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Referees, Match Officials and Abuse

This book explores issues related to the abuse of referees and match officials in
sport. Drawing on original empirical research in football, rugby union, rugby league
and cricket, it provides an insight into the complexities involved in the recruitment,
retention and development processes of match officials from across the global sports
industry.
Using an evidence-based approach, the book examines why abuse occurs, the
operational environments in which match officials operate, and underlying issues
and trends that cut across sports and therefore can be linked to wider societal trends.
It challenges global sport policy and discusses the development of an inclusive,
cohesive and facilitative environment for match officials, players, coaches and
spectators to ensure the future provision of global sport.
Referees, Match Officials and Abuse is an invaluable resource for all students,
scholars and national governing bodies of sport with an interest in match officials,
sports governance, sport policy, sport management and the sociology of sport.

Tom Webb is Course Leader for the MSc Sports Management and Senior Lecturer
in Sports Management and Development at the University of Portsmouth, UK. He is
also founder and coordinator of the Referee and Match Official Research Network.

Mike Rayner is Associate Head (Education) at the University of Portsmouth, UK.

Mike is a Fellow of The Institute of Leadership and Management (ILM), Fellow of
the Chartered Institute for Sports Management and Physical Activity (CIMSPA), a
Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy and an Academic Member of the
Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD).

Jamie Cleland is Senior Lecturer in Sport and Management at the University of

South Australia. His research explores a range of social issues in sport.

Jimmy O’Gorman is Senior Lecturer in Sports Development, Management

and Coaching in the Department of Sport and Physical Activity at Edge Hill
University, UK.
Routledge Focus on Sport, Culture and Society

Routledge Focus on Sport, Culture and Society showcases the latest cutting-
edge research in the sociology of sport and exercise. Concise in form
(20,000–50,000 words) and published quickly (within three months), the
books in this series represents an important channel through which authors
can disseminate their research swiftly and make an impact on current
debates. We welcome submissions on any topic within the socio-cultural
study of sport and exercise, including but not limited to subjects such as
gender, race, sexuality, disability, politics, the media, social theory, Olym-
pic Studies, and the ethics and philosophy of sport. The series aims to be
theoretically-informed, empirically-grounded and international in reach,
and will include a diversity of methodological approaches.

List of titles

Rugby in Global Perspective

Playing on the Periphery
Edited by John Harris and Nicholas Wise

Doping in Sport
A Defence
Thomas Søbirk Petersen

Racism and English Football

For Club and Country
Daniel Burdsey

Referees, Match Officials and Abuse

Research and Implications for Policy
Tom Webb, Mike Rayner, Jamie Cleland and Jimmy O’Gorman

For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/

sport/series/RFSCS
Referees, Match Officials
and Abuse
Research and Implications for Policy

Tom Webb, Mike Rayner, Jamie

Cleland and Jimmy O’Gorman
First published 2021
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2021 Tom Webb
The right of Tom Webb to be identified as author of this work has
been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted
or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Webb, Tom (Thomas), author. | Rayner, Mike, 1983– author. |
Cleland, Jamie, author. | O’Gorman, Jimmy, author.
Title: Referees, match officials and abuse : research and implications
for policy / Tom Webb, Mike Rayner, Jamie Cleland, Jimmy
O’Gorman.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York : Routledge, 2021. |
Series: Routledge focus on sport, culture and society | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020027251 (print) | LCCN 2020027252 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781138364677 (hardback) | ISBN 9780429431203 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Sports officiating—Psychological aspects. | Sports
and state. | Violence in sports.
Classification: LCC GV735 .W43 2021 (print) | LCC GV735 (ebook) |
DDC 796.01/9—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020027251
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020027252

ISBN: 978-1-138-36467-7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-429-43120-3 (ebk)

Typeset in Times New Roman

by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Contents

List of figures viii

List of tables ix
Preface x
Acknowledgements xii

1 Introducing and defining match official abuse 1

Scope of the book 1
History of sport official abuse 2
The current situation 4
Defining abuse 5
Structure of the book 8

2 Examining abuse: the importance of governing bodies

in sport 14
Introduction 14
Abuse and retention across sports 14
Abuse in England: governing body approaches 16
The extent of abuse towards match officials 19
Abuse in action 20
Match official abuse in sport 22
Conclusion 26

3 Organisational culture, non-reporting of abuse and

discontinuation: implications for match officials
and administrators 30
Introduction 30
Organisational culture 31
vi Contents
Organisational culture and intention to leave 33
Non-reporting: problems in the systems 37
Conclusion 44

4 Facilitating a positive environment: the role of resilience,

mental fortitude and conflict management when
supporting match officials 49
Introduction 49
The role of resilience for match officials 50
Mental fortitude and toughness in sports match officials 52
Intergroup conflict and conflict resolution 60
Case study – umpire abuse incident report, local cricket
match 2019 62
Conclusion 67

5 The importance of policy and the need for mental health

interventions and support 71
Introduction 71
Mental health and sport 72
“Sport has a long way to go” 74
Match officials and mental health concerns 76
Supporting match officials – mentoring 80
The absence of appreciation and empathy for match
officials 82
Conclusion 85

6 The experience of match officials outside England 90

Introduction 90
Match officials in the media 91
Spectator behaviour 91
It’s not just spectators that are the problem 92
What about football specifically? 94
Football referees in France and the Netherlands 96
Referee experiences of abuse 98
Support and disciplinary processes 100
The influence of professional football 102
Conclusion 104
 Contents vii
7 Evidencing good practice and tackling abuse 109
Good practice and innovations in match official support
in England 110
Good practice and innovations in match official support
around the world 112
Improving the situation: promoting a positive way
forward 114
Conclusion 122

Index 125
Figures

2.1 Have you been verbally abused? 18

2.2 Have you been physically abused? 19
2.3 How often do you receive what you would consider
to be abuse? 20
3.1 Do episodes of abuse make you question whether to
continue officiating? 42
3.2 Are you thinking of leaving officiating in the next 12 months? 43
4.1 Mental fortitude training program for sustained success 52
4.2 Environment characteristics affecting resilience 54
4.3 What is your view of the current training products offered? 56
4.4 What is your view of the current personal development
opportunities offered to match officials? 57
5.1 Conceptual model of the factors influencing match official
welfare and future outcomes 76
6.1 Have you been verbally abused? 97
6.2 Have you been physically abused? 97
6.3 How often do you receive what you would consider to
be abuse? 98
7.1 Take the pledge campaign poster 115
Tables

4.1 Characteristics of performance under pressure 66

7.1 10-point plan to control and reduce abuse, increase support
and improve retention 116
Preface

Why are sports match officials verbally and physically abused? How does
this abuse occur, in what settings? How long has this abuse been evident
and what can, and is, being done about it?
These questions, alongside a myriad of others, drove the conception and
formation of this book. Having been involved with research related to sports
match officials for over 15 years, and working and writing this book for
over two years, as researchers we were interested in whether ongoing media
coverage of the issues, governing body attention and not to mention aca-
demic research have shifted the agenda and debate. We wanted to give a
platform to match officials to explain and detail their experiences of abuse,
support networks and the challenges that they encounter when perform-
ing their role. In writing this book we have been moved by the accounts
and information provided by over 8,000 match officials. The honesty with
which they have responded to the online surveys has been refreshing and at
times challenging to read and analyse but has ultimately provided a detailed
view of the world of the sports match official.
This book offers a comprehensive analysis of the abuse of sports match
officials, and therefore provides a considerable resource for match officials,
governing bodies and individuals involved in the management and training
of match officials across sports and countries. The book utilises empirical
research involving match officials in football (soccer), cricket, rugby union
and rugby league in England as well as match officials operating in foot-
ball in France and the Netherlands. Furthermore, we have considered the
situation and accounts from sports in other countries through media reports
and through governing body policy responses, aimed at tackling the issues
related to the abuse of match officials.
This coverage of sports and countries by the conclusion of this book per-
mits a considered and detailed examination of former and current policy
interventions, and we present a 10-point plan for any individual involved
in the governance of sport and/or sport match officials to consider how
 Preface xi
they might positively react to any issues related to abuse in their sport. It
is important to acknowledge that despite the issues examined in this book,
there are stories of positivity, of governing bodies supporting match offi-
cials and changing policy to reflect this support. We hope that this book can
provide an opportunity for governing bodies to extend this support of match
officials further, in different sports and countries around the world.
Therefore, this book and the research that we have conducted are
designed to assist in the development of any sport and the match officials
therein. This book provides analysis and findings enabling sports to work
towards a more inclusive, cohesive and facilitative environment for match
officials, players, coaches and spectators, moving towards more sustainable
recruitment and retention of match officials. An aim and sentiment that all
governing bodies should embrace. Ultimately, if this book can contribute
towards a safer environment, enhanced match official support and devel-
opment systems, a more content match official workforce and a roadmap
for future governing body policy interventions and initiatives then the con-
struction and time spent on this book will have been worthwhile.
Tom Webb, PhD,
University of Portsmouth, UK
Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank all of the referees, umpires and match offi-
cials who have taken the time to contribute to this research. Without your
input the book could not have been as comprehensive as you have helped to
make it. We would like to thank any governing bodies who have contributed
to the research and we would also like to acknowledge the UEFA Research
Grant Programme who funded some of the research involved in the produc-
tion of this book.
1 Introducing and defining
match official abuse

Scope of the book

The purpose of this book is to bring together a burgeoning body of research
that has explored a) the propensity of abuse experienced by sports officials,1
b) the impact of abuse directed towards sports officials, and c) the effi-
cacy of policy and strategic responses devised to combat abuse towards
sports officials. The scope of this body of research centres on the abuse
of sports officials operating at mass participation levels through to profes-
sional levels in England across the sports of football, cricket rugby union
and rugby league, and is supplemented by research examining the abuse
directed towards football referees in France and the Netherlands. Therefore,
this book focuses on modern sports officials operating in the 21st century
and the challenges associated with their roles.
Abuse directed towards sports match officials is not a recent phenom-
enon. Forms of abuse have existed since before codification in some sports
in England. However, despite the longevity of this abuse towards match
officials, there are few indicators that this abuse is declining. In fact, there
is evidence to suggest that abuse towards match officials across different
sports is increasing, rather than decreasing in both frequency and severity
(Webb, Rayner, & Thelwell, 2019). As a result of this prolonged abuse, this
issue has drawn academic attention, particularly over the past 10–15 years
(Cleland, O’Gorman, & Bond, 2015; Cleland, O’Gorman, & Webb, 2018;
Dell, Gervis, & Rhind, 2016; Kellett & Shilbury, 2007; Rayner, Webb, &
Webb, 2016; Warner, Tingle, & Kellett, 2013).
There are interrelated areas of research which have focused upon the for-
mal and informal support networks around match officials (Kellett & War-
ner, 2011; Webb, Dicks, Thelwell, van der Kamp, & Rix-Lievre, 2020), with
links between discontinuation and a perceived lack of support identified
(Ridinger, Kim, Warner, & Tingle, 2017a; Ridinger, Warner, Tingle, & Kim,
2017b). The issues concerning abuse and support can also be associated to
2 Introducing, defining match official abuse
those matters which have been discovered in football in England (Cleland
et al., 2018; Webb, Cleland, & O’Gorman, 2017), as well as rugby union
(Rayner et al., 2016), cricket (Webb et al., 2019) and rugby league (Webb,
Rayner, & Thelwell, 2018).
This book primarily draws upon a number of empirical studies using sur-
vey research methods which have explored the abuse of sports officials,
the support provided to them, their training to deal with abuse, and their
experiences of policy and strategy responses to abuse. In sum, the voices of
8,010 officials ranging from elite professional through to mass participation
amateur sport in football, cricket, rugby union and rugby league have been
captured through online surveys (6,693 football referees, with 2,056 from
England, 3,408 from France and 1,229 from the Netherlands; 456 rugby
union referees; 89 rugby league referees; and 772 cricket umpires). The data
collected were both quantitative and qualitative, with the online surveys
designed to capture numeric representations of a large-scale population of
sports officials and, through open questions, providing them with the oppor-
tunity to comment on their experiences.
All the online surveys had the collective objectives of considering match
official abuse, support and training. In order for the illustrative quotations
that are utilised throughout the book to be clear and applied most effec-
tively, the sport, sex, length of time officiating and age group of the match
official in question are noted. It is the intention of this book to unpack the
issues surrounding the abuse of sports match officials, as well as factors
which can contribute to abuse and impact upon abuse, and the implications
of this research for policy makers and those in governance roles at national
and international sports governing bodies.

History of sport official abuse

The propensity for sports officials to routinely suffer both verbal and physi-
cal abuse can largely be traced back to the codification processes of modern
sport forms in England spanning the 18th and 19th centuries (Webb, 2017),
although this often depended on the sport in question. For example, after
the codification of association football (hereafter football) in 1863 the game
grew and resulted in professionalism being accepted in 1885 by the Football
Association (the game’s governing body) at a time when leagues were being
formed (Cleland, 2015).
Over time, the onus on winning and implications of poor results increased
the pressure on players, coaches and consequently referees. As such, the
professionalisation of the sport in the latter part of the 18th century was
frequently accompanied by abuse aimed towards the official. This was often
initiated by crowds through the unwanted attention of abusive gamblers
 Introducing, defining match official abuse 3
who felt that refereeing decisions had negatively affected their team’s per-
formance, and consequently their wager (Webb, 2016). It was not uncom-
mon for football referees to receive threats from crowds and following the
match itself abusive and threatening letters to their home address (Webb,
2016, 2017). The aggressive behaviour of spectators or supporters was
a particular concern to authorities, and ground closures were a common
occurrence from 1895–1915 (Dunning, Murphy, & Williams, 1988; Lewis,
1906).
Cricket had similar concerns to football. Even after the foundation of the
Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) in 1787 leading to codification, umpires,
who were utilised as a third party to settle disputes (Malcolm, 2001), were
also the subject of unwanted attention related to the behaviour of gamblers
during and after the fixtures (Malcolm, 1999). These issues were also evi-
dent amongst cricket crowds in the stadiums, with a number of stadia built
or purchased at the start of the 20th century (Vamplew, 1980).
Cricket has much of its historical grounding in England and is not alone
in that respect. For example, rugby union also has similar foundations and,
furthermore, both sports exhibit an inherent acceptance of sportsmanship,
rules and the authority and decision making of the match official (Dunning &
Sheard, 2005). Rugby union was codified in 1871 and has retained a fairly
constant structure as the game has evolved (Collins, 2009). However, there
is also historical evidence of abuse directed towards officials in rugby dur-
ing the bifurcation of the rules and subsequent codification of two versions
of the sport which was largely based upon distinctions of social class (Col-
lins, 2012).
In the late 1870s the organisation of cup competitions in rugby league
led to disorderly crowd behaviour, with attention being placed on the ref-
eree’s decisions (Collins, 2012). Incidents arose due to the partisan nature
of the supporter relationships between working class towns in the north of
the UK. For example, the Wakefield Trinity team was attacked by Halifax
supporters after their 1879 final victory in revenge for Trinity’s semi-final
defeat of Halifax. Moreover, a referee named Harry Garnett was escorted
from various grounds by the police following Yorkshire Cup ties after sup-
porters disputed some of his decisions and wanted to accost him personally
(Collins, 2012).
An example reported by the Yorkshire Post newspaper in 1893 suggested
that aggression towards match officials in a rugby union fixture was
expressed in particular by working-class players and spectators because
they jeered and heckled referees as well as the opposing team. This was also
the case with those subject to British imperial rule overseas, with referee
decisions often questioned and subjected to shouting and whistling (Col-
lins, 1998). Furthermore, the Paris Olympics in 1924 produced unwanted
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