catarrh. The tincture is the best preparation, and is prepared by
digesting, for ten days, ℥ij of the plant in a pint of diluted alcohol.
The dose is from ʒj to ʒiv—of the powder, the dose to prove emetic
is from 10 to 20 grs.]

MAGNESIA. L. Magnesia Usta. D.

Calcined Magnesia.
Qualities. Form, a white, very light, soft powder; Specific gravity,
2·3; it turns to green the more delicate vegetable blues. Solubility.
Although it requires 2000 times its weight of water to hold it in
solution, yet it has the property of considerably increasing the
solubility of camphor, opium, and resins in the same fluid; it is
soluble in solutions of the alkaline carbonates, but not in those of
caustic alkalies. Chemical Composition. It is an oxide of a peculiar
metal. Medicinal Uses. Antacid, and when acidity prevails, purgative;
it is preferable to the carbonate whenever the bowels are distended
with flatus, (Form: 150): in other respects, its virtues are the same.
See Magnes. Carb. The Medicinal Dynameter will shew the
equivalent doses of the pure earth and its carbonate; it will be seen
for instance that 12 grains of the former will be as efficient, as an
antacid, as 25 grains of the latter. Incidental Impurities. It ought not to
effervesce with acids, and if magnesia and muriatic acid be placed at
one time in separate cups, in a scale of a balance, no diminution of
weight should take place on mixing them. Lime is detected by its
solution in dilute sulphuric acid affording a precipitate with oxalate of
ammonia; the sulphuret of lime betrays itself by yielding, when
moistened, the smell of sulphuretted hydrogen.[559]

MAGNESIÆ SUB-CARBONAS. L.

Carbonas Magnesiæ. E. Magnesia. D.

Olim, Magnesia Alba.

Carbonate of Magnesia, vulgo, Common Magnesia.

This preparation was formerly considered by Mr. Phillips to be a
mixture of carbonate and sub-carbonate of magnesia, an opinion
which he has lately retracted; it is, says he, evidently a carbonate, i.
e. magnesia combined with one proportion of carbonic acid, or forty-
eight of carbonic acid to forty-three of magnesia. Dr. Thompson
entertains a different opinion, he observes that it seems to be a
mechanical mixture of carbonate of magnesia, caustic magnesia, and
perhaps of hydrated magnesia; he found too great a diversity in its
composition to permit the conclusion that it was a definite chemical
compound; in a specimen purchased at Glasgow, he also found six
per cent. of sulphate of lime. I take this opportunity of stating that in
some specimens which I have examined, I have also detected
portions of gypsum; and from the experiments of Dr. Percival, it
appears that if hard water be employed for its preparation it will be
less light, and will contain a portion of lime. Magnesia will be also
liable to contain traces of silicious earth, derived from the alkali used
in producing it. Incompatible Substances. Acids, and acidulous salts;
alkalies and neutral salts; alum; cream of tartar; nitrate of silver;
acetate of mercury; oxy-muriate of mercury; acetate of lead;
sulphates of zinc, copper, and iron. Medicinal Uses. Antacid, and
purgative. In cases of lithic calculi, carbonate of magnesia, in doses
of ℈j to ʒj, has been proposed by Mr. Hatchett, as a valuable
substitute for alkaline remedies. Its insolubility must render its
absorption equivocal; its beneficial operation must therefore
principally depend upon its neutralizing any excess of acid in the
primæ viæ, and in this way there can be no doubt of its
lithonthryptic agency; “but,” says Dr. Marcet, “such is the tendency
which the public has to over-rate the utility of a new practice, or to
take a mistaken view of its proper application, that there is every
reason to believe that the use of magnesia has of late years become
a frequent source of evil in calculous complaints.” See page 124.
Officinal Prep. Hydrarg. cum Magnesia. D. Magnesia. L.E.D.
Adulterations. Chalk may be detected by adding dilute sulphuric acid
to a suspected portion, when, should any be present, the solution
will be loaded with a white and insoluble precipitate; gypsum, by
boiling a sample in distilled water, and assaying the solution by a
barytic and oxalic test.[560]

MAGNESIÆ SULPHAS. L. Sulphas Magnesiæ. E.D.

Magnesia Vitriolata. Sal catharticum amarum.

Bitter purging Salt. Epsom Salt.

Qualities. Form, small needle-like crystals. Taste, bitter and
nauseous; when pure, it effloresces. Chemical Composition. In its
crystallized state, it may be considered as composed of 1
proportional of dry sulphate (Magnesia 18·5, and sulphuric acid
37·5) and 7 proportionals of water. Solubility. f℥j of water dissolves
℥j, and the solution measures fʒxj¼; it is insoluble in alcohol.
Incompatible Substances. Muriates of ammonia, baryta, and lime;
nitrate of silver; sub-acetate, and acetate of lead. The fixed alkalies
and their carbonates, precipitate from it magnesia and its carbonate.
Phosphate of soda occasions no immediate precipitate, unless
ammonia be present, in which case the triple ammoniaco-magnesian
phosphate will be produced. The addition of ammonia, which in the
form of Spiritus ammoniæ aromat. is not unfrequently prescribed in
conjunction with a solution of this sulphate, forms also a triple salt,
and a portion of magnesia is precipitated: whenever therefore this
ammoniacal stimulant is ordered with a purgative salt, the scientific
physician will prefer a solution of the sulphate of soda. Forms of
Exhibition. Dissolved in the Infusum Rosæ, or in a suitable quantity
of beef tea, gruel, or any aqueous vehicle, its cathartic powers are
increased by dilution, as well as by the addition of a little common
salt; magnesia renders the taste of its solution less nauseous; and
tartarized antimony quickens its operation. Dose, ℥ss to ℥ij, taken
either at once, or in divided doses. Form. 37, 69, 72, 76. Officinal
Prep. Enema Catharticum. Enema Fœtid. D. Adulterations. Sulphate of
Soda is often substituted for this salt, which it may be made to
resemble by stirring it briskly at the moment when it is about to
crystallize; the fraud may be detected by a precipitation not ensuing
on adding carbonate of potass; if only a part of the salt be sulphate
of soda, the degree of sophistication can be learnt by the quantity of
the precipitate formed; 100 parts of sulphate of magnesia, if pure,
will yield between 30 and 40 of the dry carbonate. Epsom salt, as it
commonly occurs, contains muriate of magnesia, which disposes it
to deliquesce, but lately this salt has appeared in the market in a
state of great purity and beauty; the mode of purification is founded
upon the well known chemical law, that a saturated solution of one
salt is still capable of dissolving another; in the present instance,
therefore, the impure crystals are washed in a saturated solution of
the same sulphate, which, although unable to act upon its kindred
salt, can dissolve with facility the muriate, and any other saline
contamination. I confess, however, that I am induced to regard this
process as rather chemically ingenious than as medicinally useful, for
the usual saline impurities of Epsom salt are not only harmless, but
capable of increasing its purgative powers; the double refined
sulphate is certainly less efficient as a cathartic. The presence of the
muriate may be at once detected by dropping upon the suspected
sample some sulphuric acid, by which the disengagement of muriatic
acid vapour will be produced. Since the publication of the fourth
edition of the present work, I have received samples of the sulphate
of Magnesia, prepared by Mr. West of Lymington, and I can
confidently recommend the article to the profession; he contrives to
obtain them in large and beautiful crystals, which cannot be so easily
mistaken for those of oxalic acid, a circumstance of no small
importance to the drug vender; the form of these crystals is that of a
square prism, having its edges replaced, and commonly terminated
by a pyramid of four planes; the only cleavage is parallel to one of
the diagonals of the prism. The numerous accidents which so
frequently occur from mistaking Oxalic acid for Epsom Salts have
given rise to many suggestions for obtaining an easy and popular
test which may at once distinguish these bodies; it is evident that no
test can be so simple as that afforded by the taste; but if such
accidents are in future to be prevented, it must be done by
imparting to the acid some external character by which it may be at
once recognised; if a test were even discovered a hundred times
more sensible than any which we possess, what would it avail?

MANNA.[561] L.E.D.

(Fraxinus Ornus. Succus Concretus.)

Manna.
Qualities. Form, flakes of a granular texture; Colour, whitish, or
pale yellow; Odour, slight but peculiar; Taste, nauseous sweet, with
some degree of bitterness. Chemical Composition. This concrete
vegetable juice, besides sugar, appears to contain mucilage and
extractive, to which its taste and other peculiar properties are owing.
Solubility. It is entirely soluble in water and alcohol. Med. Uses. It is
now merely regarded as a laxative for children, or for weak persons.
It generally requires some laxative adjunct, as castor oil, with which
it may be combined by the medium of mucilage. Dose, for children,
from ʒj to ʒiij, in warm milk. Officinal Prep. Confectio Cassiæ. L.E.D.
Enema Cathart. D. Enema Fœtid. D. Syrup. Sennæ. D. Adulterations.
There are several varieties in the market, the best of which is flake
manna, manna canulata, in a stalactitic form. An article, entirely
factitious, consisting of honey or sugar, mixed with scammony, is
sometimes sold for genuine manna, but its colour, weight,
transparency, and taste, must instantly lead to its detection.

MASTICHE. L.

(Pistachia Lentiscus. Resina.)

Mastich.
The use of this resinous substance is to fill the cavities of carious
teeth; a solution of it in oil of turpentine is sold as an odontalgic.
The Turkish and Armenian women use it as a masticatory for
cleaning the teeth, emulging the salivary glands, and imparting an
agreeable odour to the breath. It forms a constituent of the Dinner
Pills. See Aloes. Sonnini tells us that, in Egypt, the smoke of Mastich
is supposed to kill any sick person that inhales it.

MEL. L.E.D. Honey.

This well known substance appears to be merely collected from
the flowers, and not elaborated by the internal economy of the
insect; when properly diluted it undergoes vinous fermentation, the
product of which is the beverage well known by the name of Mead.
The English honey is more waxy than that from the south of Europe.
Virgin honey is that wrought by young bees which have never
swarmed, and permitted to run from the comb without heat or
pressure. Chemical Composition. Sugar, mucilage, wax, an acid, and
occasionally some essential oil. Clarified Honey, (Mel Despumatum.
L.D.) has not the agreeable smell of crude honey; it does not
however ferment so readily, nor is it so apt to gripe. Uses. It is
principally employed for forming several officinal preparations, i. e.
Mellita, viz. Mel Boracis. L. Mel Ros. L.D. Oxymel. L.D. Oxymel
Colchici. E. Oxymel Scillæ. L.D.[562] Sir John Pringle considered it as
useful in nephritic disorders; it possesses also a laxative property,
which renders it on many occasions preferable to Syrup.
Adulterations. Flour may be detected by diffusing the honey in tepid
water, by which it will be separated, and, by subsequent boiling,
converted into a thick paste.

MELIA AZEDARACH.

Pride of China. Cortex radicis.

[This plant is a native of the East Indies, from whence it was
introduced into Europe and North America. The part used in
medicine is the bark of the root. It is a powerful anthelmintic, and
affects the system in a way very similar to the Spigelia Marylandica,
producing not unfrequently confusion of the head, stupor, trembling
of the hands, &c. This is particularly the case if it be used in the
months of March and April, when the sap rises in the tree. It is
chiefly against the round worm that the Melia has been found
successful, though in some cases it has proved effectual also against
the Tænia. It is generally given in the form of decoction: to prepare
this, ℥iij or ℥iv of the bark of the fresh root are put into a quart of
water and boiled down to a pint, of which ℥ss to ℥j may be given
every two or three hours till it operates. Administered in this way, it
frequently causes both purging and vomiting.]

MENTHA PIPERITA. L.E.D.

Mentha Piperitis. D. Peppermint.[563]

All the qualities of this plant depend upon an essential oil and
camphor; it readily and strongly impregnates either water or spirit,
by infusion; its infusion, and the water distilled from the plant, are
carminative and antispasmodic; they also serve as vehicles for other
medicines, to correct their operation, or to disguise their flavour.
Officinal Preparations. Aq. Menth. Piperit. L.E.D. Spir. Menth. Pip. L.D.
Ol. Menth. Pip. L.D. If this plant be cut in wet weather, it turns black,
and is worthless.

MENTHA VIRIDIS. L. Mentha Sativa. D.

Spearmint.
Cold water extracts the more agreeable and active parts of mint in
a few hours; a longer maceration extracts the grosser and less
agreeable portions; hot water more quickly extracts its virtues, but if
it be boiling it dissipates the aroma. Officinal Preparations. Aq. Menth.
virid. L.D. Infus. Menth. comp. D. Ol. Menth. virid. L. D. Spir. Menth.
virid. L.

MEZEREI CORTEX. L.E.D.

(Daphne Mezereum. Radicis Cortex.)

Mezereon.
The inner bark of this plant, when fresh, is corrosive and even
vesicatory; the fruit is equally so, but neither have any smell; its
virulence is counteracted by camphor. It contains, besides extractive
matter, an acrid resinous substance, which, according to Plaff, bears
a strong resemblance to the active principle of Cantharides. It is now
seldom used except as an antivenereal remedy, or in cases of
chronic cutaneous disease. Forms of Exhibition. In a decoction, made
by boiling ℥ss of the bark, with an equal quantity of Liquorice root, in
oiij of water down to oij; of which f℥ss may be given twice a day.
From its pungency it is one of the substances used by fraudulent
brewers to communicate a strong flavour to their beer. Where a
discharge from issues cannot be kept up by the common means, it is
said that the introduction of a little of this bark, instead of the pea,
will in a few hours produce the desired effect. Officinal Preparations.
Decoct. Sarsaparill. comp. L. Decoct. Daphnes. Mezerei. E. The
Daphne Laureola is very generally sold for Mezereon.

MISTURÆ. L.E.D. Mixtures.

The principles upon which this form of preparation is to be
constructed, are fully detailed in the first part of this work, page 199.

Officinal Mixtures.
Mistura Ammoniaci. L. This mixture is expectorant, and may be
exhibited with tincture of squills, &c. (Form. 115, 136.) It is slightly
curdled by vinegar, oxymel, æther, and oxy-muriate of mercury.
Mistura Amygdalarum. L. Emulsio Amygdali communis. E. Lac
Amygdalæ. D. It is a useful demulcent and diluent, and forms an
elegant vehicle for more active medicines. Incompatibles—Acids,
Oxymel, Syrup of Squill, Spirit, and Tinctures, unless added in very
small quantities, decompose this mixture; tartaric acid, super-
tartrate of potass, and oxy-muriate of mercury, also disturb it. Form.
137.
Mistura Assafœtidæ. L. A nauseous preparation; and where its use
is indicated, it will be more judicious to prescribe it as an
extemporaneous mixture. See Assafœtida.
Mistura Camphoræ. L. This solution of camphor forms an elegant
vehicle for more active stimulants. The camphor is separated from
the water by a solution of pure potass, by sulphate of magnesia, and
by several saline bodies. See Form. 7, 24, 25, 32, 47, 72, 116, 117,
123.
Mistura Cornu Usti. L. Decoctum Cornu Cervini. D. This is nothing
more than a simple diffusion of phosphate of lime in a thin mucilage
—Cui bono? It was retained in the Pharmacopœia in deference to
the opinion of some experienced practitioners.
 Mistura Cretæ. L.D. A common and useful remedy in diarrhœa, and
may be combined with opium, catechu, or any other astringent.
Form. 52. It is of course incompatible with acids, and acidulous salts.
Mistura Ferri Composita. L. This is nearly the same as the
celebrated anti-hectic mixture of Dr. Griffith; to the result of the
decompositions which take place from the mixture of its ingredients,
it is wholly indebted for its medicinal energies; thus, a proto-
carbonate of iron is formed, i. e. the iron combined with carbonic
acid is at its minimum of oxidation, which renders it more active
than the common carbonate, and probably less stimulant than the
sulphate; this product, by means of the saponaceous compound
formed by the union of the myrrh with the excess of alkali, is partly
diffused and suspended in the mixture, and partly dissolved, whilst
at the same time a sulphate of potass is formed, which serves to
correct the astringent influence which iron is apt to exert upon the
bowels. The iron in this preparation is disposed to combine with an
additional proportion of oxygen, hence its ingredients should be
quickly mixed together, and it ought to be considered as an
extemporaneous preparation, and be preserved in a closely-stopt
vessel. Its change of colour will generally indicate its loss of efficacy.
This preparation must be regarded as permanently serviceable in
Chlorosis, and the numerous sympathetic affections connected with
it. In the painful swellings which infest the breasts of chlorotic young
women, I have found it almost a specific. Dose, f℥j-f℥ij. The
proportion of Proto-carbonate of iron, contained in any given
quantity of this mixture, may be found by referring to the Medicinal
Dynameter; for instance, bring the preparation to 12, and we shall
perceive that this number of fluid-drachms contain 1 grain of
Protoxide, or rather more than gr. iss of Proto-carbonate of iron; and
we shall, at the same time, perceive that to give an equivalent
quantity in the form of Pil. Ferri comp. we must prescribe ℈j. See
Form. 96.
Mistura Moschi. This is an eligible form for the administration of
Musk. Dose, f℥j-f℥ij, to which may be added extemporaneously,
ammonia, æther, and other diffusible stimulants.
 The Dose of the above mixtures is f℥j-to f℥ij twice or thrice a day.

MOSCHUS. L.E.D. Musk.

Qualities. Form, grains concreted together, dry, yet slightly
unctuous. Colour, deep brown with a shade of red; Odour, aromatic,
peculiar, diffusive, and durable; and it has the curious property,
when added in a minute quantity, to augment the odour of other
perfumes without imparting its own; this renders it a valuable article
in perfumery, on which account it is a usual ingredient in lavender
water. Taste, bitterish and heavy. Chemical Composition. Resin
combined with volatile oil, and a mucilaginous extractive matter, with
small portions of albumen, gelatine, muriate of ammonia, and
phosphate of soda. Solubility. Boiling water dissolves it perfectly;
rectified spirit takes up most of its active parts, although the odour is
only discovered upon dilution; sulphuric æther is its most complete
menstruum. Incompatible Substances. The solutions are decomposed by
Oxy-muriate of Mercury; Sulphate of Iron; Nitrate of Silver; and the
Infusion of Yellow Bark. Med. Uses. Stimulant and antispasmodic. As
early as the time of Meade it was employed in typhus fever; Pringle
administered it in gout of the stomach, a practice which received the
concurrence of Cullen; conjoined with ammonia it has been
celebrated for its powers in arresting the progress of gangrene, and
of imparting fresh excitement to the nervous system. It has been
also administered with success in epilepsy, hooping cough, and other
spasmodic affections. Forms of Exhibition. The best form is that of
bolus, combined with ammonia or camphor, or some other similar
remedy, (Form. 21); it may be also administered in a mixture, for
which purpose it requires five times its weight of mucilage,
consequently the London College has not directed a sufficient
quantity to retain the musk in suspension: by previously triturating it
with sugar, its minute division is much facilitated. Dose, grs. x to xxx.
See Form. 22, 30. Officinal Prep. Mist. Mosch. L. Tinct. Mosch. D.
Adulterations. The bag containing the musk should have no
appearance of having been opened: the presence of dried blood may
be suspected, by its emitting, as it inflames, a fetid smoke;
Asphaltum is discovered by its melting and running before it
inflames: the artificial bags are known from the deficiency of the
membrane which lines the real musk bags. To increase the weight of
the musk, fine particles of lead are frequently added; this is easily
detected, for by rubbing it with water the metallic particles will
subside.
Moschus Factitius. Artificial Musk, strongly resembling the real, may
be formed by digesting f℥ss of Nitric Acid, for ten days, upon ℥j of
fetid animal oil, obtained by distillation; to this is to be next
gradually added oj of rectified spirit, and the whole is then to be left
to digest for one month: or—
2. Drop fʒiiiss of nitric acid upon fʒj of rectified oil of amber; after
standing twenty-four hours, a black, resinous pellicle, exhaling
the odour of musk, will be formed.
 MUCILAGO ACACIÆ. L.E.

Mucilago Gummi Arabici. D.

This preparation consists of one part of gum and two of water; in
preparing it, the dispenser is particularly recommended to pulverize
the gum, and never to employ that which is purchased in the state
of powder, as it is always impure and incapable of forming a pellucid
and elegant solution.[564] Incompatible Substances. Neither the strong
acids nor alcohol, when considerably diluted, occasion any
disturbance in it; but sulphuric æther and its compound spirit, the
tincture of muriated iron, and sub-acetate of lead, produce very
dense precipitates: the acetate of lead only occasions
decomposition, when an alkaline salt is present in the formula; the
volatile alkali curdles the mucilage, and hard calcareous waters
render the mixture difficult and often impracticable. In the
pharmaceutical application of this mucilage, it should be
remembered that it contains in its composition an astringent
principle, which is perhaps of but trifling consequence except in the
exhibition of some very few active metallic salts, which are certainly
decomposed by it (e. g. grs. x of nitrate of mercury are decomposed
by ʒij of gum arabic.[565]) It contains also lime in combination with
some vegetable acid. Uses. Diluted with four times its bulk of water,
this mucilage forms a demulcent mixture of appropriate tenacity,
which affords a convenient vehicle for several efficient remedies; the
pharmaceutical use of this mucilage depends upon the fact of its
rendering expressed and essential oils, balsams, resins, gum-resins,
resinous tinctures, and fatty bodies, miscible with water, but if a
syrup be added, the union will be more perfect; the proportions
necessary for this purpose vary according to the nature of the
substances; thus, oils will require about three-fourths their weight,
Balsams and Spermaceti an equal part, Resins a double quantity,
and Musk five times its weight; the following Formulæ illustrate this
property, 9, 19, 22, 135.
 MUCILAGO AMYLI. L.E.D.

Mucilage of Starch.
This is a strong, insipid, inodorous mucilage, which is principally
employed as a vehicle for exhibiting Opium in the form of Enema,
see Amylum.

MUCILAGO ASTRAGALI TRAGACANTHÆ. E.D.

Tragacanth Mucilage.
Tragacanth is, strictly speaking, not soluble in water, but imbibes a
large portion of it and swells into a considerable bulk, forming a soft
but not a liquid mucilage; on the farther addition of water, a fluid
solution may be obtained by agitation, and the liquor is turbid; but
on standing, the mucilage subsides, the limpid water on the surface
retaining a little of the gum;[566] it differs from all gums in giving a
thick consistence to a larger quantity of water, its power in this
respect being to that of gum arabic as twenty to one; one part
converts twenty of hot water into a stiff mucilage. Tragacanth is not
increased, but actually diminished in solubility by the addition of any
other gum, it accordingly separates from water with much greater
facility when gum arabic is present. This preparation, according to
the Edinburgh college, consists of one part of gum and eight of
water; the resulting mucilage is stiff, and is principally employed for
making troches. The Dublin preparation contains four times that
quantity of water.

MYRISTICÆ NUCLEI. L.E.

Nux Moschata. D. Nutmeg.

All the properties of this well-known substance depend upon an
essential oil, filling the dark coloured veins which run through its
substance, the other components are starch, gum, wax, and a fixed
oil. The oil obtained by expression is improperly called oil of mace,
for it would appear to be a triple compound of fixed oil, volatile oil,
and wax, and which, although limpid when first drawn, soon
acquires on cooling the consistence of spermaceti. Mace is the
involucrum of the nut. Med. Uses. Stimulant, and in large doses, as
from ʒij to ʒiij, narcotic, frequently producing delirium. See Cullen
Mat. Med. ii. 201. Officinal Prep: Spir: Myristicæ. L.E.D. Frauds.
Nutmegs are frequently despoiled of their essential oil, by being
punctured and submitted to the operation of decoction, the orifices
being subsequently closed by powdered Sassafras; the imposition is
detected by the comparative lightness of the nutmeg, and by its
extreme fragility; the holes may also be discovered by carefully
examining the surface of the nut, after having steeped it in hot
water.

MYRRHA. L.E.D.

(Arboris nondum descriptæ, Gummi-resina.)

Myrrh.
Qualities. Form, irregularly shaped pieces, translucent, of a reddish
yellow colour; Odour, peculiar and fragrant; Taste, bitter and
aromatic. Chemical Composition. Resin, gum, essential oil, and some
extractive. Solubility. When triturated with soft, or distilled water,
nearly the whole appears to be dissolved, forming an opaque,
yellowish solution, but by rest the greater part is deposited, and not
more than one-third is actually dissolved; its solubility, however, in
water may be increased by trituration with camphor or an alkali;
rectified spirit dissolves it, and the resulting tincture, when diluted,
becomes turbid, although no precipitate occurs. Med. Uses.
Stimulant, as in Form. 103. Expectorant, 132, 133, 138.
Emmenagogue, 95, 98, 99. It is also tonic, and agrees with some
constitutions better than any of the bitters. Forms of Exhibition. No
form is so eligible as that of substance. Dose, grs. x to ʒj. The
alkalies, in their crystalline state, when triturated with myrrh, reduce
it to the form of a tenacious fluid. Officinal Preparations. Tinct. Myrrh.
L.E.D. Tinct. Aloes et Myrrh. E. Tinct. Aloës Ætherea. E. Mist. Ferri
comp. L. (G L) Pil. Aloes cum Myrrha. L.E.D. Pil. Ferri cum Myrrha. L.
Pil. Galb. comp. L.D. (B) Pil. Assafœtid. comp. E. (B) Pil. Rhei, comp.
E. (G) Adulterations. It is subject to a variety of frauds, being
frequently mixed with adventitious gums, which are to be detected
by their foreign odour, their white or dark colour, and by their
opacity.

NUX VOMICA. (Strychnus Nux Vomica.)

Nux Vomica.
This seed has not at present a place in the British pharmacopœiæ;
it presents however several points of interest to the physiologist, the
physician, and the chemist. Its virulent action upon animals has
been long known; and it has been administered in combination with
gentian in intermittents.[567] (Ludovic. Phar. p. 113,) and as a narcotic
in mania; it also constituted an ingredient in the famous Electuarium
de ovo, (Ph. Angl. p. 263.) Nux vomica has been said to produce
benefit in the plague; the German writers have strongly commended
it in mania, epilepsy, and hydrophobia; as well as in chronic
rheumatism, gout, scrophula, lues venera, and cutaneous eruptions;
in Sweden it is stated to have displayed very beneficial effects in
Dysentery. Dr. Fourquier has lately introduced its use in the Hopital
de la Charité, in cases of partial paralysis, and it is said, with very
great success.[568] The value of the practice has been since
confirmed by the experiments of Dumeril, Majendie, Hebreard,
Husson, and Asselin. The dose is four or five grains of the powder in
pills, during the day. The French codex contains two alcoholic
extracts of this substance; the one prepared with a strong spirit (22,
32, Beaumé, i. e. from sp. gr. ·915 to ·856,) is much more active and
powerful than that made with a weak spirit. (12, 22, Beaumé, i. e.
from sp. gr. ·985 to ·915.)
 M. M. Pelletier and Caventou have discovered in this substance, a
peculiar proximate principle, to which its virulence is owing; it was
named Vauqueline, in honour of the celebrated French philosopher,
but in deference to the opinion of the French Academy of Sciences,
the discoverers have substituted the name Strychnia, because “a
name dearly loved, ought not to be applied to a noxious
principle!”[569] (Annales de Chimie, vol. 8 to 10.) Strychnia is highly
alkaline, and crystallizes in very small four-sided prisms, terminated
by four-sided pyramids; its taste is insupportably bitter, leaving a
slight metallic flavour, and is so powerful as even to be perceptible
when a grain is dissolved in eighty pounds of water;[570] it has no
smell; is not changed by exposure to the air, nor is it either fusible or
volatile, for when submitted to the action of heat, it only fuses at the
moment of its decomposition which takes place at a temperature
inferior to that which destroys most vegetable substances; it is so
extremely active and violent, that in doses of half a grain it
occasions serious effects, and in larger ones convulsions and death;
it is perhaps the most powerful,[571] and next to hydro-cyanic acid,
the most rapid of poisons; notwithstanding its strong taste, it is very
sparingly soluble in water, requiring 6667 parts of that fluid for its
solution at 50, and 2500 at 212°. It is very soluble in alcohol, but
unlike most of the other vegetable alkalies, is nearly insoluble in
æther; with acids it forms neutral and crystallizable salts; these salts
as well as their base, have the singular property of becoming
bloodred by the action of concentrated nitric acid. The alcoholic
solution of Strychnia has the property of precipitating the greater
number of metallic oxides from their acid solutions. It is precipitated
by alkalies and alkaline earths. Strychnia exists in native combination
in the Strychnus with an acid which has some analogy with the
malic, and which Pelletier and Caventou propose to call the Igasuric
acid, from the Malay name for the bean of St. Ignatius,[572]
(Strychnus Ignatius,) in which its properties were first examined. In
conformity with such views, the active principle of the tribe of
Strychni is an Igasurate of Strychnia;—a fact which suggests the
existence of a most singular and striking analogy between the
chemical constitution of these narcotico-acrid bodies[573] and that of
opium. The recent experiments of Pelletier have shewn, moreover,
that besides Strychnia, the Nux Vomica contains Brucia, an alkaline
body which had been previously discovered in spurious Angustura.
Its properties are similar to those of Strychnia, but it is less active.
Being much more soluble in alcohol than Strychnia, if care be taken
to crystallize the latter several times in alcohol, it will be separated,
the Brucia remaining in the mother waters. Strychnia has been given
in doses of one-twelfth of a grain, but it is a most dangerous
remedy, and is liable to occasion tetanic convulsions.[574] It has been
said, however, to prove serviceable in cases of Epilepsy that had
resisted every other method of cure. Dr. Fleming informs us that the
Hindoos of upper India are in the habit of adding Nux Vomica in the
process of distilling Arrack, for the purpose of rendering the spirit
more intoxicating. The London Porter brewers have been accused of
the same pernicious practice.

OLEA DESTILLATA. L. Ol. Volatilia. E.

Ol. Essentialia. D.

Distilled, Volatile, or Essential Oils.

The British pharmacopœiæ direct them to be obtained by
distillation only; the French codex orders several of them to be
prepared by expression. Qualities. Form, liquid, sometimes viscid;
specific grav. various; oil of turpentine, which is the lightest, being
only 0·792, whilst the oil of cloves, cinnamon, and allspice, exceed
1·030, and that of sassafras, which is the heaviest, amounts to
1·094; these latter oils hold resin in solution, and of course sink in
water. Odour, penetrating and fragrant; Taste, acrid; they are
volatilized at a temperature somewhat below that of boiling water;
they are very inflammable. Solubility. Very soluble in alcohol, forming
what are termed in perfumery Essences; in water they are very
sparingly soluble; the solutions are known in pharmacy under the
title of distilled waters; they are also dissolved by æther, and the
fixed oils; when digested with ammonia, some of the less odorous
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