Mouser Electronics Article

Five Fundamental
Circuits for the
Electronics Engineer
Mouser Electronics
 Mouser Electronics Article

Linear three-terminal
Should you take the time to research circuits from years gone by,
you’ll probably be surprised to find that many designs and integrated

voltage regulators
circuits (ICs) are still in use today. They have stood the test of
time because they were optimised to perform a specific task, and
while there are always plenty of new and alternative approaches,
they often remain the fastest way to get a prototype working. Of its three terminals, one is ground. One of the other two is
connected to the input from your voltage source, while the
In the very early days of electronics, engineers built discrete remaining pin is the output. It is recommended that both of these
versions of the circuits they wanted to construct, such as pins be fitted with bypass capacitors to ground (Figure 2). These
amplifiers, pulse generators, oscillators, or voltage regulators. help the regulator respond to transients and improve stability.
Semiconductor vendors, seeing these circuits being replicated Such regulators can oscillate, as seen in old equipment when the
time and again, turned them into ICs, reducing their size, improving electrolytic capacitors used eventually fail. Replacing the capacitors
their reliability, and making it easier to reuse them in new products. can quickly rectify this1 – the regulator IC will probably be fine.
Such has been the success of some ICs, their history can almost
be traced back to the start of the semiconductor industry.

Here, we’ve collected what we feel are five fundamental circuits

that every electronics engineer should be able to recognise and
use. To benefit from all this collective circuit knowledge, our
industry today makes life very easy with plenty of evaluation
boards and simulation tools. So, if you fancy taking any of
these designs for a spin or want to integrate one into your
prototype, there is very little to hold you back!usant. Figure 2: Bypass capacitors at the input and output help the regulator
to deal with transients and improve stability. (Source: TI.com)

Regulating voltage In order to deliver the desired stable output voltage, the input
voltage must be around 2.5 V higher than the desired output. The
Before you start developing any circuit, you’ll first have to decide how internal regulation operates as a sort of electronic variable resistor,
it will be powered. In years gone past, you were probably looking at meaning that quite a lot of energy needs to be dissipated if the
a 5.0 V supply for your microcontroller or logic devices, along with input voltage is significantly higher than the output. This is quite
±12.0 V for any analogue circuitry. The linear three-terminal voltage likely since the maximum input voltage can be as high as 35.0 V.
regulator is a typical IC selected to deliver these voltages (Figure 1).

Packaging
Depending on the application’s needs, various types of packaging
are available. The most common through-hole package is the
TO-220 with its robust metal tab for attachment to a heatsink. It’s
worth noting here that the tab is typically grounded. Nowadays,
surface mount packages such as the TO-263 and SOT-223 are
more common, dissipating any heat into your PCB’s copper.

Figure 1: The classic three-pin linear regulator in a TO-220 If you’re keen to explore how such a device actually works, you
package with its metal tab. (Source: mouser.com) can simulate one in LTspice2. Amongst the installed educational
examples, you should find a schematic named “LM78xx.asc”. This
The 78xx series is the common choice for positive voltages example is a “bare bones” implementation, meaning you can
where the “xx” denotes the desired voltage. For our explore the function of each and every transistor (Figure 3). You’ll
example, we’d select a 7805 and 7812. The 79xx series also be able to visualise one of this regulator’s weaknesses over
provides negative voltages – thus, we’d select a 7912. more modern switching converters – their poor efficiency.
 Mouser Electronics Article

Trying a real regulator

One example is the onsemi LM317M3. Still a three-pin device,
two resistors are added to the circuit, enabling the output to
be set between 1.7 V and 37.0 V from a 40.0 V input-output
differential supply voltage. Modern linear regulators are
especially robust, with current limiting and thermal shutdown
protection, and can also be used as a precision current regulator.
If you’ve not had much experience with such devices, it’s
highly recommended to download the datasheet and read
the “Applications Information” included (in this case, page 9)
to see what else can be achieved with such analogue ICs.

If you want to get your hands on one, then take a look at the
SparkFun Breadboard Power Supply Stick - 5V/3.3V4 (Figure
Figure 3: Want to know how a linear regulator is constructed? 5). It can be connected to a prototyping breadboard, has a
LTspice provides a 78xx model to simulate. (Source: LT Spice) switchable 3.3 V/5.0 V output, and also features a small thermal
fuse and a diode to protect against wiring it up incorrectly.
For example, when simulating a 7805, the regulator consumes With the schematic5 released under Creative Commons, you
8.0 W with a 12.0 V supply and 3.3 W flowing into the load. With can explore and modify the circuit to meet your needs.
a 24.0 V supply, the regulator consumes around 15.5 W, although
the output load remains unchanged (Figure 4). With today’s focus
on energy-efficient devices, this isn’t great. However, suppose
you’re just knocking up a prototype on your bench and need to
create several voltage rails. In that case, a linear regulator remains
an excellent choice for delivering a reliable output voltage.

Figure 5: This SparkFun board uses the LM317 adjustable regulator to

generate 3.3 V or 5.0 V for your prototyping board. (Source: mouser.com)

The new way – switching

regulators
Figure 4: As the input voltage increases (bottom), the 78xx
has to dissipate more energy as heat (top) to maintain the
voltage at the load (middle). (Source: LT Spice)
The low efficiency of linear regulators can be a problem, especially

Varying the output

when there is a significant difference between the input and output
voltage. Switching regulators, like a buck-boost converter, are much
more efficient, using an inductor to store and deliver energy as it
Of course, over the years, the supply voltage demands of converts the input voltage to the desired output voltage. If this sounds
chips have changed, and most microcontrollers require a 3.3 V appealing, a device like the LTC34406 from Analog Devices is highly
supply. Additionally, your application may require an esoteric efficient (up to 96%), enabling a constant 3.3 V to be generated
voltage, such as 7.55 V; for that, no 78xx regulator is available. from a voltage source like a battery that varies between 2.7 V and
Instead, an adjustable output voltage regulator could be used, 4.2 V (Figure 6). When connected to a 3.0 V supply, it consumes just
meaning you only need to source one IC for all your circuits. 20 mW when delivering around 220 mW into a 50 Ω load at 3.3 V.
 Mouser Electronics Article

PWMs and Pulse Signals

With a background in radio, Hans Camenzind7 intimately
understood all the circuit blocks a radio required. During his
time at Signetics, he had successfully developed several
phase-locked-loop (PLL) devices 8 (565, 566), but to show
they worked, he had to design a low-cost, stable oscillator
circuit. Out of this work, the famous 555 timer was created.

The 555 timer

Available from a range of semiconductor vendors and in multi-timer
configurations (dual 556, quad 558, and 559), this eight-pin device
is still used today. Its brilliance lies in its versatility, operating in Figure 6: Buck-boost converters like the LTC3440 are
astable mode as an oscillator and monostable mode as a timer. designed to generate a stable output voltage from a battery
while wasting little energy. (Source: LT Spice)
Devices like Texas Instrument’s NE555 have been around
9

since the early 1970s, as you’ll see in the datasheet. This

particular device is specified to provide pulses of 10 micro
seconds to hours or a signal frequency of < 1mHz to 100 kHz.

Timer operation
Internally, the device features two comparators, a set-reset
flip-flop, and an output buffer (Figure 7). In monostable mode,
a resistor and capacitor are used to set the pulse length. A
pulse is generated by briefly pulling the trigger pin low. The
capacitor charges through the resistor to around two-thirds
of the supply, whereupon the output is turned off again.
Figure 7: Deceptively simple but exceptionally flexible – the 555 timer
In astable operation, two resistors and a capacitor set both can operate in both monostable and astable modes. (Source: TI.com)
the frequency of oscillation and the pulse width of the square
wave output. With this circuit, the capacitor is continuously
charged and discharged between two voltages, with the
change between charging and discharging being the point at
which the output switches between high and low (Figure 8).

Configuration and
potential applications
The selection of suitable resistor and capacitor values can be
calculated, but the datasheet typically includes a plot from which
rough values can be determined. For monostable operation, the
pulse on time is 1.1 × RA × C. For astable operation, two calculations
need to be made. The pulse on time is given by 0.693 × (R A +
RB) × C, while the pulse off time is given by 0.693 × (RB) × C.
Figure 8: The top shows the monostable configuration alongside
What’s incredible is the diversity of applications that can be the capacitor voltage and output plots. The bottom shows
implemented with this simple device, and there is no source better to the same for astable operation.. (Source: TI.com)
 Mouser Electronics Article

explore them all than the Signetics Analog Applications Manual10 from
1978. As well as explaining the device’s operation in minute detail,
it offers example circuits for a voltage-to-pulse-duration converter,
a servo system controller, and a cable tester, to name just a few.

Getting hands-on
So, if you need a frequency source, a pulse-width modulated signal
(PWM), or a single pulse, the 555 timer is worth a look. And, if you
want to try one, the MikroE C Meter Click 11 is an excellent starting
point. This compact add-on board uses the 555 in astable mode
to deliver a frequency proportional to the capacitance applied
to the circuit. It features some SMD pads for surface mount Figure 9: The MikroE C Meter Click board uses the 555 timer
capacitors and a screw terminal and 3-pin socket for through- to measure capacitance. (Source: mouser.com)
hole devices (Figure 9). One use could be testing capacitors of
unknown origin you find in your drawers. Equally, it could be used
with a capacitive sensor. Thanks to the clear documentation12,
you could also reconfigure it to meet your application’s needs.

If purchasing hardware isn’t possible just now, you can also simulate
this device using MultiSim from National Instruments (Figure 10).

Controlling DC Fans
The next topic is controlling electric fans, which is more specific Figure 10: MultiSim has an astable mode 555 circuit that you can simulate
to an application you may wish to build or prototype. While and modify to learn more about this fascinating IC. (Source: MultiSim)
the 555 timer is well suited to generating a PWM signal to
control a fan, this next device highlights another area where
the semiconductor industry has taken a commonly used circuit
and adapted it to the needs of a specific application.

The fans we’re talking about are the four-pin devices used
in desktop PCs and industrial equipment that require forced
cooling (Figure 11). In addition to the power and ground, these
devices also feature a PWM input and tacho output.

Checking the fan is spinning

and closed-loop control Figure 11: TA DC fan with PWM input and tacho
signal output. (Source: mouser.com)
The PWM pin controls the speed of the fan. However, a control-only
approach is often not enough for the application where it is being
used. For example, the designer may want to ensure that, when
turned on, the fan is actually spinning.

They may also wish to compare the set fan speed with the monitored
speed, as variations may indicate a pending bearing failure. Such
a feedback loop provides the developer with the information
needed to inform the user of the need to clean or service their Figure 12: Schematic for the EMC2301, showing little additional
device, or even shut it down appropriately if the fan has failed. circuitry is required to use it. (Source: MikroE.com)
 Mouser Electronics Article

Motor control
Incorporating these features is the Microchip Technology
EMC2301 RPM-Based PWM Fan Controller 14. In addition to
the PWM and tacho monitoring, the device also incorporates a
Fan Speed Control (FSC) algorithm that supports closed-loop Sticking with the topic of control and PWMs, our next common
control. Bringing it into the digital age, the IC is also fitted with circuit is an H-bridge for controlling brushed DC motors. Fans
an SMBus (based on I2C) interface, thus supporting control and are designed only to turn in one direction, but there are many
monitoring using a microcontroller or embedded PC (Figure 12). cases where motors need to spin in either direction.

H-bridge
The basic H-bridge control concept can be implemented using
mechanical switches. Two high-side switches (connected to
your positive voltage supply) connect to two low-side switches
(connected to your supply’s ground). The motor is then attached
across the middle where the switches meet. Looking at the circuit,
it’s clear where the H-bridge name comes from (Figure 15).

By connecting one side of the motor to the supply and the

other side to ground (pressing diagonally opposing switches),
the motor can be made to turn clockwise or anticlockwise.
Figure 13: The MikroE Fan Click makes it easy to evaluate the EMC2301
and interface with your preferred microcontroller. (Source: mouser.com)

Trying it out
This little eight-pin device also features the MikroE Fan-
Click board (Figure 13), allowing eager developers to get
started rapidly. The EMC2301 only requires a few pull-up Figure 15: The basic construction of the H-bridge circuit implemented
resistors for the PWM, tach, SMBus, and Alert pins. with mechanical switches. (Source: Wikipedia.com)

Sudden changes in fan speed may cause noise that distracts users
of your product. This can be avoided by using the Ramp Rate Control If you’re looking at the circuit, you will also notice several
feature that spreads a change in PWM value over an extended period. other combinations of the four switches that can be applied –
some with no outcome and others you’ll want to avoid.
Help with software development is always a benefit, and
MikroE provides the necessary drivers in their NECTO Studio,
LibStock , and through their GitHub account 17 (Figure 14). Controlling motor speed
If you press a diagonal pair of switches and then rapidly release/
press one of the buttons, you can imitate a PWM and control
the rotor speed. However, there is also a lurking danger. If
both a high and low side switch are pressed, the power source
will be shorted. When implementing your own H-bridge
using MOSFETs, you’ll need to ensure this can’t occur.

If the motor is spinning and the two upper or two lower

switches are pressed, the motor terminals are shorted together.
Since the rotor will still be spinning through inertia, it will
operate as a generator. The generated voltage applied back
to itself causes the motor to slow down more quickly.
Figure 14: Application code examples are also available to get
the EMC2301 up and running. (Source: MikroE.com) If you’ve never encountered an H-bridge before, it should now
 Mouser Electronics Article

Wheatstone Bridge
be clear that, while very helpful, its use has a host of challenges.
And, as you’d expect, the semiconductor industry has integrated
the H-bridge, protection features, and operational modes that
make life as a motor-control application designer much easier. For our fifth circuit, we’ll explore another type of bridge circuit – the
Wheatstone Bridge. This circuit has been around for a long time and
was first documented as the diamond method by Samuel Hunter
Demonstration board Christie in 1833, a nod to how its resistors are usually drawn in a
diamond configuration. However, his contribution was overshadowed
A great example is the Infineon Technologies IFX9201SG by Sir Charles Wheatstone, who improved and popularised the
Integrated H-Bridge Driver 18. Inside, it includes four MOSFETs design. Its value back then was in being able to measure unknown
capable of controlling a motor drawing up to 6 A, current and resistances, such as those of materials and wires, very accurately.
temperature monitoring, and control logic. It is also protected
against incorrect operation of the H-bridge, shorts to supply The circuit itself is pretty straightforward. Two sets of series
and ground, and can diagnose an open load. Such diagnoses resistors are connected in parallel between a power source and
can be read out using a serial peripheral interface (SPI). ground. Typically, the value of one of the resistors in one leg
is unknown, or its value changes under stress or temperature,
such as in a strain gauge sensor application. One of the
resistors in the other leg is a potentiometer (Figure 18).

The potential difference between the two central nodes of the upper
and lower resistors is then measured. The potentiometer is adjusted
until the potential difference is 0.0V. At this point, the value of the
unknown resistance can be determined. Alternatively, the potential
difference can be measured using three fixed resistors, and the
unknown resistance can be calculated using Kirchoff’s laws.

Figure 16: The IFX9201SG includes four MOSFETs to implement

the H-bridge and the control logic and protection mechanisms that
ensure reliable and correct operation. (Source: mouser.com)

While speed, direction, and a disable function are all accessible via
digital pins, these can also be controlled over the SPI interface.

To get started, Infineon offers an H-Bridge Kit 2GO development Figure 18: The classic diamond shape’ Wheatstone bridge circuit with
board19. In addition to the IFX9201SG, an XMC 110020 an unknown and variable resistance. When zero volts is measured across
microcontroller and a suitable voltage regulator are also included DB, the unknown Rx is equal to R2. (Source: Wikipedia.com)
(Figure 17). Together with their Dave IDE21, your chosen motor
can be controlled using the integrated evaluation software.

Figure 19: A variation in ±1 Ω in one resistor results in a potential difference

Figure 17: The H-Bridge Kit 2GO from Infineon includes an XMC 1100 variation of just ±3.0 mV in a 1 kΩ Wheatstone bridge powered from 12 V.
microcontroller alongside the IFX9201SG. (Source: mouser.com) The differential amplifier used here has a gain of 50. (Source: LT Spice)
 Mouser Electronics Article

They recommend using an instrumentation amplifier like

the AD842024 that includes an ‘in-amp’ for indirect current
feedback (ICF). When correctly configured, such offsets can
be removed before the wanted signal is amplified (Figure 21).

The fundamentals are now in place

Most circuit challenges have been tackled by someone,
somewhere, at least once before. These five fundamental circuits,
which cover power regulation, fan and motor control, timing
pulse and frequency generation, and evaluating sensors with
Figure 20: A Wheatstone bridge connected to a differential a Wheatstone Bridge, have really stood the test of time. The
amplifier via two analogue buffers. (Source: LT Spice) guidance provided here should help you build them when you
quickly want to build a prototype to test an idea. But, in many
cases, you don’t need to build such circuits entirely from scratch.
Amplifying the signal
Because they work so well, semiconductor vendors have
The circuit can be built using discrete components but also integrated them countless times in ICs, or development boards or
appears integrated into many sensor ICs, allowing milliohm and modules are already available for rapid use in your own designs.
microvolt changes to be accurately measured (Figure 19). In the case of the H-bridge or fan controller, the available ICs
integrate a lot of additional functionality that not only makes
Because the signal generated is very small, operational amplifiers them easier to use, they also integrate functions that deliver
(op-amps) are needed to bring the output to a value that can be diagnostic information for use by a microcontroller. This makes
digitised by an analogue-to-digital converter (ADC). Configured as a them more straightforward to use, reliable, and designer-friendly.
differential amplifier, the op-amp measures the potential difference With the basic circuits discussed here, you’re now well-placed
between the two measurement points. These signals can also to try them out in hardware or explore them in a simulator.
be buffered if needed using two further op-amps (Figure 20).

Instrumentation amplifiers
Suppliers like Analog Devices are well known for the
quality of their analogue ICs22 and offer a wealth of
expertise in measuring tiny signals and dealing with the
challenges of offsets and noise in such applications.

In an article on using Wheatstone Bridges23, they specifically

tackle the issue of offsets. The four resistors of the bridge
will have some tolerance and, bearing in mind the high
gain used to amplify a tiny signal, a 5.0mV offset becomes
±2.0V at the output for a circuit with a gain of 400.

Figure 21: The AD8420 can cancel out bias current errors in a Wheatstone bridge
circuit before amplifying the potential difference. (Source: mouser.com)
 Mouser Electronics Article

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