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Water Productivity in Agriculture Limits and
Opportunities for Improvement Comprehensive
Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture Series 1
First Edition Jacob W. Kijne Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Jacob W. Kijne, Randolph Barker, David Molden
ISBN(s): 9781845933395, 1845933397
Edition: First
File Details: PDF, 3.29 MB
Year: 2003
Language: english
Water Prels 2/7/03 9:01 am Page i

Water Productivity in Agriculture

Limits and Opportunities for Improvement

Water Prels 2/7/03 9:01 am Page ii
Water Prels 2/7/03 9:01 am Page iii

Water Productivity in Agriculture

Limits and Opportunities for Improvement

Edited by

Jacob W. Kijne, Randolph Barker and David Molden

International Water Management Institute,

Colombo, Sri Lanka

CABI Publishing
In association with the
International Water Management Institute
Water Prels 2/7/03 9:01 am Page iv

CABI Publishing is a division of CAB International

CABI Publishing CABI Publishing
CAB International 44 Brattle Street
Wallingford 4th Floor
Oxon OX10 8DE Cambridge, MA 02138
UK USA

Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111 Tel: +1 617 395 4056

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Website: www.cabi-publishing.org

Published in association with:

International Water Management Institute
PO Box 2075
Colombo
Sri Lanka

© CAB International 2003. All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechani-
cally, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permis-
sion of the copyright owners.

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library,
London, UK.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Water productivity in agriculture : limits and opportunities for
improvement / edited by Jacob W. Kijne, Randolph Barker, and David
Molden.
p. cm. -- (Comprehensive assessment of water management in
agriculture series ; 1)
Includes bibliographical references (p. ).
ISBN 0 85199 669 8 (alk. paper)
1. Water in agriculture. 2. Irrigation farming. 3. Crops and water.
I. Kijne, J. W. II. Barker, Randolph. III. Molden, D. J. IV. Series.
S494.5.W3 W365 2003
631.7--dc21
2002153454
ISBN 0 85199 669 8

Typeset in 9/11 pt Palatino by Columns Design Ltd, Reading

Printed and bound in the UK by Cromwell Press, Trowbridge
Water Prels 2/7/03 9:01 am Page v

Contents

Contributors vii
Series Foreword: Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in
Agriculture Series ix
Improving Water Productivity in Agriculture: Editors’ Overview xi
Jacob W. Kijne, Randolph Barker and David Molden
1. A Water-productivity Framework for Understanding and Action 1
David Molden, Hammond Murray-Rust, R. Sakthivadivel and Ian Makin
2. Economics of Water Productivity in Managing Water for Agriculture 19
Randolph Barker, David Dawe and Arlene Inocencio
3. The Concept of Efficiency in Water-resources Management and Policy 37
David Seckler, David Molden and R. Sakthivadivel
4. Rice Production in Water-scarce Environments 53
T.P. Tuong and B.A.M. Bouman
5. Managing Saline and Alkaline Water for Higher Productivity 69
N.K. Tyagi
6. Water Productivity under Saline Conditions 89
Jacob W. Kijne
7. Opportunities for Increasing Water Productivity of CGIAR Crops through
Plant Breeding and Molecular Biology 103
John Bennett
8. Management of Drought in ICRISAT Cereal and Legume Mandate Crops 127
R. Serraj, F.R. Bidinger, Y.S. Chauhan, N. Seetharama, S.N. Nigam and N.P. Saxena
9. Water Productivity in Rain-fed Agriculture: Challenges and Opportunities for
Smallholder Farmers in Drought-prone Tropical Agroecosystems 145
John Rockström, Jennie Barron and Patrick Fox
10. World Water Productivity: Current Situation and Future Options 163
Ximing Cai and Mark W. Rosegrant

v
Water Prels 2/7/03 9:01 am Page vi

vi Contents

11. Improving Water Productivity in the Dry Areas of West Asia and North Africa 179
Theib Y. Oweis and Ahmed Y. Hachum
12. Efficient Management of Rainwater for Increased Crop Productivity and
Groundwater Recharge in Asia 199
S.P. Wani, P. Pathak, T.K. Sreedevi, H.P. Singh and P. Singh
13. Water Productivity in Forestry and Agroforestry 217
C.K. Ong and B.M. Swallow
14. Water Productivity and Potato Cultivation 229
Walter T. Bowen
15. Rice–Wheat Cropping Systems in the Indo-Gangetic Plains: Issues of Water
Productivity in Relation to New Resource-conserving Technologies 239
Peter R. Hobbs and Raj K. Gupta
16. Land and Water Productivity of Wheat in the Western Indo-Gangetic Plains of
India and Pakistan: a Comparative Analysis 255
Intizar Hussain, R. Sakthivadivel and Upali Amarasinghe
17. Reform of the Thai Irrigation Sector: is there Scope for Increasing Water
Productivity? 273
François Molle
18. Upscaling Water Productivity in Irrigated Agriculture Using Remote-sensing
and GIS Technologies 289
Wim Bastiaanssen, Mobin-ud-Din Ahmad and Zubair Tahir
19. Improving Water Productivity through Deficit Irrigation: Examples from Syria,
the North China Plain and Oregon, USA 301
Heping Zhang
Appendix A. A Note on Transpiration 311
David Seckler
Appendix B. Note on Agronomic Practices for Increasing Crop Water Productivity 319
Jacob W. Kijne
Index 323
Water Prels 2/7/03 9:01 am Page vii

Contributors

M.-ud-D. Ahmad, Water Resources Engineer (GIS/RS), International Water Management Institute,
12KM Multan Road, Chowk, Thokar Niaz Baig, Lahore 53700, Pakistan.
U. Amarasinghe, International Water Management Institute, PO Box 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka;
Street: 127, Sunil Mawatha, Pelawatte, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka.
R. Barker, International Water Management Institute, Mailing Adress: PO Box 2075, Colombo, Sri
Lanka; Street: 127, Sunil Mawatha, Pelawatte, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka.
J. Barron, Department of Systems Ecology, Stockholm University, S-10691 Stockholm, Sweden.
W. Bastiaanssen, International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences, PO Box 6,
Hengelosestraat 99, 7514 AE Enschede, The Netherlands.
J. Bennett, International Rice Research Institute, DAPO Box 7777, Metro Manila, Philippines.
F.R. Bidinger, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru 502 324,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
B.A.M. Bouman, International Rice Research Institute, DAPO Box 7777, Metro Manila,
Philippines.
W.T. Bowen, International Fertilizer Development Center, Resource Development Division, PO Box
2040, Muscle Shoals, AL 35662, USA.
X. Cai, International Food Policy Research Institute, 2033 K Street, NW Washington, DC 20006,
USA.
Y.S. Chauhan, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru
502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India.
D. Dawe, International Rice Research Institute, DAPO Box 7777, Metro Manila, Philippines.
P. Fox, Department of Systems Ecology, Stockholm University, S-10691 Stockholm, Sweden.
R.K. Gupta, Rice–Wheat Consortium for the Indo-Gangetic Plains, CG Centre Block, National
Agricultural Science Center (NASC) Complex, DP Shastri, New Delhi, India.
A.Y. Hachum, Professor of Water Management and Irrigation Engineering, University of Mosul,
Iraq; Currently: Visiting Scientist, International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry
Areas (ICARDA), PO Box 5466, Aleppo, Syria.
P.R. Hobbs, Natural Resources Group, Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maize y Trigo, 611
Bradfield Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
I. Hussain, International Water Management Institute, Mailing Address: PO Box 2075, Colombo,
Sri Lanka; Street Address: 127, Sunil Mawatha, Pelawatte, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka.
A. Inocencio, International Water Management Institute, Mailing Address: Private Bag X813,
Silverton 0127, South Africa; Street Address: 141 Cresswell Street, 0184 Silverton, Pretoria,
South Africa.

vii
Water Prels 2/7/03 9:01 am Page viii

viii Contributors

J.W. Kijne, International Water Management Institute, Rose Cottage, 3 Cherry Tree Farm Lane,
Hemel Hempstead, Hertfordshire HP2 7HS, UK.
I. Makin, International Water Management Institute, Mailing Address: PO Box 2075, Colombo, Sri
Lanka; Street Address: 127, Sunil Mawatha, Pelawatte, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka.
D. Molden, Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture, International Water
Management Institute, Mailing Address: PO Box 2075, Colombo, Sri Lanka; Street Address:
127, Sunil Mawatha, Pelawatte, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka .
F. Molle, International Water Management Institute, Mailing Address: PO Box 2075, Colombo, Sri
Lanka; Street Address: 127, Sunil Mawatha, Pelawatte, Battaramulla, Sri Lanka.
H. Murray-Rust, Integrated Water Management for Agriculture, International Water Management
Institute, c/o ICRISAT, Patancheru, India.
S.N. Nigam, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru 502 324,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
C.K. Ong, World Agroforestry Centre and Sida’s Regional Land Management Unit, International
Centre for Research in Agroforestry, PO Box 30677, Nairobi, Kenya.
T.Y. Oweis, Natural Resources Management Program, International Center for Agricultural
Research in the Dry Areas, PO Box 5466, Aleppo, Syria.
P. Pathak, Soil and Water Management, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid
Tropics, Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India.
J. Rockström, UNESCO–IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, The Netherlands; Currently:
Coordinator of WaterNet, University of Zimbabwe, PO Box MP 600, Mount Pleasant, Harare,
Zimbabwe.
M.W. Rosegrant, International Food Policy Research Institute, 2033 K Street, NW Washington, DC
20006, USA.
R. Sakthivadivel, International Water Management Institute, 33, 4/14 I East Street, Kamaranga,
Thiruvanmiyur, Chennai I 600041, Tamil Nadu, India.
N.P. Saxena, International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru
502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India.
D. Seckler, International Water Management Institute, 3234 West Fairview Place, No. 1, Denver,
CO 80211, USA.
N. Seetharama, NRCS (ICAR), Hyderabad, and Senior Scientist II, Natural Resources Conservation
Service, Indian Council for Agricultural Research, International Crops Research Institute for the
Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India.
R. Serraj, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru 502 324,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
H.P. Singh, Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Santoshnagar, Hyderabad 500 059,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
P. Singh, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, Patancheru 502 324,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
T.K. Sreedevi, Andhra Pradesh Rural Livelihoods Project, Government of Andhra Pradesh, Arctic
Paleo-River Discharge (APARD), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 500 059, Andhra Pradesh, India.
B.M. Swallow, International Centre for Research in Agroforestry, PO Box 30677, Nairobi, Kenya.
Z. Tahir, International Water Management Institute, 12KM Multan Road, Chowk Thokar Niaz Baig,
Lahore 53700, Pakistan.
T.P. Tuong, International Rice Research Institute, DAPO Box 7777, Metro Manila, Philippines.
N.K. Tyagi, Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Zarifa Farm, Karnal-132001, Haryana, India.
S.P. Wani, Water and Agro-biodiversity Management, International Crops Research Institute for the
Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru 502 324, Andhra Pradesh, India.
H. Zhang, CSIRO Plant Industry, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization,
Underwood Avenue, Floreat Park, Private Bag 5, Wembley, WA 6913, Australia.
Water Prels 2/7/03 9:01 am Page ix

Series Foreword: Comprehensive

Assessment of Water Management
in Agriculture Series

To find solutions to the water problems already facing many developing countries, we need a
better understanding of how we have used water to grow food and to improve rural liveli-
hoods. We need to know which investments in water for rainfed and irrigated agriculture
have reduced poverty and increased food security – and which have not. We need to better
understand not only the benefits of irrigation, but also the costs in terms of environmental
degradation and pollution.
The Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture, an international
research, capacity-building and knowledge-sharing programme, takes stock of the past 50
years of water development for agriculture, the water management challenges that commu-
nities are facing today and solutions that people have developed. The results of this research
will enable farming communities, governments and donors to make better-quality invest-
ment decisions to meet food and environmental security targets in the near future and over
the next 25 years.
The Assessment is done by a coalition of partners which includes 11 Future Harvest agri-
cultural research centres supported by the Consultative Group on International Agricultural
Research, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), and partners
from some 40 research and development institutes globally. Currently, the Governments of
The Netherlands, Switzerland, Australia and Taiwan, and the Rockefeller Foundation have
supported this work.
The primary research findings will be presented in a series of books that will form the
Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. The books will cover a
range of vital topics in the area of water, agriculture, food security and ecosystems – the
entire spectrum of developing and managing water in agriculture, from fully irrigated to
fully rainfed lands. They are about people and society, why they decide to adopt certain prac-
tices and not others, and, in particular, how water management can help poor people. They
are about ecosystems – how agriculture affects ecosystems, the goods and services ecosys-
tems provide for food security, and how water can be managed to meet both food and envi-
ronmental security objectives. This is the first book in the series.
Effectively managing water to meet food and environmental objectives will require the
concerted action of individuals from across several professions and disciplines – farmers,
water managers, economists, hydrologists, irrigation specialists, agronomists and social

ix
Water Prels 2/7/03 9:01 am Page x

x Series Foreword

scientists. The material presented in this book represents the first effort that brings this
diverse group of people together to present a truly cross disciplinary perspective on water
productivity. The complete set of books should be invaluable for resource managers,
researchers and field implementers. They will provide source material from which policy
statements, practical manuals and educational and training material can be prepared.
David Molden
Series Editor
International Water Management Institute
Sri Lanka
Water Prels 2/7/03 9:01 am Page xi

Improving Water Productivity in Agriculture:

Editors’ Overview

Jacob W. Kijne, Randolph Barker and David Molden

International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka

Introduction and to leave more water for other human

and ecosystem uses.
One of the critical challenges of the early 21st This book provides state-of-the-art know-
century will be the resolution of the water ledge on how to increase the productivity of
crisis. This crisis is defined by scarcity of water in agriculture. It provides concepts,
water, water-driven ecosystem degradation methodologies, constraints and examples
and malnutrition. In spite of massive water- drawn from a wealth of experience from
development efforts for food security, the developing and developed countries. The
poor are affected the most, because they do book demonstrates that increasing water
not have the resources to obtain or maintain productivity will provide a focal point for
access to reliable and safe water. In the quest practitioners and researchers from a variety
for improved access to water and food secu- of social science and physical science back-
rity, tremendous resources have been grounds.
invested in developing water for agricultural
uses. Yet we know that, with the growing
demand for water for industry and munici-
palities, combined with environmental prob- Water-use Efficiency and Water
lems, there will be less water for agriculture Productivity
in the future.
We hold that the solution to the water The first task in understanding how to
crisis is to be found in how water is devel- increase water productivity is to understand
oped and managed. Increasing the produc- what it means. As presented by Molden,
tivity of water means, in its broadest sense, Murray-Rust, Sakthivadivel and Makin in
getting more value or benefit from each drop Chapter 1, the definition is scale-dependent.
of water used for crops, fish, forests and live- For a farmer, it means getting more crop per
stock while maintaining or improving drop of irrigation water. But, for society as a
ecosystems and the services they provide. whole, concerned with a basin or country’s
Within agriculture, this means obtaining water resource, this means getting more
more production or value from every drop. value per unit of water resource used.
We must increase the productivity of existing Increasing water productivity is then the
water resources and produce more food with business of several actors working in har-
less water. Increases in water productivity mony at plant, field, irrigation-system and
provide a means both to ease water scarcity river-basin levels.
© CAB International 2003. Water Productivity in Agriculture: Limits and
Opportunities for Improvement (eds J.W. Kijne, R. Barker and D. Molden) xi
Water Prels 2/7/03 9:01 am Page xii

xii J.W. Kijne et al.

Crop water productivity means raising Throughout this book the reader should
crop yields per unit of water consumed. be aware of the distinction between crop
Over the past three decades, this has been water productivity and water productivity at
achieved largely through higher crop yields the basin level. Crop water productivity is
per hectare. But, with the declining crop- defined in either physical or monetary terms
yield growth, attention has turned to the as the ratio of the product (usually measured
potential offered by improved management in kg) over the amount of water depleted
of water resources. Although there is consid- (usually limited to crop evapotranspiration,
erable scope for increasing water productiv- measured in m3). Occasionally – for example,
ity through this avenue, it is not as large as is in the context of supplemental irrigation –
commonly thought. As argued by Seckler, there is a felt need to express the productiv-
Molden and Sakthivadivel in Chapter 3, the ity of the applied irrigation water. In that
amount of reuse (or recycling) of water is case, the denominator refers to irrigation
often underestimated. When reuse is taken water only, not to rainfall. Obviously, values
into account, the options for further of irrigation-water productivity cannot be
increases in water productivity are much compared with water productivity with
smaller than were expected at first. depleted water in the denominator.
Seckler et al. side with those who find the Basin water productivity takes into con-
traditional definition of irrigation efficiency sideration beneficial depletion for multiple
misleading. They distinguish between what uses of water, including not only crop pro-
they refer to as the ‘classical’ and the ‘neo- duction but also uses by the non-agricultural
classical’ concept of irrigation efficiency. sector, including the environment. Here, the
Classical irrigation efficiency is defined as problem lies in allocating the water among
the crop water requirement (actual evapo- its multiple uses and users. Priority in use
transpiration minus effective precipitation) involves the value judgement of either the
divided by the water withdrawn or diverted allocating agency or society at large and may
from a specific surface-water or groundwater be legally determined by water rights.
source. ‘Losses’ in this approach include
transpiration and evaporation (evapotran-
spiration), but also seepage, percolation and
runoff, processes in which the water is not Productivity
consumed. These latter so-called ‘losses’ may
be captured or recycled for use elsewhere in The classical concept of irrigation efficiency as
the basin. Thus, classical measures of effi- used by engineers omits economic values. To
ciency tend to underestimate the true effi- determine optimum-level irrigation efficiency,
ciency and ignore the important role of the economist would want to know the value
surface irrigation systems in recharging of irrigation water and the cost of increased
groundwater and providing downstream control or management that would permit a
sources of water for agriculture and other reduction in diversion. As water becomes
ecosystem services. scarce, increasing crop water productivity or
Seckler et al. agree with others that the reducing diversions would make sense if the
word ‘efficiency’ has outlived its usefulness water ‘saved’ could be put to higher-valued
in the field of water-resource policy and man- uses. But higher water productivity does not
agement. Willardson et al. (1994) introduced necessarily lead to greater economic effi-
the concept of consumed fractions. Others, ciency. Moreover, water productivity or yield
e.g. Perry (1996), Burt et al. (1997) and per unit of water, like yield per unit of land, is
Molden (1997) have referred to beneficial and a partial productivity of just one factor,
non-beneficial depleted or consumed frac- whereas the most encompassing measure of
tions. These are important distinctions that productivity used by economists is total factor
need to be kept firmly in mind throughout productivity. The following definitions may
these discussions on limits and opportunities help in understanding the differences
for improvements in crop water use. between various productivity parameters.
Water Prels 2/7/03 9:01 am Page xiii

Editors’ Overview xiii

Pure physical productivity is defined as Scale Considerations

the quantity of the product divided by the
quantity of the input – for example, yield per Water use and management in agriculture
hectare or yield per cubic metre of water encompass many different scales: plants,
either diverted or depleted. Combined phys- fields, farms, delivery systems, basins,
ical and economic productivity is defined in nations and continents. The focus of atten-
terms of either the gross or the net present tion shifts according to the scale we are con-
value of the crop divided by the amount of sidering, from photosynthesis and
water diverted or depleted. transpiration, through water distribution
Economic productivity is the gross or net and delivery, to allocation between various
present value of the product divided by the uses and between nations sharing the same
value of the water diverted or depleted, basin.
which can be defined in terms of its opportu- In the classical irrigation efficiency con-
nity cost in the highest alternative use. cept, scale-dependent efficiency is commonly
Barker, Dawe and Inocencio address these used: application efficiency (the ratio of the
issues in Chapter 2. The authors give exam- water delivered to the root zone over the
ples of basins where unexpected off-site effects water delivered to the field); conveyance effi-
and externalities confound possible changes in ciency (the ratio of the water delivered to the
water management intended to reduce water field over the supply of water delivered into
diversions. They do so by analysing the rela- the canal from the source); and project effi-
tionship between water productivity and eco- ciency (the overall efficiency of the irrigation
nomic efficiency and by investigating the system).
possible role of water policies, such as water The last term usually refers to the ratio of
pricing, and institutions. Just as increased the total water consumption over the
water savings do not necessarily result in amount of water diverted to the system,
regardless of how many times the water may
increased water productivity, so also increased
have been reused within the system. It is rec-
water productivity does not necessarily result
ognized that production per unit of water is
in higher net returns at the farm or basin level.
an important parameter for irrigation man-
As the examples illustrate, it needs to be deter-
agers, but it is not comparable across scales
mined whether proposed water-management
or readily comparable across locations.
practices or technologies designed to increase
However, it can be a useful indicator of per-
water productivity and economic efficiency at
formance over time. An increase in produc-
the farm level translate into water-productiv- tion per unit of water diverted at one scale
ity and economic-efficiency gains at the sys- does not necessarily lead to an increase in
tem or basin level. Especially when basins productivity of water diverted at a larger
become closed (basins are closed when all scale.
available water is depleted, i.e. rendered In Chapter 1, Molden, Murray-Rust,
unavailable for further use),1 setting the prior- Sakthivadivel and Makin address these scale
ity in the allocation of water among compet- issues and discuss water accounting as a
ing uses may reflect either political power at means of generalizing about water use
the basin level or a value judgement on the across scales and of better understanding the
part of society. While the farmer may measure terms in both the numerator and the denom-
the benefits of increased water productivity in inator of the water-productivity ratio. They
economic terms, valuing beneficial depletion illustrate this with several water-accounting
in terms of reallocation of limited water sup- diagrams applicable to different scales and
plies among competing uses and users at the provide a helpful glossary of terms. Farmer-
basin level is an important but far more com- based strategies to increase water productiv-
plex undertaking. ity at plant, field, farm, system and basin

1 This is also the case when water flows to so-called sinks, i.e. into a sea, saline groundwater or another
location where it is not readily or economically recoverable for reuse.
Water Prels 2/7/03 9:01 am Page xiv

xiv J.W. Kijne et al.

level are summarized in a table. Several of tion water presents another example of a
these are discussed in more detail in subse- trade-off for which the benefits and costs are
quent chapters. likely to vary among locations.
Tyagi, in Chapter 5, discusses field-level
measures that can be combined with the use
Water Productivity in Rice Cultivation of saline/alkaline irrigation water to
enhance its productivity and mitigate its
Cultivation of rice in flooded fields (paddies) adverse effects. Such measures include the
is very water-demanding. Declining water choice of the best cropping sequence, con-
availability is seen as a threat to the sustain- junctive use with good-quality canal water,
ability of irrigated rice-based production sys- water-table management, rainwater conser-
tems. In Chapter 4, Tuong and Bouman vation in precisely levelled basins and
explore ways of producing rice with less chemical amelioration of alkaline water. The
water. Finding such alternatives, they assert, illustrations are taken mainly from the
is essential for food security and sustaining rice–wheat cropping system in the mon-
environmental health in Asia. Irrigation soonal climate with moderate rainfall
methods that require less water, such as (400–600 mm), as occurs in north-west India.
saturated-soil culture and alternate wetting Water transfer, water markets and the dis-
and drying can reduce unproductive out- posal of saline water with its basin-level
flows and raise water productivity at the implications are also discussed. Practical
field level without a reduction in crop yield examples illustrate the importance of pre-
per hectare. sowing irrigation and the advantage of
Other approaches that may increase water growing crops during the winter season
productivity include the incorporation of the when soil salinity is less and the evaporative
C4 photosynthetic pathway into rice, the use demand is lower than during the pre-mon-
of molecular biotechnology to enhance soonal summer season.
drought-stress tolerance and the develop- Knowledge of the leaching requirement,
ment of ‘aerobic rice’, which refers to rice i.e. the amount of water that needs to pass
varieties that yield well under non-flooded through the root zone to maintain an accept-
conditions. (The potentials for plant breed- able salt level without unnecessary percola-
ing and molecular biology are discussed in tion losses, would help to determine whether
more detail by Bennett in Chapter 7.) The increases in crop water productivity are fea-
authors contend that a shift towards aerobic sible. Kijne, in Chapter 6, describes the diffi-
rice will affect water conservation, soil culties both in determining the leaching
organic-matter turnover, nutrient dynamics, requirement and, once known, in accurately
carbon sequestration, weed ecology and applying the desired amount of water.
greenhouse-gas emissions. Some of these Applying more water than needed causes
changes lead to greater crop water produc- the groundwater table to rise, which could
tivity and are seen as positive; others, such lead to waterlogging. Evapotranspiration
as the release of nitrous oxide from the soil, and leaching, which together constitute the
are seen as having a negative impact. beneficial depletion of the water resource
under saline growing conditions, are linked
through the yield–water–salinity production
Water Productivity Under Saline and function. This relationship between yield
Alkaline Conditions and amount and quality of the applied water
is not well known under field conditions,
The use of saline or alkaline water in crop where crops are subjected to periodic and
production enlarges the available water simultaneous water and salt stress and to
resource but at the cost of lower yields and non-uniform water application. Moreover,
possible long-term effects on soil structure the feedback mechanism that lowers evapo-
and soil productivity. Growing plants in transpiration when plants become more
saline soil or with saline or alkaline irriga- affected by soil salinity adds a further degree
Water Prels 2/7/03 9:01 am Page xv

Editors’ Overview xv

of complexity to the relationship between taken to address this issue include improving
yield and salinity. Accordingly, knowing the environmental simulations used for
how much water to apply is important in germplasm screening and analysis, defining
terms of the sustainability of irrigated agri- how the impact of water deficit on growth
culture on saline soils. and yield components changes during the
growth stages and discovering the regulatory
genes underlying the plant’s responses to
Plant Breeding for Enhanced Water water deficit. One promising approach to dis-
Productivity covering the genes responsible for drought
effects on yield components is quantitative
Plant breeding over the last century has indi- trait loci (QTL) analysis. Such studies tend to
rectly increased the productivity of water (in focus on indirect effects, such as the inhibi-
combination with other production factors) tion of panicle development by hormonal sig-
because yields have increased with no addi- nals from stressed leaves and roots and the
tional water consumption. Improved vari- inhibition of carbon flow from leaves to the
eties have come from conventional breeding developing grain. For example, it may be
programmes where selection has been for possible to prevent early drought-induced
yield per unit of land. Most of the increases shedding of leaves by the genetic regulation
have been due to improvements in the har- of cyclokinin production. However, it could
vest index (the ratio of marketable product also be argued that these processes might be
to total biomass or the so-called grain-to- more effectively altered through conventional
straw ratio), which may now be approaching breeding. Many promising properties for
its theoretical limit in many of our major coping with drought stress have been intro-
crops (Richards et al., 1993). The develop- duced for years through conventional plant
ment of an appropriate phenology by genetic breeding. These include changing the length
modification, so that the durations of the of the growing season and the timing of sen-
vegetative and reproductive periods are sitive stages; selecting for small leaves and
matched as well as possible with the early stomatal closure to reduce transpira-
expected water supply or with the absence of tion; selecting for high root activity and deep
crop hazards, is usually responsible for the rooting systems; and selecting for tolerance
most significant improvements in yield sta- to salinity. In short, traditional breeding
bility. Planting, flowering and maturation methods and modern methods based on
dates are important in matching the period biotechnology should be seen as complemen-
of maximum crop growth with the time tary.
when saturation vapour-pressure deficit is
low, and these characteristics may be geneti-
cally modified. One way of genetically Water Productivity in Rain-fed Agriculture
increasing water productivity is to modify
canopy development in order to reduce Eighty per cent of the agricultural land
evaporation from the soil surface. Hence, worldwide is rain-fed, with – in developing
much work has been done on the selection countries – generally low yield levels and
for large leaf area during the vegetative large on-farm water losses during occasional
period to increase early vigour. periods of heavy rainfall. This suggests there
Biotechnology is considered to have great are significant opportunities for improve-
potential for the development of drought- or ments in crop water productivity.
salt-tolerant crops, but this potential has not Serraj and his co-authors of the
been fully realized yet. In addressing these International Crops Research Institute for the
topics in Chapter 7, Bennett observes that the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) describe in
slow progress in breeding for drought toler- Chapter 8 the complexities of drought man-
ance is often attributed to the genetic com- agement of rain-fed cereal and legume crops
plexity of the trait and its interaction with the in the semi-arid tropics. These cereal and
environment. Complementary approaches legume crops are characterized by their
Water Prels 2/7/03 9:01 am Page xvi

xvi J.W. Kijne et al.

ability to withstand periods of water scarcity could be more than doubled in many areas
and still produce grain and biomass. of sub-Saharan Africa.
Drought stress is a complex issue because of Rockström et al. suggest that the best
the unpredictability of its occurrence and option for increasing crop water productivity
duration during the growing season, the lies in combining such practices with man-
high evaporative demand on the crop and agement strategies that enhance infiltration
the low fertility of the soil in which these of rain, increase the water-holding capacity
plants grow. In addition, the effect of of the soils and maximize plant water uptake
drought stress is often compounded by other through timeliness of farming operations
stress factors, such as infection by root and and soil fertilization. Obviously, upgrading
stalk rot-causing fungi, which can bring rain-fed production through supplemental
about severe lodging and premature death. irrigation would have site-specific implica-
Current insufficient understanding of the tions for downstream water users. The
combined effect of all these factors on crop authors recognize that the socio-economic
yield complicates the characterization of the viability of water-harvesting structures for
physiological traits required for increased supplemental irrigation needs to be carefully
water productivity of the crops. considered. Preliminary assessment of man-
The authors discuss four genetic- ually dug farm ponds and sub-surface tanks
enhancement approaches for the improve- indicates that the benefit–cost ratio depends
ment of the adaptation of legume and cereal on the opportunity cost of labour, which is
crops to drought-prone environments: often low during the dry season in remote
rural areas.
● development of short-duration genotypes
that can escape terminal drought;
● conventional breeding of genotypes with
Future Cereal Production and Water
superior yield potential in drought-prone
Productivity
areas;
● physiological breeding of drought-resis-
Crop water productivity varies with loca-
tant genotypes;
tion, depending on such factors as cropping
● identification of QTL (described in the
pattern, climatic conditions, irrigation tech-
previous section) for drought tolerance
nology, field water management and infra-
and their use in marker-assisted breeding.
structure, and on the labour, fertilizer and
The focus in Chapter 9, written by machinery inputs. For example, in 1995,
Rockström, Barron and Fox, is on rain-fed water productivity of rice ranged from 0.15
agriculture on smallholder farms in sub- to 0.60 kg m3 and that of other cereals from
Saharan Africa. The authors present field 0.2 to 2.4 kg m3. Cai and Rosegrant report
evidence suggesting that mitigating the in Chapter 10 on an analysis of crop water
effects of intraseasonal dry spells is the key productivity at the global and regional levels
to achieving higher yield levels and higher through an integrated water- and food-
crop water productivity. As a result of the modelling framework developed at the
unpredictability of dry spells, farmers tend International Food Policy Research Institute
to avert risks. For many smallholder farmers (IFPRI). The authors explored the impact of
in the semi-arid tropics, it is not worth technology and management improvement
investing in external inputs, including, most on water productivity. Based on the best
importantly, fertilizers, as the risk of total available information and assuming that
crop failure remains a reality once every 5 water supplies for agriculture will become
years and the risk of severe yield reduction more and more restricted, they expect that
occurs once every 2 years. However, the from 1995 to 2025 crop water productivity
authors show that, with significant invest- will increase: the global average water pro-
ments in water harvesting, conservation ductivity of rice from 0.39 to 0.52 kg m3 and
tillage and supplemental irrigation during that of the other cereals from 0.67 to 1.01
short dry spells, yields of staple food crops kg m3. This increase is predicted to result
Water Prels 2/7/03 9:01 am Page xvii

Editors’ Overview xvii

from increases in crop yield and in water evaporation from the soil is much less than
productivity at the basin level, with the for a crop but evaporative loss through
major contribution coming from yield canopy interception is higher. There are also
increases. One of the conclusions of this significant differences between agroforestry
study is that investments in agricultural systems and forests, as the former tend to
infrastructure and agricultural research may have a relatively sparse tree density.
have higher payoffs than investments in new In the fourth case study (Chapter 14),
irrigation systems in order to accelerate this Bowen reviews efforts to increase water pro-
increase in water productivity and hence ductivity in potato cultivation. Potato is gen-
ensure food security in the next 25 years. erally shallow-rooted and sensitive to even
mild water deficits. Increasing water produc-
tivity in potato was done through a combina-
Case Studies tion of improved germplasm and agronomic
practices for potato production in warm
Chapters 11–19 contain a number of case tropical environments. The author concluded
studies that illustrate issues discussed in the from the study that there exists a useful
first group of chapters. range of genetic variability that could be
The first case study (Chapter 11), pre- taken advantage of for the development of
sented by Oweis and Hachum, demonstrates more drought-tolerant and water-productive
that sustainable increases in crop water pro- genotypes for rain-fed and irrigated potato
ductivity can only be achieved through inte- production.
grated farm-resources management. This The fifth case study (Chapter 15) is from
approach combines water conservation, sup- the rice–wheat cropping system in south
plemental irrigation, better crop selection, Asia, which covers about 13.5 million ha.
improved agronomic practices and political Hobbs and Gupta describe how growth in
and institutional interventions. The case area and yield per unit land has been respon-
study is based on experience with cereal and sible for continued growth in production for
legume production in the West Asia and over 30 years. Future growth, however, must
North Africa (WANA) region, with a specific come from yield increases and higher crop
example from Syria. water productivity. Improved resource-
The second case study (Chapter 12) conservation technologies, such as zero
describes efficient management of rainwater tillage (now being widely adopted) and
to achieve higher crop water productivity raised beds, are identified as the key to
and increased groundwater recharge. The increasing water productivity. The authors
example, written by Wani, Pathak, Sreedevi, also emphasize the importance of partner-
Singh and Singh, is from the semi-arid trop- ships and participatory approaches in the
ics in northern India. The authors argue in research and adoption of new technologies
favour of an integrated watershed manage- by farmers.
ment approach and identified community In the sixth case study (Chapter 16),
participation, capacity building at local level, Hussain, Sakthivadivel and Amarasinghe
multidisciplinary technical backstopping, illustrate the importance of irrigation-water
and the use of scientific tools as important management on crop water productivity in
elements in efficient rainwater management. northern India and Pakistan, also with a
The third case study (Chapter 13), by Ong focus on the wheat–rice production system.
and Swallow, illustrates the importance of The case study refers to systems where the
water consumption by trees in irrigated irrigation water is a combination of canal
areas and discusses how water productivity water and pumped groundwater. They
can be increased in forestry and agroforestry. found significant variability throughout the
The authors describe the differences in rela- season, not only in canal water supply and
tive importance of the various components groundwater use and quality, but also in
of the water balance of a tree cover and an non-land factors, such as seed variety, sow-
agricultural crop. For a tree cover, direct ing dates and weedicide application. The
Water Prels 2/7/03 9:01 am Page xviii

xviii J.W. Kijne et al.

case study indicates that substantial gains in North China Plain and Oregon, USA. Also in
aggregate yield can be obtained by a more this case study, crop water productivity
equitable distribution of the canal water, shows significant spatial and temporal varia-
which would boost yields in tail reaches tion. The risk of deficit irrigation, according
without adversely affecting yields elsewhere. to the author, can be minimized through
Most of the major water basins in appropriate irrigation scheduling to avoid
Thailand are closing, while an increasing water stress during the most sensitive
amount of water is being diverted from agri- growth stages. One of the conditions for suc-
culture. In the seventh case study (Chapter cess is that farmers control the timing and
17), Molle raises the question of whether amount of the irrigation applications.
water productivity can be increased by eco-
nomic measures, such as water pricing and
market mechanisms for the reallocation of Conclusions
water to other uses. The case study shows
that, in the Chao Phraya basin in Thailand, This book makes clear that increasing crop
farmers and irrigation administrators have water productivity is a challenge at various
made substantial adjustments to water levels. The first challenge is to continue to
scarcity in the dry season. Thus, the benefits enhance the marketable yield of crops with-
of such economic measures are much smaller out increasing transpiration. The second
than expected and the transaction costs and challenge is at field, farm and system levels
political risks outweigh the possible gains. to reduce as much as possible all outflows
The eighth case study (Chapter 18) that do not contribute to crop production.
addresses the need for data to monitor the These three levels are interlinked and the
productivity of land and water resources available water for crop production must be
over vast areas. Bastiaanssen, Ahmad and used to its greatest advantage within the
Tahir illustrate how in this study measure- basin. This may involve allowing outflow to
ments from the National Oceanic and occur from some fields, knowing that this
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) outflow is not lost for plant production but
weather satellite were combined with ancil- will be used better at some other location
lary data, such as canal water supplies and within the basin. The third challenge is to
rainfall data, into a geographic information increase the economic productivity of all
system (GIS). The satellite data were con- sources of water, especially rainwater but
verted to crop yield, actual evapotranspira- also waste-water of various qualities and
tion and, indirectly, to net groundwater use. saline (ground) water. Meeting the challenge
The analysis of data for the Indus basin is will require developing methodologies and
carried out at various scales. Large variations tools to be used for the collection and inter-
exist in crop water productivity, which the pretation of relevant data and information.
authors ascribe to variations in the relation Scientific disciplines must work together in
between canal water supply and evapotran- the analysis of interactions, synergies and
spiration. However, at a spatial scale of 6 trade-offs.
million ha and higher, water productivity There are hopeful signs that these chal-
becomes constant, because at that scale in the lenges will be met. At plant level, traits and
closing Indus basin, all water supplied is genes for drought and salt tolerance have
depleted. The study reinforces the impor- been identified in a number of crops, and
tance of groundwater recycling in the Indus lessons learned in some crops will be applied
basin. to others, making use of both conventional
In the ninth case study (Chapter 19), and molecular breeding techniques. For
Zhang argues, on the basis of crop water- example, progress in respect of increasing
production functions, for the introduction of production without a concomitant increase
deficit irrigation in order to increase on-farm in evapotranspiration through changes in the
water productivity in semi-arid countries. harvest index and stay-green factor is
The case study uses data from Syria, the expected to yield results for some crops
Water Prels 2/7/03 9:01 am Page xix

Editors’ Overview xix

within 5 years. At field level, further Incentives that would facilitate the adoption
improvements in crop water productivity are of water-productivity-enhancing field prac-
expected from the introduction of supple- tices are not clearly understood and are lack-
mental irrigation in rain-fed agriculture and ing. The growing interdependence among
the expansion of drip, trickle and sprinkler water uses and increasing competition
irrigation. Further progress is also expected among users complicates the search for solu-
in the adoption and adaptation of water- tions that will improve the productivity of
productivity-enhancing practices when insti- basin-wide water resources. Institutions and
tutions and policies are amended to provide policies that can deal with these complexities
appropriate incentives for farmers. At basin and with political realities and yet create an
level the importance of an integrated environment for farmer productivity are
approach to land and water management is needed. There is indeed scope for increased
recognized, especially in respect of sustain- emphasis on research and application in all
able conjunctive management of groundwa- these areas.
ter and surface water. We expect that the discussions of the chal-
But the task of achieving gains in water lenges and the hopeful signs will help in
productivity is daunting. Technologies and understanding not only the limits but also
management approaches appropriate for the opportunities for increasing crop water
poor rural farmers need development. productivity.

References

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mity. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 123(6), 423–442.
Molden, D. (1997) Accounting for Water Use and Productivity. SWIM Report No. 1, International Irrigation
Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Perry, C.J. (1996) The IIMI Water Balance Framework: a Model for Project Level Analysis. Research Report 5,
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Richards, R.A., López-Castañeda, C. and Gomez-Macpherson, G.A.G. (1993) Improving the efficiency of
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Willardson, L.S., Allen, R.G. and Frederiksen, H.D. (1994) Universal fractions and the elimination of irri-
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Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 270 Bibliography Wysocki, Zygmunt, 'The Result of
Research, Architectonic Studies and of Protective Work over the
Northern Portico of the Middle Courtyard in the Hatshepsut Temple
at Deir el-Bahari', MDAIK 40 (1984), 329-49. 'The Temple of Queen
Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari - The Results of Architectural Research
over the North Part of the Upper Terrace', MDAIK 43 (1986), 267-76.
'The Temple of Queen Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari: The Raising of
the Structure in View of Architectural Studies', MDAIK 48 (1992),
233-54. Zeising, Adolf, Neue Lehre von den Proportionen des
menschlichen Korpers, Leipzig: Weigel, 1854. Zignani, Pierre,
'Espaces, lumieres at composition architecturale au temple d'Hathor
a Dendara. Resultats preliminaires', BIFAO 100 (2000), 47-77.
 Index Aamaket, tomb of 232 Abd el-Latyf 70 Abu Rawash
193, 225, 245 Abusir 61, 181, 183, 206, 207, 230, 231, 247 Abydos
30, 180, 181, 183, 232, 234 Agrigentum, temple of the Concord at
13 Ahmose (Eighteenth Dynasty) xxi, 181, 232 Akhenaten
(Amenhotep IV, Eighteenth Dynasty) xxi, 99, 129 Alberti, Leon
Battista 3 Alexander the Great xxi, 172 Alexandria 68 algorithm 58
Amada 105 Amarna47, 73, 99, 101, 105, 127, 129, 153, 155 Royal
Tomb 83-84, 141 period xxi, 104 Amduat 141 Amenemhat I (Twelfth
Dynasty) xxi, 203, 229, 230, 251 Amenemhat II (Twelfth Dynasty)
xxi, 229, 252 Amenemhat III (Twelfth Dynasty) xxi, 104, 115, 135,
138, 174, 183, 194, 206, 230, 253-254 Amenemhat IV (Twelfth
Dynasty) xxi Amenemhat-Serer, statue of 154 Amenhotep III
(Eighteenth Dynasty) xxi, 115, 135-138, 150, 174, 205, 212
Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten, Eighteenth Dynasty) xxi Amenhotepsesi,
tomb of 1 54 Amenmesse (Nineteenth Dynasty) 142, 144 Ameny
Qemau (Thirteenth Dynasty) xxi, 230, 254 amulets 70—7 1 Aniba
181, 233 angle 2, 43, 71, 196-197 angle contraction 1 75 right angle
22, 88, 122, 157, 158 Antony 172 apothem 200, 203, 207-21 1
approximation 10, 15, 26, 35, 54, 60, 66, 67, 70, 87, 112, 175,212-
213,214,228 apron 69 arches at St Chamas in Provence 13 of Titus
in Rome 13 Archimedes 66-67, 215, 240 architectural drawings (see
also drawings and geometrical drawings) xv, 10, 60, 83, 90, 101,
113, 124, 127-128, 129, 139, 140, 141, 166, 174, 240 of a building
from Lisht 104 of a building from the Ramesseum 104 of a building
from the Sheikh Said quarry 104, 105 of a capital from Gebel Abu
Foda 113, 117-121 of a capital from the temple of Kalabsha 113 of a
cavetto cornice from the temple of Edfu 113 of a colonnaded court
from Dra Abu el-Naga 104 of a column from the Temple of Philae
113, 117-121, 127, 167 of a curve with coordinates from Saqqara
104, 115 of an elliptical vault from the tomb of Ramses VI 113, 114-
115, 157, 158, 159,218 of a four-pillared chamber of a tomb 104,
105-109, 144, 147 of a garden or temple from Deir el-Bahari 104 of
a Hathor-headed capital from Gebel Abu Foda 113, 122, 167 of a
house 104 of a house from Amarna 104 of a peripteral chapel (?) on
a wooden board 104, 109-112 of a peripteral chapel from Deir el-
Bahari 104, 105, 107, 111 of pyramids 14 and 15 at Soleb 104, 186
of a pyramid from Meroe 104, 186 of a shrine: see of a peripteral
chapel from Deir el-Bahari of the sloping sides of Mastaba 17 at
Meidum 113, 114, 188-192 of the stairs and door of a tomb 104 of a
temple at Heliopolis 100-101, 104 of a tomb, from the tomb of
Senenmut 104, 105-109 of the tomb of Ramses IV 104, 1 12 271
 272 Index architectural drawings (cont.) of the tomb of
Ramses IX 104, 1 12 vertical section of pyramid Beg. 8 at Meroe
104, 192, 234 architectural models xv, 90, 127-128, 138, 174, 175,
192, 194-195 of columns and capitals 135-138 of a granary 128 of a
house 128 of the funerary apartment of a pyramid from Dahshur
128, 135-138, 175 of the pyramid of Hawara(?) 128, 135-138, 194
of a step pyramid 128, 131-133, 135, 194 of a temple of Seti I 128,
129-131 of the temple of Tod 128, 129, 131-133 from the tomb of
Meketra 128 of a T-shaped basin from Amarna 128 votive 129, 131,
133, 135, 138 architecture 2, 4, 5, 10, 61, 87, 88, 122, 240
Achaemenid 16 Egyptian xv, xvi, 5, 6, 7, 10, 16, 28, 31, 46, 57, 69,
85, 86, 87, 127, 138, 155, 162, 173, 176, 180, 182,226,239 Greek 7,
10, 90, 127, 173, 176 Minoan 79 relationship with mathematics xiv-
xv, 2 Roman 90, 176 archive 100 area of the circle 215 Arsenal
inscription 1 75 art 2, 4, 5, 226 Egyptian 2, 10, 31, 57, 85, 86, 96,
154-155 Greek 7, 10 Ashmunein 85 Atmu-neferu, Queen of Senusret
II (Twelfth Dynasty) 212, 252 Augustus xxi, 167, 172 axis 42, 43, 71,
122, 133, 153, 166, 187, 192, 207, 211 basalt 206, 207, 230 Basilica
of Constantine 11-13 Belzoni, Giovanni 239 benben stone 182, 185,
198 benbenet (see also capstone and pyramidion) 182-183, 184 Beni
Hasan 4 Bent Pyramid: see pyramids Bryson 66 Building Texts 85,
117, 159, 161-172 burial chamber of a tomb (see also 'house of
gold' and 'hall') 140 Byzantine division table 121 Byzantine Period xxi
Cagliostro 239 Cairo Calendar: see Papyrus Cairo 86637 Calendars of
Lucky and Unlucky Days 80-81 capital 2, 18^13 sketch from Gebel
Abu Foda 1 13, 1 17-121 sketch from the temple of Kalabsha 113
sketch of a Hathor-headed from Gebel Abu Foda 113, 122, 167
capstone (see also pyramidion) 138, 182, 184, 207, 208,211
cathedrals Amiens 13 Notre-Dame de Paris 13 catheti 4, 28, 67, 185,
192, 203 cavetto cornice 113 cenotaph 135, 181, 232, 243, 244
chapel (see also peripteral chapels) of Hakoris at Karnak 54, 124
ofTi5 Chefren: see Khafra Cheops: see Khufu circle 5,
11,32,65,66,90, 115,200 calculation of the area 60 Greek method
66-67 Egyptian method 65-67 circumference 65, 66-67, 115, 200,
201 Clemens of Alexandria 156-157 Cleopatra VII xxi, 172 Colonna,
Francesco 239 columns 2, 15, 18-43, 96, 97, 101, 114, 127, 132-
133, 226 drawing from the Temple of Philae 1 13, 1 17—121, 127,
167 cords (see also ropes) 61, 71, 115, 152, 153, 154-159, 216
'stretching the cord': see foundation ceremonies corridors of
pyramids 197, 224 of tombs 84, 140, 142 slope of 141, 142,218
Corinth, temple of 1 3 Concord at Agrigentum, temple of 13 Crete 79
cubit (unit of measurement) 54, 59-60, 61, 85, 88, 109, 111, 112,
115, 117, 121, 122-123, 124, 127, 129, 142-147, 154, 155, 159, 166,
167, 171, 185, 188, 191, 192, 197, 202, 208, 212, 213-214, 218,
219, 226, 228, 229, 233, 234, 236, 242-254 small cubit 59, 61,
129,226 royal cubit 59, 61, 129, 141, 201 cubit rod 61, 88, 112, 124,
174 Dahshur 128, 135, 174, 181, 192, 207, 221, 229, 243, 252-254
deben (unit of measurement) 6 1 Deir el-Bahari 104, 122, 153, 155,
174 Deir el-Medina 79, 101, 139, 181,232-233 Democritus 156-157
Dendera, temple of 31, 85, 149, 151, 153, 166, 170 deny (unit of
measurement) 61 design 49, 73, 81, 90, 105, 1 17, 131, 142, 159,
162, 166, 176, 202, 204 diameter 66-67, 115, 127, 132, 156, 200-
201, 215 Diodorus Siculus 70 division table, Byzantine 121
 Index 273 dja (unit of measurement) 61 Djedefra (Fourth
Dynasty) xxi, 193, 225-226, 245 Djedkara-Isesi (Fifth Dynasty) xxi,
203, 226, 248 Djehuti-nefer Huia, house of 100 djeser (unit of
measurement) 6 1 Djeserkaraseneb, tomb of 154 Djoser (Third
Dynasty) xxi, 180, 181, 218, 226 Dra Abu el-Naga 104, 181, 232
'doorkeeper's rooms' (elements of a tomb) 140 drawings (see also
architectural and geometrical drawing) xiv, 18, 46, 47, 59, 81, 122,
157 of buildings 96-101 of a shrine on papyrus, from Gurob 2, 174
scale drawings 54, 85, 101-112, 113, 174 Dynasty 0 xxi Early
Dynastic Period xxi, 124, 152, 162 Edfu, temple of 7, 85, 113, 149,
151, 162, 163, 166-173 Egina, temple at 13 Egyptian Mathematical
Leather Roll 57 Eighth Dynasty xxi, 251 Eigtheenth Dynasty xxi, 100,
101, 104, 105, 109, 122, 124, 127, 140, 149, 154, 164, 181, 197,
232, 233 Elephantine 18-22, 47, 68, 105, 163, 166 Eleventh Dynasty
xxi, 104, 149 ellipse 114, 115 construction of 1 15-1 17 drawing
from the temple of Luxor 113 elliptical vault in the tomb of Ramses
VI 1 13, 114-115, 157, 158, 159,218 Euclid 63, 65, 67, 68, 89, 240
extreme and mean ratio: see mean and extreme ratio Ezbet Rushdi
206, 207, 211, 230, 254
 274 Index Hemaka, tomb of 1 56 heptagon 42, 201
Heracleopolis xxi Herodotus 70 heseb (unit of measurement) 6 1
Hetepsekhemwy (Second Dynasty) xxi, 1 80 hexagon 5,11
Hierakonpolis 164-166 hinu (unit of measurement) 6 1 Horus-Eye
fractions: see fractions house 101, 128 drawing of 104 model of 128
'house of gold' 140 of Djehuti-nefer Huia 100 soul-houses 128
human body representation of 28-29, 81-83, 96, 97-99, 122
proportions of 3, 5, 10, 28-29 Huni (Third Dynasty) 135, 181 Hyksos
xxi hypotenuse 22, 64, 67 Khui 228 Khuit, Queen of Teti (Sixth
Dynasty) 227, 249 Khufu (Cheops, Fourth Dynasty) xxi, 13, 22, 28,
30, 31, 70, 200-201, 202, 203, 206, 207, 212, 213, 215-216, 219,
225, 226, 236-238, 244, 245, 246 Kircher, Athanasius 239 kite (unit
of measurement) 6 1 Kom Ombo, temple of 1 72 Kuban 105 el-Kurru
181, 234 Lahun 206, 213, 252 land measuring 154 Late Dynastic
Period xxi Late Period xxi, 87, 104, 122, 128, 131, 159, 181, 182,
186,213,221,224,231,234 Leonardo from Pisa, also called Fibonacci
26 limestone 128, 135, 138, 206 Lishtl04, 229, 230, 251 Lucas
numbers 26 Luxor, temple at 28, 30, 1 13, 151 Iby (Eighth Dynasty)
xxi, 228, 251 icosahedron 68 Imhotep 10 Inenek-Inti, Queen of Pepi
I (Sixth Dynasty) 249 Iput I, Queen of Teti (Sixth Dynasty) 219, 227,
228, 229, 230, 249 Iput II, Queen of Pepi II (Sixth Dynasty) 206,
228, 251 Iry, tomb of 232 Isis, Queen of time of Ramses VI
(Twentieth Dynasty) 144 Islamic Period xxi Itakajet, Queen no. 2 of
Senusret I (Twelfth Dynasty) 251 el-Kab 105 Kalabsha, temple of 71-
72, 101, 113, 123 Kamose (Seventeenth Dynasty) xxi, 232 Karnak
11, 31, 54, 105, 109, 123, 150, 155, 183 kha (unit of measurement)
6 1 Khaba (Third Dynasty) xxi, 181 khar (unit of measurement) 61
kha-ta (unit of measurement) 61 Khaemhat, tomb of 154
Khaemwaset, son of Ramses III (Twentieth Dynasty) 144 Khafra
(Chefren, Fourth Dynasty) xxi, 203, 207, 219, 226-227, 236-238, 245
Khasekhemwy (Second Dynasty) 149 Khedival Period xxi Khendjer
(Thirteenth Dynasty) xxi, 183, 205, 206, 207,208,211,212,230,254
Khentkawes, Queen of Menkaura (Fourth Dynasty) 181 Khentkawes,
Queen of Neferirkara (Fifth Dynasty) 206, 207, 247 khet (rod, unit of
measurement) 61, 117, 154 Khnum Hotep, tomb of 4 Khonsu, tomb
of 232 Macedonian Dynasty xxi Macedonian Period xxi Mammisi at
Dendera 167 Martini, Francesco di Giorgio 28 mastaba 180, 181,
184, 192, 228, 249 17 at Meidum 1 13, 1 14, 188-192 of
Ptahshepses 6 1 Mastabat el-Fara'un 113 mathematics 2, 4, 87, 89,
90, 1 17, 179, 200, 226 Babylonian 64 Egyptian 71, 87, 90, 202
Greek 66, 67 relationship with architecture xiv-xv, 179 mathematical
sources 57, 67, 68, 71, 90, 178, 203, 217,218,240 Berlin Papyrus 217
Egyptian Mathematical Leather Roll 57 Kahun Papyri 57, 218 Moscow
Mathematical Papyrus 57, 154, 218 Rhind Mathematical Papyrus
(RMP) 57, 65, 154, 185,218,240 Mazghuna 254 mean and extreme
ratio (see also Golden Section) 5, 22, 23, 67, 68 MedinetHabu 150
Meidum 113, 114, 184, 188, 192, 203, 212, 215-216, 221, 225, 226,
236-238, 244, 246 Meketra, models from the tomb of 128 Memphis
128, 133 Menkauhor (Fifth Dynasty) xxi, 248 Menkaura (Mycerinus,
Fourth Dynasty) xxi, 113, 133, 181, 193,206,207,226,246 Menna,
tomb of 154 Mentuhotep II Nebhepetra (Eleventh Dynasty) xxi, 104
Merenptah (Nineteenth Dynasty) xxi, 144 Merenra I (Sixth Dynasty)
xxi, 203, 227, 250 Meritites, Queen of Pepi I (Sixth Dynasty) 250
 Index 275 Merneferra Ay (Thirteenth Dynasty) xxi, 183,
206, 211,230,254 Meroe 104, 181, 234 monuments 56, 173, 234
pyramids 178, 182, 192, 194, 197, 234 temples 127 Middle Kingdom
xxi, 47, 57, 58, 68, 70, 80, 104, 117, 122, 124, 138, 149, 156, 205,
208, 211, 217, 218, 221, 224, 228, 231, 234, 236, 238, 240 model
(see also architectural and geometrical models) 226, 229, 240
module 23, 47, 71, 121-127 Mycerinus: see Menkaura Nakht Min,
tomb of 232 Napata xxi Nebka (Fourth Dynasty?) xxi, 246 Nebnefer,
tomb of 233 neby (unit of measurement) 61, 141 Nectanebo I
(Thirtieth Dynasty) xxi, 85, 167 Nectanebo II (Thirtieth Dynasty) xxi,
172 Neferhetepes, Queen of Userkaf (Fifth Dynasty) 246 Neferirkara
(Fifth Dynasty) xxi, 181, 203, 226, 247 Neferuptah, Queen or
daughter of Amenemhat III (Twelfth Dynasty) 138, 254 Neith,
Queen of Pepi II (Sixth Dynasty) 228, 250 Neuserra (Sixth Dynasty)
xxi, 1 13, 149, 181, 184, 203,206,215,247 New Kingdom xxi, 61, 88,
101, 104, 129, 131, 150, 153, 155, 158, 163, 172, 178, 180, 186,
213, 221,224,231,234,235,240 Ninetjer (Second Dynasty) xxi, 180
Ninth Dynasty xxi Nineteenth Dynasty xxi, 104, 112, 128, 144, 181,
197, 202, 233 Nofru, Queen no. 1 of Senusret I (Twelfth Dynasty)
219,229,230,238,251 Nubwenet, Queen of Pepi I (Sixth Dynasty)
249 number 2, 3, 60-63, 65, 68, 88, 166, 171, 187-188, 200 integers
(whole) 58, 60, 216, 218 irrational 4, 24, 54, 68, 202 numerical
series (see also geometrical progression) 59, 167 numerologists 167,
201-202 Nubia 181, 233 Nuri 181, 234 obelisks 129, 131, 149, 156,
182-183, 184, 215 octagon 65, 66 Old Kingdom xvi, xxi, 2, 5, 64, 65,
71, 81, 87, 117, 122, 124, 149, 150, 156, 158, 159, 164, 178-179,
180, 192, 197, 204, 205, 207, 218, 221, 224, 226, 231, 234, 235,
236, 238, 240 orders Doric 175-176 Ionic 175-176 Osireion 30
ostraca Cairo 25184 104, 142-146 Cairo 25536 recto 140, 144 Cairo
25537 140, 144 Cairo 25538 140, 144 Cairo 25581 recto 140, 144
Cairo 50036 104 Cairo 51936 104, 144, 147 Cairo 66262 104 Cairo
72452 140 Cairo (number not known) 144 Berlin B 144 BM 8505
140, 144 BM 41228 104 BM 65944 (Nash 10) 144 DeM (number not
known) 144 Gardiner 109 80 mathematical from Elephantine 68
Michaelides 53 144 Michaelides 71 140 Michaelides 92 144
StrasburgH.112 139, 142, 144 Turin 57036 140, 144 Turin 57037
140, 144 Ottoman Period xxi Palermo Stone 117, 149 Palladio 3 palm
(unit of measurement) 59-60, 61, 88, 109, 112, 115, 117-121, 129,
132-133, 141, 146, 147, 167, 174, 185, 192, 203, 208, 212, 213-
215, 219-234, 242-254 paradeigmata 138 Parthenon 13 papyri 101,
226 Berlin 6619 217 Budge 80 Cairo 86637 verso 80, 144 Demotic
mathematical 58, 64, 217 Kahun 57, 218 Moscow Mathematical 57,
154, 218 Ram. B 104 Reisner 117, 218 Rhind Mathematical 57, 65,
154, 185, 218, 240 Sallier IV 80 Turin 1885 recto 144, 147 Turin
1885 verso 104, 144 Turin 1923 142, 144 Penanhor, statue of 1 54
Pepi I (Sixth Dynasty) xxi, 159, 203, 227, 238, 249-250 Pepi II (Sixth
Dynasty) xxi, 159, 183, 203, 206, 227, 228,238,250-251 perimeter
66, 90, 167, 200-203, 204, 228 peripteral chapels 105 chapel(?) on a
canal, drawing of 104, 109-1 12 chapel from Deir el-Bahari, drawing
of 104, 105, 107,111 temple at Elephantine 47 temple of Thutmosis
III at Karnak 109-1 1 1 Persian Period, first and second xxi, 172
Petosiris, tomb of 28, 85
 276 Index PhilaelB, 117, 127 phoenix 182 n 28, 60, 65, 67,
87, 175, 200, 202 Piranesi, Giovan Battista 239 plan (architectural)
xiv, 10, 42, 43, 47, 54, 60, 71, 73, 83-84, 87, 90, 97, 100-101, 105-
112, 122, 124, 127-128, 131-133, 138, 139, 141, 142-146, 147, 153,
155, 156, 158, 159, 167, 176, 186,207,216,226,240 Plato 2-3, 64, 88
Platonic philosophy 3 Platonic influence 64 Plimpton 322 64 Plutarch
64, 240 polygon 65, 66 Predynastic Period 43, 156, 162, 164 project
69, 70, 87, 90, 101, 109, 122, 135, 138, 140, 141, 142, 147, 166,
174, 175, 197, 206, 207, 221, 224 proportions xiv, 4, 11,22,70,72,
112, 113, 117, 122, 129, 132, 159 in architecture xiv, xv, xvi, 3, 6, 7,
16, 42, 47, 57, 69, 83, 85, 90, 101, 129, 131, 156, 171, 176, 194,
195, 203, 204, 205, 211, 212-213, 216, 219, 221, 226-227, 229,
232, 233, 236, 238, 239 mathematical 5, 23, 24, 28, 29, 67, 68, 78,
79, 81, 85, 86, 219 canon of 10 of the human body 3, 5, 10, 28-29
Ptahshepses, mastaba of 6 1 Ptolemaic Dynasty xxi, 172 Ptolemaic
Period xxi, 43, 113, 117, 138, 148, 150, 162-173, 236 Ptolemaic
temples: see temples Ptolemy xxi, 172 Ptolemy II xxi, 172 Ptolemy
III xxi, 166, 171 Ptolemy VI Philometor xxi, 117, 167, 172 Ptolemy
VIII Euergetes II xxi, 166, 172 Ptolemy X xxi, 167 Ptolemy XI xxi,
167 Ptolemy XII Auletes xxi, 166, 171 pylon 4, 101, 129, 131, 163
pyramidia (see also capstones) 138, 182-184, 186, 195,205-
211,212,231 of Aamaket 232 of Amenemhet III 183, 205, 206, 208,
211, 253 from Dahshur 206, 207, 243 from Ezbet Rushdi 206, 207,
230 from Gurob 233 ofIputII206 ofIry232 of Khendjer 183, 205,
206, 207, 208, 211, 230, 254 of Khentkawes II, Queen of Neferirkara
206, 207, 247 of Khonsu 232 Late Period from Abydos 183, 197, 234
of Merneferra Ay 183, 206, 211, 230, 254 New Kingdom 183, 197,
233 ofQaha232 of Queen GUIa of Menkaura 206, 207, 246 of a
Queen of Neuserra (Lepsius 24 and 25) 206, 207,230,231,248 of the
satellite of Khufu 206, 244 ofSahural83 of Sekhemra-Wepmaat Intef
V 232 of Sennedjem 232 ofSenusretll 183,206 of the sun temples 1
84, 2 1 5 of Tia and Tia 233 truncated, from South Saqqara 206,
209-21 1, 230, 254 of Turbay 232 ofUdjebten(?)228, 250 unfinished,
from South Saqqara 206, 209-211, 230, 254 Pyramid Texts 4, 182,
184 pyramidologists 202 pyramids 4, 22, 64, 69, 70, 71, 83-138,
176, 180, 182, 184-185,228,231,240 'primeval' 11-13, 15,70 queens'
205, 236, 238 satellite 133, 181, 197, 199, 203, 205, 206, 207, 212,
225, 227, 228, 229, 236, 238, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249,
250, 251 step 133, 135, 180-181, 193, 216, 226, 234, 244, 247
model of 128, 131-133, 135, 194 shape of steps 133 'Buried
Pyramid' 181 of Djoser at Saqqara 115, 133, 180, 184, 216, 218
ofKhabal81 'Layer Pyramid' 133, 181 atMeidum 133, 135, 181, 184,
186, 192, 197-199, 216, 225 no. 29 at Saqqara 135 ofSekhemkhet
133 satellite of Meidum 133 at Sinki 133-135 small, dating to the
reign of Huni 135, 181 unfinished at Zawiyet el- Aryan 135 true 69,
135, 181, 184, 213, 221, 226, 242-254 base of 70, 178, 185, 192,
200-201, 203, 204, 207-211, 216, 219, 224, 225, 242-254 drawings
of: see architectural drawings casing of 133-135, 192-193, 197, 198,
203, 205, 212, 215, 216, 221, 225, 245, 247, 251, 252-254 corner of
70, 186, 200, 203, 204, 208 diagonal of 70, 187-188, 192, 204, 207
face of 70, 178, 186, 188,207-211,215 height of 70, 178, 185, 200-
201, 202, 203, 204, 216,219,224,242-254 models of: see
architectural models slope of (see also seked) 23, 69, 70, 90, 135,
178, 185, 188-193, 196, 197-199, 202-204, 205-211, 212, 221, 226,
228, 236, 238, 242-254 vertical section of 69, 70, 185, 192, 194,
195, 201, 207-208, 214, 215, 219, 221, 234
 Index 277 of Ahmose at Dra Abu el-Naga 181, 232
atAbydos 181,232 of Amenemhat I 203, 229, 230, 251 of
Amenemhat II 229, 252 of Amenemhat III at Dahshur 1 15, 174,
205, 212, 230, 253-254 at Hawara 135-138, 230, 254 of Ameny
Qemau 230, 254 at Aniba 233 of Atmu-neferu, Queen of Senusret II
212, 252 Beg. 8atMeroe 192,234 Bent Pyramid 69, 70, 181, 192,
193, 203, 206, 207, 212,215,221-225,243,251 of Djedefra 193, 225-
226, 245 of Djedkara-Isesi 248 atGebelBarkall81, 234 Gla, of a
Queen of Khufu 212, 244 Gib, of a Queen of Khufu 212, 244 GIc, of
a Queen of Khufu 212, 244 GUIa, of a Queen of Menkaura 246
GUIb, of a Queen of Menkaura 133, 181, 246 GIIIc, of a Queen of
Menkaura 133, 181,246 ofIby228, 251 of Inenek-Inti, Queen of Pepi
I 249 of Iput I, Queen of Teti 227, 228, 229, 230, 249 of Iput II,
Queen of Pepi II 228, 251 of Itakajet, Queen n. 2 of Senusret I 251
of Kamose 232 of Khafra 203, 207, 219, 226-227, 245 of Khendjer
205, 212, 230, 254 of Khentkawes II, Queen of Neferirkara 247 of
Khufu 13, 22, 28, 30, 31, 70, 200-201, 202, 203, 212, 213, 215-216,
225, 226, 244, 245, 246 of Khuit, Queen of Teti 71-72, 249 atel-
Kurrul81,234 Late Period 213, 221, 231, 234 Lepsius 24 and 25 (of
the Queens of Neuserra?) 183,206,207,228,231,248 Lepsius 29 (of
Menkauhor?) 248 at Meidum 203, 212, 215-216, 221, 225, 226, 236-
238, 244, 245, 246 of Menkaura 113, 193, 226, 246 of Merenra 203,
227, 250 of Meritites, Queen of Pepi I 250 of Merneferra Ay 21 1,
230, 254 Meroitic 178, 182, 192, 194, 197, 234 Middle Kingdom xvi,
70, 178-179, 180, 204, 205, 221,226,231,234,236,240 of Nebka 246
of Neferhetepes, Queen of Userkaf 246 of Neferirkara 181, 203, 226,
247 of Neferuptah, Queen of Amenemhat III 138, 254 of Neith,
Queen of Pepi II 228, 250 of Neuserra 113,203,247 New Kingdom
178, 213, 221, 231, 234, 235 of Nofru, Queen no. 1 of Senusret I
219, 229, 230, 238, 251 of Nubwenet, Queen of Pepi I 249 atNuri
181,234 Old Kingdom xvi, 71, 178-179, 180, 204, 205, 221,
226,231,234,235,236 of Pepi I 159, 203, 227, 238, 249-250 of Pepi
II 159, 203, 227, 238, 250-251 of the Queen of Djedkara 226, 248 of
the Queen of Khendjer 254 of a Queen of Pepi I 250 of the Queens
nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 of Senusret I 229, 238, 251-252 of the
Queens nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 of Senusret III 229-230, 238,
252-253 of Raneferef (Lepsius 26) 247 Red Pyramid 181, 192, 199,
203, 206, 207, 219, 224-225, 229, 243 Roman 234-235 of Sahura
203, 226, 230, 247 of Sekhemra-Wepmaat Intef V 232 of Senusret I
79, 229-230, 251-252 of Senusret II 213, 252 of Senusret III 207,
212, 229, 252-253 of Shepseskara 247 of Snefru: see Meidum, Bent
Pyramid and Red Pyramid at Soleb 234 of Teti 154, 159, 203, 227,
249 of Udjebten, Queen of Pepi II 207, 228, 250 of Unas 212, 249 of
unknown owner at North Mazghuna 254 of unknown owner at South
Mazghuna 254 of unknown owner at South Saqqara 209, 230, 254
of Userkaf 203, 226, 246 14 and 15 at Soleb 104, 186 Pythagoras 2,
60, 89 Theorem of 60, 63-64, 65, 67, 216-217, 218 Pythagoreans 2,
28, 60 Pythagorean philosophy 3 Pythagorean Triplets 60-65, 1 17,
157, 216-221 3-4-5: see 3-4-5 triangle 5-12-13 221,232,233,234 7-
24-25 221, 232, 233, 234 8-15-17 221, 229, 230, 249, 251, 253 20-
21-29 219, 224-225, 230 Qaha, tomb of 232 Qasr el-Sagha 124,
159, 226 quarry at Gebel Abu Foda 1 13, 1 17, 122, 167 at Sheikh
Said 105 quartzite 128, 129 Queen of Djedefra (Fourth Dynasty) 245
Queen of Djedkara (Fifth Dynasty) 226, 248 Queen of Khendjer
(Thirteenth Dynasty) 254 Queens of Khufu (Fourth Dynasty) buried
in Gla 212, 244 buried in Gib 212, 244 buried in GIc 212, 244
Queens of Menkaura (Fourth Dynasty) buried in GUIa 206, 246
buried in GUIb 133, 181,246 buried in GIIIc 133, 181,246
 278 Index Queens of Neuserra (Fifth Dynasty) 183, 206,
207, 228,230,231,248 Queen of Pepi I (Sixth Dynasty) 250 Queens
nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 of Senusret I (Twelfth Dynasty) 229, 238,
251-252 Queens nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 of Senusret III
(Twelfth Dynasty) 229-230, 238, 252-253 radius 66, 115,
121,200,202 Raraesseum 101, 104 Ramses II (Nineteenth Dynasty)
xxi, 129, 140, 144, 151,181,233 Ramses III (Twentieth Dynasty) xxi,
142, 144 Ramses IV (Twentieth Dynasty) xxi, 1 12, 144, 147 Ramses
V (Twentieth Dynasty) xxi, 142, 144 Ramses VI (Twentieth Dynasty)
xxi, 1 13, 1 14, 115, 142, 144, 157 Ramses IX (Twentieth Dynasty)
xxi, 1 12, 140, 141, 142-146 Ramsesnakht, tomb of 104 Raneferef
(Fifth Dynasty) xxi, 247 ratio 1:2 124 2:3 90 3:5 90 5:4 112,200-201
8:5 200, 234 rectangle 5, 35, 54, 69, 78, 79, 81, 85, 88, 240 Red
Pyramid: see pyramids remen (unit of measurement) 61, 88, 192
Renaissance 2-3 'resting place of the gods' (element of a tomb) 140
Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (RMP) 57, 65 river-measure (unit of
measurement) 61 ro (unit of measurement) 61 Roman Period xxi,
113 Rome 129, 172, 234 rope (see also cord) 115, 117, 154, 155-
156, 158 Rosacrucians 239 sa (unit of measurement) 6 1
'sanctuaries in which the gods of the west/east repose' (elements of
a tomb) 140 sandstone 104 Sahura (Fifth Dynasty) xxi, 183, 203,
212, 226, 230, 236, 247 Saqqara 104, 115, 133, 180, 181, 184, 203,
206, 209, 218, 226, 233, 246, 248-251, 254 scale 83, 127, 129-131,
132, 135, 138, 141 drawings 54, 85, 101-112, 113, 174 Schinkel,
Friedrick 239 Second Dynasty xxi, 180 Second Intermediate Period
xxi, 57 secret xv, xvi, 4, 241 knowledge 87-88 seked (slope) 185-
186, 192-196, 203-204, 208, 213, 236 Sekhemkhet (Third Dynasty)
xxi, 181 Sekhemra-Wepmaat Intef V 232 Semna South, fortress at
149 Senenmut statue of 154-155 tomb of 104, 105 Sennedjem,
tomb of 232 Sennefer, tomb of 124 Senusret I (Twelfth Dynasty) xxi,
79, 104, 105, 149, 183, 203, 219, 229-230, 238, 251-252 Senusret
II (Twelfth Dynasty) xxi, 183, 206, 213, 229, 252 Senusret III
(Twelfth Dynasty) xxi, 207, 212, 229-230, 238, 252-253 Serlio 3
Seshat42, 57, 148, 149, 153 setat (unit of measurement) 61, 88,
117, 154 Sethnakht (Twentieth Dynasty) xxi, 142 Seti I (Nineteenth
Dynasty) xxi, 30, 129-131, 181 Seti II (Nineteenth Dynasty) xxi, 144,
147 Seventh Dynasty xxi, 181 Seventeenth Dynasty xxi, 23 1
Shabaka (Twenty-fifth Dynasty) 2, 4 shaft (element of a tomb, see
also well) 140, 141 shenaty (unit of measurement) 6 1 Shepseskaf
(Fourth Dynasty) xxi, 181 Shepseskara (Fifth Dynasty) xxi, 247
shrine 131 box, sketch on ostracon 1 12—1 13 drawing on papyrus
from Gurob 2, 174 drawing on an ostracon from Deir el-Bahari 104,
105, 107, 111 Siptah xxi, 144, 147 Sixth Dynasty xxi, 159, 203, 219,
226, 238, 249-250 Sixteenth Dynasty xxi sketch: see architectural
drawings slate 100, 104 slope of corridors of tombs 141 of corridors
of pyramids 218 of tombs 141, 142 Small Aten Temple 73, 99 Snefru
(Fourth Dynasty) xxi, 69, 149, 181, 184, 192, 197, 199, 203, 206,
221, 225, 226, 228, 236, 243-244 Socrates 88 solar cult 182-184
Soleb 104, 181, 186-187, 234 Spira, Fortunio 3 spiral 26 square 35,
42, 47, 49, 65, 66, 69, 70, 78, 79, 81, 85, 88-89,90, 158,200,215
square grids 5, 69, 71, 81-83, 122-127, 140, 174 square root 88, 89
statuary Greek 7 Egyptian 7 stelae 2, 5, 182 step pyramids: see
pyramids Strabo 70 Sudan 127, 173 sun temples: see temples survey
xiv, 10, 109, 132, 139, 147, 176
 Index 279 symbolism 65, 180, 184, 239, 240 symmetry 5,
78 axis of 42 ta (unit of measurement) 6 1 Tawosret xxi, 140 Tell el-
Yahudiya 128, 129 temples 4, 90 at Corinth 13 of the Concord at
Agrigentum 13 atDendera31, 85, 149, 151, 153, 166, 170 atEdfu85,
113, 149, 151, 162, 163, 166-173 at Egina 13 Egyptian 16, 28
funerary temples of Teti, Pepi I and Pepi II 159, 219 Great Aten
Temple 47, 99, 101, 155 Greek 13, 15, 127, 175 of Hatshepsut at
Deir el-Bahari 122, 153 atHeliopolis 100-101 at Hierakonpolis 164,
166 of Horus at Aniba 155 at Kalabsha 71-72, 113, 123, 172
atKarnakll,31,54, 105, 109, 123, 150, 155, 183 of Khons at Karnak 4,
1 1 at Kom Ombo 172 at Luxor 28, 30, 113, 151 Mammisi at
Dendera 167 at Medinet Habu 150 of Mentuhotep at Deir el-Bahari
174 Meroitic 127 of Nectanebo I at Ashmunein 85 New Kingdom
101, 129 Osireion 30 Parthenon 13 peripteral at Elephantine 1 8, 47
peripteral of Thutmosis III at Karnak 109-1 1 1 atPhilaell7, 127, 151,
167, 172 primeval 161—162, 166 Ptolemaic 7, 71-72, 85, 127, 129,
151, 159, 162-173, 176, 226-227 at Qasr el-Sagha 124, 159, 226
Ramesseum 101 rock-cut 141 of Satet at Elephantine 163-164, 166
of Seti I at Heliopolis 149 Small Aten Temple 73, 99 sun temples 1
82, 1 84 of Neuserra 149 ofUserkaf215 at Tod 47, 129, 131-133,
135, 149 valley temple of Amenemhat III at Dahshur 135 Tenth
Dynasty xxi Teti (Sixth Dynasty) xxi, 154, 159, 203, 219, 226-227,
229, 230, 249 theatre Greek 90 Roman 90 Thebes xxi, 4, 104, 109
Themistius 66 Theorem of Pythagoras: see Pythagoras Third
Dynasty xxi, 104, 113, 115, 180, 181, 192, 193, 205,216 Third
Intermediate Period xxi, 172 Thirteenth Dynasty xxi, 205, 206, 207,
209, 211, 230-231,254 Thirtieth Dynasty xxi, 85, 234 Ti, chapel of 5
Tia and Tia, tomb of 233 Titian 3 Tod model of the temple of 128,
129, 131-133 temple at 47, 129, 131-133, 135 tombs 90, 135, 155
rock-cut 69, 83-175 royal 83, 109, 139-147, 153, 174 of Aamaket at
Deir el-Medina 232 of Amenhotepsesi 154 of Amenmesse (KV 10)
142 of Djeserkaraseneb 154 of Hemaka 156 of Iry at Deir el-Medina
232 K94. 1 at Dra Abu el-Naga 232-233 of Khaemhat 154 of
Khaemwaset, son of Ramses III (QV 44) 144 of Khnum Hotep at
Beni Hasan 4 of Khonsu at Deir el-Medina 232 KV 55 141 of Meketra
128 of Menna 154 of Nakht Min at Deir el-Medina 232 of Nebnefer at
Deir el-Medina 233 New Kingdom 181 Old Kingdom 122
ofPetosiris28, 85 of Qaha at Deir el-Medina 232 of Queen Isis, time
of Ramses VI (QV 51) 144 of Ramses III (KV 1 1) 142 of Ramses IV
(KV 2) 112, 144, 147 of Ramses V-VI (KV 9) 113, 114, 115, 142,
144, 157 of Ramses IX (KV 6) 112, 141, 142-146 of Ramsesnakht at
Dra Abu el-Naga 104 Royal Tomb of Amarna 83-84, 141 of
Senenmut, no. 71 at Thebes 104 of Sennedjem at Deir el-Medina
232 of Sennefer 124 of Sethnakht (KV 1 1) 142 of Seti I (KV 17) 181
of Seti II (KV 15) 147 of Siptah (KV 47) 147 of the sons of Ramses II
(KV 5) 181 of the sons of Ramses III 144 of Tia and Tia at Saqqara
233 of Tawosret 140 of Turbay at Deir el-Medina 232 of
Tutankhamun (KV 62) 181 no. 1 138 at Deir el-Medina 233 no. 1225
at Deir el-Medina 233 no. 1301 and 1302 at Deir el-Medina 233
'treasuries' (elements of a tomb) 140
 280 Index triangles 5, 10, 11-15, 16, 18, 23, 35, 42, 47, 49,
54, 67, 69-72, 85, 88, 171, 207, 242-254 with base equal to height
(b=h) 208, 214-215, 226-227, 228, 230, 233, 248, 249-250, 251-
252,253 'Egyptian' 10, 11,22,23,70 equilateral 10, 11, 13, 22, 23, 69,
70-72, 90, 154, 208, 214-215, 221, 225, 228, 234, 243, 245, 253
isosceles 10, 35, 42, 71, 245, 248, 250 right-angled 4, 10, 28, 35,
60-63, 66, 71, 115, 117, 159, 185, 192, 193-194, 195-196, 203-204,
213, 214, 215, 216, 218, 219, 221, 236 similar 158 1:2 35,42,47,54
1:4 35,42,47,54, 186 1:8 35,42,54 3-4-5 10-22, 23, 35, 47, 54, 60,
64-65, 70, 71, 115-117, 154, 157, 158-159, 217-218, 219, 245, 246,
247, 249, 250 8:5 10, 11, 23, 35, 42, 43, 47, 54, 56, 70-71, 72, 78,
154, 225, 234 14:11215 Turbay, tomb of 232 Tutankhamun xxi, 181
Thutmosis I (Eighteenth Dynasty) xxi, 183 Thutmosis III (Eighteenth
Dynasty) xxi, 4, 109, 129, 150, 155 Twelfth Dynasty xxi, 104, 128,
135, 203, 206, 231, 251-254 Twentieth Dynasty xxi, 104, 105, 112,
113, 114, 115, 144, 158, 159, 181,218 Twenty-eight Dynasty xxi,
144 Twenty-fifth Dynasty xxi, 2, 81, 234 Twenty-first Dynasty xxi
Twenty-fourth Dynasty (Saite) xxi Twenty-ninth Dynasty xxi, 54
Twenty-second Dynasty xxi Twenty- seventh Dynasty xxi Twenty-
sixth Dynasty xxi, 181 Twenty-third Dynasty xxi Udjebten, Queen of
Pepi II (Sixth Dynasty) 183, 207, 228, 250 Unas (Fifth Dynasty) xxi,
212, 249 unit fractions: see fractions units of measurement 59-60,
61, 66, 88, 124, 129, 132, 141, 154, 155,201,234 Userkaf (Fifth
Dynasty) xxi, 203, 215, 226, 236, 246 Valley of the Kings 104, 105,
113, 114, 139, 140, 142, 153 Valley of the Queens 139, 140 vertical
section of pyramids: see architectural drawings and pyramids
Vitruvius 28, 70, 88, 89, 90, 175-176 well (element of a tomb, see
also shaft) 141 Window of Appearance 99 wooden boards,
documents on 104, 109 Workmen's Village at Deir el-Medina 129
Zawiyet el- Aryan 133, 135, 181, 246
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