Overview

Quick Details
Place of Origin:
Philippines
Model Number:
AD/KD/F- 3
Type:
Other Timber
Yellowish Brown:
Yellowish Brown
Supply Ability
Supply Ability:
2000 Cubic Meter/Cubic Meters per Month
Packaging & Delivery
Packaging Details
Bundle & Packed with 1 to 1.5 CBM per pallet loaded into a 20' HQ container van
Lead Time :
45-60 days upon receipt of DL/C
AD/KD-3 YAKAL
Botanical names: Shorea spp. Principally S. glauca, S. laevis, S. albida, S. seminis, S. maxwelliana, S. astylosa.
Family name: Dipterocarpaceae
Local names: yakal, gisok (Philippines)
Tree description and natural occurrence
Medium to large hardwoods, often buttressed, with a straight cylindrical bole between 30 and 50 m long. These
Shorea spp. grow across a diversity of site types in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines.
Wood appearance
Colour. Yellowish brown heartwood, sapwood distinctly paler.
Grain. Varies from straight to interlocked. Interlocking grain produces striped figure on quarter-sawn
material. Texture moderately coarse but even.
Wood properties
Density. 900 kg/m3 at 12 % moisture content; approximately 1.1 m3 of seasoned, sawn timber per tonne.
Strength groups. S3 unseasoned, (SD3) seasoned.
Stress grades. F8, F11, F14, F17 (unseasoned); F14, F17, F22, F27 (seasoned) when visually stress-graded in
accordance with AS2082-2000, 'Visually stress-graded hardwood for structural purposes'. Joint groups. J2
unseasoned; JD2 seasoned.
Shrinkage to 12% MC. Shrinkage rates varies considerably between species.
Unit shrinkage. Not available.
Durability above-ground. Class 1 - life expectancy >40 years.
Durability in-ground. Class 2 - life expectancy 15 to 25 years.
Lyctine susceptibility. Untreated sapwood is susceptible to lyctine borer attack.
Termite resistance. Not resistant.
Preservation. Sapwood readily accepts preservative impregnation.
Seasoning. Care required when drying to avoid splits, checks, and distortion.
Hardness. Hard (rated 2 on a 6 class scale) in relation to resistance and ease of working with hand tools.
Machining. Resinous material gums up cutting edges, otherwise relatively easy to machine and turn.
Fixing. Pre-boring recommended when nailing.
Gluing. As with most high-density species machining and surface preparation should be done immediately before
gluing.
Finishing. Satisfactory in relation to painting, staining and polishing.
Uses
Engineering. Heavy engineering.
Construction. Framing, flooring, decking, linings, joinery, fencing.
Decorative. Turnery.
Others. Boat building, vats, casks.
Identification features
General characteristics
Sapwood. Well-defined and paler than heartwood.
Heartwood. Yellow brown, brown, reddish brown
Texture. Moderately coarse, even, grain interlocked, hard to cut across end grain; end cut generally shiny; both
species show a degree of lustre on a dressed surface.
Wood structure Vessels. Mostly solitary with a few radial or oblique groups, medium size, even and diffuse
distribution. Tyloses numerous. Vessel lines present.
Parenchyma. Apotracheal - consisting mainly of irregular spaced bands and occasional short tangential lines or
diffuse strands. Paratracheal - often as incomplete vasicentric strands around the vessels, barely visible by hand
lens, scant to well-defined aliform.
Rays. Fine, generally inconspicuous on the radial surface. Other features
Burning splinter test. A match size splinter burns to an ash.
Intercellular canals: Generally filled with white resin, smaller than the vessels, arranged in concentric formation

Lauan trees appearance wood

uses and lumber
Lauan is not a tree species but a loose wood term that is used for lumber from trees of the shorea
genus. In total there are over 190 tree species labelled as lauan and all part of the dipterocarpaceae
family. These trees grow in the tropical rainforests all throughout Asia and are famous for their
hardwood properties. Meranti is another name that often is used for the same tree species. Like
lauan it is not a tree name but a wood/lumber name divided into four categories dark red, red, yellow
and white meranti all based on wood properties.

Lauan trees, leaves and fruits description

The tallest lauan trees can grow to heights up to 195 feet or 60 meters. The majority of the trees are
classed as evergreen but some species are semi evergreen. Leaves of these tree species are
leathery and oblong to elliptic shaped. Lauan leaves can reach lengths up to 12 inches or 32 cm and
vary in colour from light to dark green and yellow. The term dipterocarp from the dipterocarpaceae
family means two winged fruit. Not all fruits of lauan trees have two wings and often three to five
instead of only two. The fruits are egg shaped with seeds inside. These seeds contain high levels of
oil used for cattle feed or as a fuel source for cooking.

Lauan tree bark and trunk

Young tree species in general have smooth grey, green or reddish bark. When the trees get older
the bark gets darker, rougher and sometimes deeply fissured. Lauan trees have high levels of
aromatic resins. These resins are tapped by removing or carving the bark. They have many different
uses such as caulking boats, varnishes, medical uses and more. Tree trunks from lauan classed
trees vary in diameter. Older trees can have long and straight trunks with a diameter over 10 feet or
3 meters.

Lauan wood properties and durability

Fresh lauan heartwood is yellow to brown colored and gets darker when exposed to sunlight. The
sapwood is paler then the heartwood. The wood has a moderately fine and coarse texture. The
average dried weight of the wood depends on the tree type. At a moisture content of 12% it varies
between 600 kg to 880 kg per cubic meter. The durability of lauan wood is classed as I to III high to
moderate durability. It has high density, high bending strength and good shock resistance.
Lauan wood working tips and uses
Lauan is one of the most used and traded tropical hardwoods. It is difficult to work with hand tools
because of its hardness and high density. Pre drilling is always advised when screws or nails are
used. Lauan will absorb paint quick and multiple layers are often not sufficient. It is therefore
recommended to use special oils that soak into the wood. This protects it from the elements and
gives it nice colorations. Lauan can be glued well but due to its high density it is advised to use
special heavy duty glue. Fresh lumber contains resin and therefore needs to dry well before
handling. Lauan is used in a wide range of products like heavy construction but also as flooring,
decking, furniture, toys, veneer, plywood, instruments and much more

Pterocarpus (PROSEA)
Pterocarpus Jacq.
Protologue: Sel. stirp. amer. hist.: 283 (1763).
Family: Leguminosae
Chromosome number: x= probably 11; P. indicus f.indicus: n= 10, 22; P.
indicusf.echinatus: n= 22

Trade groups
Narra: medium-heavy hardwood, e.g. Pterocarpus indicus Willd.

Vernacular names
Narra

 rosewood (a general name for reddish woods used for furniture and cabinet work),
amboyna, padauk, red sandalwood (En).
 Amboine, santal rouge (Fr).
 Brunei: angsana
 Indonesia: sonokembang (general), angsana (Java)
 Malaysia: angsana (general), sena (Peninsular)
 Papua New Guinea: New Guinea rosewood
 Philippines: apalit (general), vitali (Zamboanga)
 Burma: sena, padouk, ansanah
 Laos: chan dêng
 Thailand: pradu (general), pradu-ban (central), sano (Malay, peninsular)
 Vietnam: giáng hương.

Origin and geographic distribution

This pantropical genus consists of 20 species, 5 of which occur in the Indo-Pacific
region. Within the Malesian area only one species occurs naturally and is found
throughout this area. Most species are found in western tropical Africa (11). If one
considers the centre of origin of a genus to be located at the place with the highest
species diversity, western tropical Africa can be considered as such.
Uses
Narra is used as a structural timber for light to heavy construction, joists, rafters, beams
and interior finish. The wood being generally reddish and figured is ranked among the
finest for furniture, panelling, musical instruments, high-grade cabinet work, high-class
interior joinery, billiard tables, decorative flooring for both light and heavy traffic,
agricultural implements, high-class vehicle bodies, cart and gun carriages, oil presses,
tool handles, carvings and novelties. A high-grade figured veneer can be sliced from the
wood for the outer layers of plywood and cabinet work. Due to its low shrinkage and
movement narra is suitable for precision instruments. Its inherent strength to withstand
weathering, wearing and insect attacks makes it useful for purposes such as bridges,
piles, posts, railway sleepers, shafts and mine timber, although treatment with a
preservative is recommended. Because of its comparatively good resistance to marine
borer attack it is considered to be suitable for marine construction works as a substitute
for teak. In some areas narra is considered the best material for canoes. Physiologically
diseased trees, which are found most commonly on Seram, yield a famous strongly
figured material known as "Ambonese gnarl wood" or "amboyna".
The bark exudes a gummy or resinous substance which is called "kino" or "sangre de
drago" (dragon's blood). It is a powerful astringent and the boiled, shredded bark is used
against diarrhoea and dysentery. It is sometimes used as a diuretic but its diuretic
properties have not yet been clearly demonstrated. The bark also has tanning properties
and it dyes a reddish or yellowish colour (e.g. P. indicus, P. macrocarpus Kurz and P.
santalinoides L'Hérit. ex DC.). The wood yields a dye giving a brown or brick-red colour.
The colour of the dye is, however, less intense than that of the well-known Indian P.
santalinus L.f. P. indicus is extensively cultivated as an ornamental or shade tree,
especially in Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines. It is
recommended for planting in denuded areas and brushland to stabilize the soil; it may
improve the soil by nitrogen fixation. The flowers and very young leaves are sometimes
eaten.

Production and international trade

Narra is particularly important in the Philippines, Papua New Guinea and Thailand. In
the Philippines the total export of narra wood in 1985 was 3 million kg (40% processed)
with a value of US$ 1.1 million. The export declined to 2.3 million kg in 1986 (57%
processed) with a value of US$ 935 000, and to 430 000 kg (all processed) with a value
of US$ 220 000 in 1987. From then on, the export was negligible and at present there is
a total ban on cutting narra trees.
In Papua New Guinea it is an important timber which fetches very high prices; the export
of logs is banned, and only processed wood is exported.
Thailand exported 5.8 million kg of sawn Pterocarpus (P. indicus and P. macrocarpus)
timber in 1990, worth US$ 10.3 million. However, Thailand also imports this timber, in
1990 to an amount of 11 000 m3 (non-processed) with a value of US$ 1.9 million, mainly
from Burma but also in small amounts from Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam.

Properties
Narra is a medium-weight, moderately hard to hard, tough and resilient wood. The
heartwood is light yellowish-brown to reddish-brown with darker irregular streaks; it is
distinctly demarcated from the generally pale straw-coloured to light grey sapwood. The
density is (390-)550-900(-940) kg/m3 at 15% moisture content. The grain of the wood is
interlocked or wavy, texture moderately fine to moderately coarse.
At 12% moisture content the modulus of rupture is 86-96 N/mm2, modulus of elasticity
11 100-12 300 N/mm2, compression parallel to grain 55-62 N/mm2, compression
perpendicular to grain 8-9 N/mm2, shear 10-13 N/mm2, cleavage c. 56 N/mm radial and
45 N/mm tangential, Janka side hardness 3870-7200 N and Janka end hardness 4540-
6900 N.
The rates of shrinkage are low to moderate, from green to 15% moisture content 0.5-
1.0% radial and 1.0-1.3% tangential, and from green to oven dry 2.8-3.3% radial and
4.0-5.9% tangential. Narra is generally easy to season with little or no degrade. Once
dry, the wood is very stable in service.
Generally the wood is easy to work and does not blunt sawteeth and edges for a
considerable time, because it contains very little or no silica. The presence of
interlocked grain may result in picking up of grain on radial surfaces during planing.
Narra wood turns and chisels very well, and gluing, sanding and polishing give no
problems. It nails and screws well and pre-boring is not required; only very thin boards
tend to split slightly when nailed. Narra receives paints and varnishes well, but for some
material, fillers are needed. It can be peeled very satisfactorily without prior treatments,
to produce very decorative veneer.
The figures on durability of narra wood differ considerably, probably because of the wide
variation of density of tested wood. Narra is generally rated as durable; this was shown,
for instance, in tests of wood from Indonesia, the Philippines and Papua New Guinea,
where a service life in contact with the ground of up to 20 years is reported. A test in
Malaysia, however, resulted in a classification of the wood as non-durable, with a
maximum service life of 2 years. The heartwood is usually resistant to termites, but the
sapwood is susceptible to attack by powder-post beetles. Narra is extremely durable
when used for interior work in the tropics and subtropics. The heartwood is resistant to
preservative impregnation, but the sapwood is permeable. Fresh and dry sawdust may
produce an aromatic odour, and may irritate nose and throat.
Wood of P. indicus contains 49% cellulose, 24% lignin, 11% pentosan, 0.9% ash and up
to 0.3% silica. The solubility is 2.2% in alcohol-benzene, 0.4% in cold water, 4.1% in hot
water and 16.2% in a 1% NaOH solution. The energy value is 20 150 kJ/kg. Narra wood
contains santalin, a red crystalline compound which constitutes the main colouring
matter. The polyphenolic substance isolated from the bark of P. indicus inhibits the
esterolytic activity of plasmin, and shows carcinostatic activity in mice.

Description
 Small to large, generally deciduous trees up to 40 m tall; bole often of poor form,
strongly fluted and gnarled and up to 350 cm in diameter, with numerous, plank-like
buttresses; bark surface finely scaly fissured, finely streaked cream and brown,
inner bark thin, producing red sap when cut; crown dense, domed; branchlets often
lenticelled; indumentum of simple, usually short and adpressed hairs.
 Leaves alternate, imparipinnate; stipules generally small, linear or narrowly
triangular, usually early caducous; leaflets alternate or sometimes subopposite,
entire.
 Inflorescence axillary or terminal, racemose or paniculate; bracts and bracteoles
small, linear to narrowly triangular.
 Flowers bisexual, irregular; calyx turbinate to campanulate, 5-lobed, the upper two
lobes usually larger, sometimes united; petals 5, free, clawed, generally yellow,
glabrous or sparsely hairy outside, standard obovate to spatulate, keels shorter than
the wings and connate at base; stamens 10, upper stamen free or joined to the
staminal sheath, anthers dorsifixed, versatile, dehiscing lengthwise; ovary usually
stipitate, with 2-8 ovules and 1 style with a terminal, minute stigma.
 Fruit a compressed, indehiscent pod, disk-like or sometimes falcate, broadly winged
or rarely slightly keeled, with a thickened central, usually woody or corky seed-
bearing portion, with 1-3(-4) seeds.
 Seed kidney-shaped to oblong, usually narrowed and curved near the minute hilum,
smooth to undulate, testa brown to blackish, aril minute.
 Seedling with epigeal germination; the cotyledons borne at or above the soil level;
first 2 or 3 leaves simple, arranged spirally, subsequent ones compound and
alternate.

Wood anatomy
Macroscopic characters

 Heartwood light yellowish-brown to reddish-brown and distinctly demarcated from

the straw-coloured to light grey sapwood.
 Grain wavy or interlocked. Texture moderately fine to moderately coarse; ribbon
figure present on quarter-sawn faces, zigzag figure present in material with wavy
grain; wood not very glossy.
 Growth rings distinct, formed by concentric alignment of large pore rings and by a
layer of darker coloured wood at the end of the ring (ring-porous); vessels visible to
the naked eye, particularly distinct at the base of the large pore rings, solitary and in
radial multiples of 2-4, tyloses present; axial parenchyma distinct to the naked eye,
aliform, in concentric confluent layers and terminal, confluent parenchyma
irregularly and closely spaced and wavy; rays barely visible to the naked eye on
cross-section but visible to the naked eye on the tangential face because of the
storied arrangement (ripple marks).
Microscopic characters
Growth rings distinct, marked by concentric alignment of large pore rings.

 Vessels very few to few, 1-3(-6)/mm2, about 68% solitary, 28% in radial multiples of
2-4, and 4% in clusters, very small in the latewood to very large in the earlywood,
45-375μm in tangential diameter, mostly medium-sized to moderately large (135-
230 μm), vessel elements very short to medium-sized (predominantly 225-360 μm);
perforation plates simple; intervessel pits alternate, small, vestured; vessel-ray pits
similar to intervessel pits; tyloses occasionally present.
 Fibres predominantly medium-sized to moderately long (average length 1.3 mm),
non-septate, thin-walled, with numerous simple pits with slit-like apertures in the
radial walls.
 Axial parenchyma abundant, aliform-confluent or in irregular confluent bands, and
terminal, strands usually 2-celled or parenchyma cells fusiform.
 Rays 6-10/mm, 1(-2)-seriate, 2-12 cells high, mostly 5-9 cells wide, extremely fine to
moderately fine (11-33 μm wide), homocellular and composed of procumbent cells.
 Rhomboidal crystals present in chambered axial parenchyma cells, 2-8 (or more) in
a strand.
 Axial parenchyma strands and rays distinctly storied.
Species studied: P. indicus.

Growth and development

After germination, the cotyledons are exposed above the soil on a long hypocotyl and
the seed-coat is left in or on the soil, usually in the indehiscent pod. Root growth of
narra is very extensive and characterized by anastomosing laterals. P. indicus is a fairly
fast grower; trees are reported to reach a maximum diameter of 58 cm in 40 years. P.
dalbergioidestrees may attain 8 m in height and a diameter of 5.5 cm in 4 years, 14 m in
height and 11.5 cm in diameter in 8 years, and 25 m in height in 12 years.
Narra is a deciduous tree, often "semi-deciduous" (i.e. some trees do not completely
lose their leaves). The leaves fall off during the dry season, usually 2-3 months after the
end of the rainy season. New leaves develop simultaneously with the flowers, but
sometimes young leaves develop fully before flowering begins. Not all flowers in a
panicle or raceme open simultaneously. The flowers in the lower portion of the
inflorescence open first and later wither, losing their petals which often carpet the
ground beneath the tree. After a short period, when the subsequent flowers in the upper
portion of the inflorescence open and blossom, there is a second fall of petals, although
not as profuse as before. In areas with no distinct wet and dry seasons (e.g. in
Singapore), gregarious flowering does not occur frequently, and instead, flowering is
asynchronous.
Fruits are mature 3-4 months after flowering. They are dispersed over short distances
by wind, and over long distances by water and sometimes by sea currents.

Other botanical information

The genus Pterocarpus belongs to the tribe Dalbergieae. Its closest relatives are
believed to be the South American genera Tipuana and Fissicalyx. The different species
of Pterocarpus are generally recognized by characters of the fruit (size, width of the
wing, and position of the style remnant) and sometimes that of the flower (presence of
bracts and bracteoles, hairiness of pedicel, calyx and ovary, number of ovules).
Vegetative characters can only be used with any reliability on a local scale.
In addition to P. indicus and P. dalbergioides, the wood of several
other Pterocarpus species from outside Malesia is highly appreciated, e.g. P.
macrocarpus in Burma, Thailand and Indo-China, P. santalinus and P.
marsupium Roxb. in India, and P. soyauxii Taub. in Africa.

Ecology
Narra prefers a slightly seasonal climate but is found in both evergreen and semi-
deciduous forest. Its natural habitat is riparian along banks of rivers and coastal tidal
creeks and rocky shores but it is highly adaptable to other environmental conditions.
When planted, narra is able to grow in a wide range of habitats and soil conditions, for
example in flat sandy areas, in hilly areas with a heavy clay soil but also in waterlogged
areas. P. indicus thrives best on moist sandy loam or clay-loam soil. Narra is a nitrogen-
fixing tree and demands light. In natural conditions narra is often an element of the
upper storey of the forest canopy and is sometimes found as a dominant tree together
with molave (Vitex parviflora Juss.) in the Philippines. In Papua New Guinea P.
indicus is particularly common as a canopy tree in valleys below 100 m altitude, together
with Kingiodendron alternifolium (Elm.) Merr. & Rolfe.

Propagation and planting

Narra is easily propagated by seed. The weight of 1000 seeds is about 770 g.
Germination rate is improved if seeds are extracted from the indehiscent pods before
sowing. Seeds are sown in nursery beds, and the seedlings are potted in plastic bags
when one month old; at an age of 4-6 months (average height 20-25 cm) they are ready
for planting into the field. Since the percentage of viable seeds is often low (sometimes
as low as 10-20%) and the survival ability of young seedlings is vulnerable to weed
competition, vegetative propagation has become a more important technique nowadays.
Stump cuttings, taken from seedlings or wildlings, can be used as planting material. The
recommended stem length is 10-20 cm, root length 20-40 cm and stem diameter 1.5-2
cm. Shoot cuttings of 10 cm in diameter and 2 m in length are used in the Philippines.
Treatment with growth hormones enhances root formation. Cuttings were established
successfully in 80% of the cases studied in Indonesia.
Narra can also be propagated successfully by tissue culture. Tissue taken from 0.5-3-
year-old shoots placed on a growing medium produces callus within 7-12 days. After 21-
48 days, root differentation occurs. Irradiation induces dormant buds to develop in tissue
culture.
In plantations of P. indicus normal spacing is 2.5 m × 2.5 m or 3 m × 3 m. The
recommended spacing for P. dalbergioides is 1.5 m × 1.5 m or 2 m × 2 m.

Silviculture and management

No information is available about the proper management of narra in natural stands.
The trees often occur scattered in dipterocarp forest where the cutting is governed by
diameter limits (usually 60 cm). However, as narra wood is in great demand for top-
class furniture, trees of less than 60 cm diameter are sometimes cut illegally, particularly
in the Philippines.
Plantations of narra (and particularly of P. dalbergioides) have a reputation to be labour-
intensive, requiring much tending such as close initial spacing and regular thinning. This
is because of the tendency of the trees to fork and form very short boles.

Diseases and pests

In nurseries in the Philippines, an anthracnose seedling disease caused
by Colletotrichum sp. has been reported, which leads to brownish spots on leaves and
stems and subsequent wilting. Fungi such as Fomes lamaoensis and Ganoderma
lucidum may cause root and stem rot. Phomopsis sp. (also a fungus) may infest seeds.
A plantation of P. indicus in southern Sumatra has been severely attacked by a
caterpillar (Melipotis diversipennis). In Peninsular Malaysia many trees were attacked
and killed late last century by an unknown disease with symptoms resembling those of
the Dutch Elm disease in Europe. Narra is susceptible to infestation by parasites such
as Loranthus sp. and strangling figs (e.g. Ficus retusa L.).

Harvesting
Large narra trees are often hollow.
 Yield
Narra trees in a 60-year-old plantation in Malaysia yielded slightly more than 1 m 3/tree,
having an average bole diameter of 49 cm and branchless bole length of 7.1 m. The fact
that the trees are usually short-boled with big branches limits the yield.
For maximum timber production of P. dalbergioides in the Andaman Islands, the rotation
is 25-30 years, while the annual production is 6.5 m3/ha. The total timber volume in a
stand of 500 trees/ha after 32 years is reported as 200 m3/ha. In a natural forest in
Seram (the Moluccas) the average standing stock of P. indicus was assessed at 6-10
trees/ha.

Genetic resources
The native stands of narra are disappearing quickly. The demand for luxury woods such
as narra often far exceeds the supply; this easily leads to illegal cutting. P. indicus is
now probably extinct in Peninsular Malaysia because of overexploiting of its few known
stands. Shifting cultivation is another cause of genetic erosion. Narra often grows along
rivers, and these sites are often the first to be settled by shifting cultivators. Narra is
slightly secured against extinction, because it has a large area of distribution and is
often planted, for instance, as a roadside tree.

Prospects
The establishment of plantations of narra can help to prevent genetic erosion and will
also supply high-quality timber in the future. Plantations can already be harvested at 60
years or even less in favourable sites. Moreover, narra is easy to propagate and plant

Hopea (giam) (PROSEA)

Hopea Roxb. (giam)
Protologue: Pl. Coromandel 3: 7 (1811).
Family: Dipterocarpaceae
Chromosome number: x= 7; Hopea nutans: 2n= 28

Trade groups
Giam: heavy hardwood, e.g. Hopea ferrea Lanessan, H. forbesii (Brandis) v. Slooten, H.
helferi (Dyer) Brandis.
In Indonesia the wood of several species of Hopea is traded as "balau" because it
closely resembles the wood of the heavy species of Shorea. In Indonesia the name
"giam" is used for the wood of Cotylelobium spp. The wood of H. ferrea is sometimes
traded separately and called "malut".

Vernacular names
 Giam: heavy hopea (En).
 Brunei: luis (Iban)
 Indonesia: balau (partly)
 Malaysia: selangan (Sabah, Sarawak)
 Papua New Guinea: heavy hopea
 Philippines: yakal
 Burma: thingyan
 Cambodia: kôki:(r)
 Thailand: takhian-hin (peninsular), takhian-rak (peninsular), krabok-krang (Nan)
 Vietnam: săng dào, sao xanh.

Origin and geographic distribution

Hopea consists of some 102 species. The section Hopea, to which most of the giam
timbers belong, comprises about half of the total number of species and is distributed
from Sri Lanka and southern and eastern India through mainland South-East Asia
towards Malesia, where it occurs on all islands except for the Lesser Sunda Islands. The
oldest fossil wood belonging to the genus Hopea was found on the east coast of
southern India and dates from the Miocene.

Uses
Giam is a useful general-purpose timber for heavy construction. Its durability both in
contact with the ground as well as in contact with water makes it suitable for purposes
such as bridges, piers, wharves, piling, posts and electricity poles, beams and railway
sleepers; it is in demand for boat building, specifically for boat keels. Giam is suitable for
heavy-duty, industrial flooring. Other general applications of the timber are for vehicle
bodies, furniture, wall plates and other interior finish, window and door frames and
heavy-duty laboratory benches. Due to its hardness giam is generally not suitable for
plywood or veneer nor for particle board.
Several species yield a clear crystalline resin known as "damar mata kucing" which is
used for varnish manufacture and locally for torches and caulking boats.

Production and international trade

Giam is not an important export timber in Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. It is
probably mostly used locally, but small amounts may be exported mixed with other
heavy hardwoods such as balau (from Shorea spp.). However, Hopea timber (both
heavy and light) is one of the more important export timbers in Papua New Guinea; it is
ranked in the MEP (Minimum Export Price) group 3 and fetched a minimum export price
of US$ 50/m3 for saw logs in 1992.

Properties
Giam is a heavy hardwood. The yellowish-white sapwood is generally distinct from the
yellowish-brown heartwood, sometimes with a greenish tinge, darkening to dark brown
on exposure. The density is 875-1220 kg/m3 at 15% moisture content. Planed surfaces
are usually not particularly lustrous; a stripe figure may be present. The grain of the
wood is interlocked, texture fine and even.
When green, the modulus of rupture is 103-124 N/mm2, modulus of elasticity 14 600-22
000 N/mm2, compression parallel to grain 42-70 N/mm2, compression perpendicular to
grain 10-17 N/mm2, shear 13-14 N/mm2, cleavage 58-98 N/mm radial and 75-116 N/mm
tangential, Janka side hardness 8700-9750 N and Janka end hardness 8100-8410 N.
The rates of shrinkage are moderate to fairly high, from green to 15% moisture content
1.4-2.0% radial and 2.6-4.4% tangential. Giam timber air dries slowly, often with slight
end and surface checks and splits. Boards of 15 mm thick take about 6 months to air
dry. Kiln-drying characteristics have not been assessed but in Malaysia kiln schedule B
is recommended.
Giam is easy to difficult to resaw and cross cut. The sawteeth may become clogged with
resinous sawdust. Planing is easy, giving a smooth finish. Boring is easy to slightly
difficult but the finish is always smooth. Turning is difficult and the quality of finish
ranges from smooth to rough. The resistance to splitting when nailed is rated as very
poor.
Giam is very durable, even under exposed conditions. Test stakes in Malaysia showed
an average service life in contact with the ground of over 10 years. The wood is
resistant to pinhole borer and powder-post beetle attack, and probably also to marine
borer attack. The heartwood of giam is very resistant to preservative treatment, but it
has great natural durability. The sapwood absorbs preservatives fairly well, and the life
of the sapwood in poles can be prolonged by preservative treatment.

Description
 Small to fairly large trees of up to 48 m tall; bole usually tapering, frequently
branching low with a diameter of up to 160 cm, exuding a pale clear dammar;
buttresses usually thin, sometimes thick, bole sometimes stilt-rooted or with flying
buttresses; bark surface usually flaky when mature, chocolate and grey mottled,
hoop-marked, inner bark pink or greenish-yellow, close textured; crown of the
smaller trees lanceolate, monopodial with slender, more or less horizontal and
pendant branches, in large trees becoming hemispherical with many small straight
branches radiating from the bole apex.
 Leaves alternate, simple, small or medium-sized, sometimes large and narrowly
oblong, usually with domatia on the lower surface, usually with scalariform tertiary
venation, but venation sometimes "dryobalanoid", i.e. secondary veins numerous
and of varying length, more or less indistinct and with indistinct tertiary venation;
petioles never geniculate; stipules linear, fugacious (subpersistent in saplings).
 Inflorescence paniculate, rarely fascicled, irregularly branched, terminal or axillary,
many-flowered, slender, generally tomentose.
 Flower buds small, ovoid or rarely globose; flowers secund or distichous, bisexual,
actinomorphic, 5-merous, pale, scented; sepals imbricate, 2 outer ones ovate, more
or less obtuse, thickened, 3 inner ones suborbicular, frequently mucronate, thin at
margins; petals oblong, connate at base and shed as a rosette, often persistently
pubescent on the parts exposed in bud; stamens 10 or 15, in 1-3 verticils or
irregular, filaments broad and compressed at base, tapering medially and filiform
apically, anthers subglobose, with 4 pollen sacs, the outer pair somewhat larger,
appendage to connective slender, usually at least twice as long as the anther,
glabrous or minutely glandular tuberculate; ovary ovoid, glabrous or tomentose, a
distinct stylopodium sometimes present and then pear-shaped to cylindrical, style
long or short, glabrous, with a minute stigma (except H. ferrea).
 Fruit comparatively small, 2 outer fruit calyx lobes prolonged, spatulate, 3 inner
ones short, sometimes all 5 lobes short and subequal, lobes thickened and saccate
 at base; nut ovoid, usually glabrous, with a distinct apical stylopodium if present in
the flower; pericarp splitting irregularly at germination (rarely into 3 valves).
 Seedling with epigeal germination; cotyledons subequal; first pair of leaves
opposite, followed by spiral leaves or an initial whorl of 3.

Wood anatomy
Macroscopic characters

 Heartwood yellowish-brown, often with a green tinge, turning dark yellowish-brown

or red-brown upon exposure, usually distinctly demarcated from the yellowish-white
sapwood.
 Grain shallowly to strongly interlocked.
 Texture fairly fine to fine; concentric lines composed of white dots and lighter
coloured parenchyma distinct to indistinct.
 Growth rings usually not distinct.
Microscopic characters

 Growth rings indistinct.

 Vessels diffuse, usually 10-20/mm2, mostly solitary, with a small number of radial
multiples of 2(-3), less than 150μm in tangential diameter; perforations simple;
intervessel pits alternate, vestured, round, usually 5-8μm; vessel-ray and vessel-
parenchyma pits round to oval, simple to half-bordered; tyloses often abundant.
 Fibres 1.2-2.2 mm long, 18-25μm in diameter, non-septate, usually thick-walled,
with infrequent, small simple pits confined to the radial walls.
 Parenchyma vasicentric, aliform, short confluent and in tangential bands
surrounding the intercellular canals.
 Rays 8-11/mm, 1-5-seriate, mostly 1000-2000μm high, usually heterocellular,
mostly with 1 and/or 2-4 rows of upright and/or square marginal cells (Kribs type
heterogeneous III and II).
 Prismatic crystals sporadic or absent in axial parenchyma, usually found in ray
parenchyma cells.
 Axial intercellular canals of the concentric type, with whitish contents, surrounded by
tangential parenchyma bands.
Species studied: H. nutans, H. semicuneata.
Giam differs from balau (heavy Shorea timber), particularly in having more numerous
vessels, narrower rays and a finer texture. Macroscopic identification is often difficult,
and giam and balau are often not separated in trade.

Growth and development

Seedlings need ectomycorrhizal infection for optimal growth. Most species regenerate
prolifically under natural conditions and are shade-tolerant. Plagiotropic branching
of Hopeasaplings is mainly at the apex of the leader shoot at the initiation of each
growth period; hence, the sapling has a pagoda-like appearance.
Giam trees usually grow slower than merawan ( Hopea species with lighter wood)
trees. H. andersonii is reported to reach a maximum diameter of 39 cm at an age of 40
years, H. nutans of 35 cm. However, for 40-year-old planted trees of H. helferi an
astonishingly large maximum diameter of 82 cm has been reported in Malaysia.
The flowering periodicity of the various giam species is not known. Thrips are pollinators
of many Hopea species. The interval between anthesis and mature fruits is about 3
months. The abundance of seedlings below trees indicates that most fruits fall directly
beneath the mother tree.

Other botanical information

The genus Hopea belongs to the tribe Shoreae and is very closely related to Shorea.
The distinction is made by a single character: in Hopea the two outer sepals are slightly
or markedly thicker than the three inner ones, and only they develop into wings in fruit.
In Shorea the three outer sepals are thicker and larger than the two inner ones, and
normally develop into fruit wings (or lobes). In both genera species with only short and
subequal fruit sepals occur and these are assigned to one of the two by comparison of
other floral characters. All but a few Shorea species are emergent trees, whereas all but
a few Hopea species are main canopy or understory trees.
The groups distinguished commercially, the giam timbers and the more variable
merawan timbers, correspond to some degree to the botanical subdivision of the
genus Hopea.Most giam timbers (except H. coriacea and H. malibato) belong to
section Hopea, most merawan timbers to section Dryobalanoides (Miq.) Burck.
Section Hopea is characterized by its scalariform leaf venation, smooth or evenly flaky
bark, bole usually without stilt roots and wood with markedly heterogeneous rays and
usually without chambered parenchyma strands.
Some Hopea species (H. depressinerva and H. glabrifolia) cannot be assigned to either
of the two commercial groups. Since they belong to section Hopea, it seems justifiable
to deal with these species under giam.

Ecology
Giam is found in lowland and hill forest from sea-level up to 1000 m altitude. It occurs as
a main canopy or understorey, rarely as an emergent tree in evergreen or seasonal,
semi-evergreen forest. The semi-evergreen forest accommodates the majority of the
species, often narrow endemics. The different species occur in a wide variety of forest
types ranging from mixed dipterocarp forest to heath forest and mixed peat-swamp
forest and, consequently, on a wide variety of soil types, including limestone. Some
species occur markedly gregariously with comparatively large gaps between the groups.

Propagation and planting

The viability of seeds under natural conditions is short. Seeds of H. helferi show a
germination rate of over 90% at temperatures between 5°C and 35°C; the germination
rate drops sharply above 40°C. The weight of 1000 seeds of H. helferi is about 125 g.
When H. helferi seeds are dried at 35°C to 25% moisture content, they can be kept
viable in sealed polyethylene bags for 2 months at 15°C. Seeds of H. ferrea can also be
stored, but survival at 4°C does not exceed 3 months. H. plagata can be vegetatively
propagated by air layering; in tests 15% of the branches developed roots.

Yield
Yields are generally low. The trees often occur scattered in the forest, and very locally
there may be 10-13 trees of over 40 cm diameter per ha.
 Genetic resources
Hopea is a large genus, and some of the species are common and widespread, but
others are scattered or rare. Large-scale logging without identification of species, as
commonly practised, could easily endanger the less common species.

Prospects
Few timbers are as strong and durable as giam. The establishment of plantations is
desirable, but more research is needed on propagation techniques and silvicultural
aspects, since information about giam is scarce. The growth rates, gathered from the
few data available, seem to be acceptable for such a heavy timber. H. helferi has been
recommended for planting in Peninsular Malaysia.

Heritiera (PROSEA)
Heritiera Aiton
Protologue: Hort. kew. 3: 546 (1789).
Family: Sterculiaceae
Chromosome number: x= unknown; H. littoralis: 2n= 20, 28, 38

Trade groups
 Mengkulang: medium-heavy hardwood, e.g. Heritiera javanica (Blume) Kosterm., H.
simplicifolia (Masters) Kosterm.

 Dungun: heavy hardwood, e.g. H. littoralis Aiton, H. sylvatica S. Vidal.

Vernacular names
Mengkulang:

 teralin (Fr).
 Brunei: kembang
 Indonesia: palapi, teraling
 Malaysia: kembang (Peninsular, Sabah)
 Philippines: lumbayau
 Burma: kanazo
 Laos: hao
 Thailand: chumpraek (Trat).
Dungun

 Indonesia: dungon
 Philippines: dungon, dungon late
 Burma: kanazo, pinle-kanazo
 Thailand: ngonkai-thale (central, Surat Thani), duhun (Trang)
 Vietnam: cây cui.
Origin and geographic distribution
Heritiera consists of about 35 species and is distributed over a large area comprising
tropical Africa (2 species), southern Asia from India to New Guinea (the majority of the
species), Micronesia (1 species), and tropical Australia (3 species). About 20 species
occur in Malesia. H. littoralis is the most widespread species, covering almost the entire
area of the genus.

Uses
Mengkulang is a very good general-purpose timber. It is not very durable, but is suitable
for interior construction, flooring, furniture, ship masts and other ship constructions
above the waterline. For the export market mengkulang is recommended for joinery,
flooring and other purposes, as an alternative to red meranti (from Shorea spp.),
niangon (from the African Heritiera utilis (Sprague) Sprague) and African mahogany
(from the genus Khaya). Mengkulang is suitable for flooring subject to medium or light
traffic, and also for purlins, ceiling joists, window frames, and even foundation piling (but
must then be treated with preservative). It is particularly suited for staircase
construction. It makes high quality veneer for core and outer layers of plywood. The
wood can be used to make strong and stable particle board.
Dungun wood is of good quality, but it is not used so commonly because of the often
twisted and stunted form and low branching of the bole; moreover, the timber is difficult
to work. It is particularly used for rice pounders and other domestic articles, but
sometimes also for piling, bridges and ship building. In the Philippines it is
recommended for steamed bentwork and when strength and durability are required.
Dungun was formerly valued for bulletproof shields because of its toughness.
H. littoralis has several other uses, particularly for tanning and in traditional medicine.
The wood is said to be suitable for making paper.

Production and international trade

Mengkulang timber is locally commercially important, particularly in Malaysia. The
export of sawn mengkulang timber from Peninsular Malaysia decreased from 1981 (44
000 m3with a value of US$ 7 million) to 1984 (17 600 m3 with a value of US$ 2.9 million).
From then on there was an increase to 1989 and 1990 (with an export volume of 39 700
m3and value of US$ 11.5 million, and 31 500 m3 and value of US$ 9.9 million,
respectively). In 1992 the export was 23 000 m3 with a value of US$ 7.5 million.
Mengkulang is also exported from Sarawak and Sabah, particularly to Japan. The
export of round logs from Sabah was 15 000 m3 (worth US$ 1.3 million) in 1987, and the
1992 export was 6000 m3of logs and 9000 m3 of sawn timber with a total value of US$
3.5 million.
In other countries mengkulang is not generally available in commercially important
quantities for shipment as a separate timber. It is often traded in combination with dark
red lauan from the Philippines and dark red meranti from Indonesia (both
from Shorea spp.). Mengkulang is much exported from the Riau Archipelago to
Singapore. In Papua New Guinea, the timber is ranked in MEP (Minimum Export Price)
group 4, and fetched a minumum export price for saw logs of US$ 43/m3 in 1992.
Dungun is of less commercial value and only locally important, e.g. in the Philippines.
Properties
Mengkulang is a medium-weight and moderately hard wood. The heartwood is reddish-
brown to dark brown, occasionally pinkish-brown, the sapwood pale yellow-brown to
reddish. The density is (520-)640-820(-990) kg/m3 at 15% moisture content. The grain is
straight to shallowly interlocked, texture coarse and fairly even.
At 15% moisture content, the modulus of rupture is 70-100 N/mm2, modulus of elasticity
(7500-)11 000-16 000 N/mm2, compression parallel to grain 50-60(-72) N/mm2,
compression perpendicular to grain 4-6 N/mm2, shear 7-12(-16) N/mm2, cleavage 52
N/mm radial and 48 N/mm tangential, Janka side hardness 4000-4500(-5900) N and
Janka end hardness 6430 N.
The rates of shrinkage of mengkulang are moderate to fairly high: from green to 15%
moisture content 1.3-1.7% radial, and 3.0-3.8% tangential, from green to 12% moisture
content up to 3% radial and 7% tangential. Mengkulang seasons rapidly, but it has a
slight tendency to warp and to exhibit surface checking. Straining is recommended to
reduce warping. It takes about 3 months to dry 4 cm thick boards to air-dry condition.
Mild kiln schedules are required in drying. A temperature of 57-77°C and a
corresponding relative humidity of 80% to 40% are recommended. In Malaysia kiln
schedule D is considered suitable. Form stability is good when dry.
Mengkulang is somewhat difficult to work due to the high silica content, which is
generally less than 0.5%. Blunting effects on tools are severe to moderately severe
when sawing the timber. It is easy to polish. Care is needed when planing quarter-sawn
timber in order to avoid the grain picking up, but a 20° cutting angle will produce a
smooth finish. Mengkulang is moderately easy to turn and chisel. The nail-holding
capacity is fairly good, but pre-boring is advised. Gluing gives no problems. Finishing
with the usual treatments gives good results when the grain is properly filled. The wood
is suitable for plywood. It can be peeled satisfactorily. Good veneer can be made at a
peeling angle of 92° without pretreatment. The fibre is used in hardboard and
superhardboard with good results.
Mengkulang is rated as non-durable; stake tests show an average service life in contact
with the ground of only 2-2.5 years under tropical conditions, and 5-10 years under
temperate conditions. It is rated as durable for interior work in the tropics and under dry
conditions. It is prone to termite and marine borer attack, but is not particularly
susceptible to powder-post beetle attack. The resistance to wood-rotting fungi varies
greatly, even within one species. Mengkulang is moderately easy to treat with
preservatives. Applying an open tank treatment using a creosote-diesel mixture, an
average absorption of 112 kg/m3 was obtained in Malaysia.
Wood of H. javanica contains 50% cellulose, 17% lignin, 12.5% pentosan, 0.8% ash and
0.4% silica. The solubility is 4.6% in alcohol-benzene, 0.8% in cold water, 3.3% in hot
water and 14.6% in a 1% NaOH solution. The energy value is about 18 800 kJ/kg.
Dungun is a heavier wood, with a density of 830-1040 kg/m3at 15% moisture content. It
is hard and strong; at 12% moisture content the modulus of rupture is 132 N/mm 2,
modulus of elasticity 18 000 N/mm2, compression parallel to grain 72 N/mm2, shear 14
N/mm2, cleavage 62 N/mm radial and Janka side hardness 7600 N.
Dungun is a timber with high shrinkage: from green to 15% moisture content about 2%
radial, and about 4.5% tangential. It is more difficult to season than mengkulang, and
subject to considerable end splitting and surface checking. Dungun contains rather large
amounts of silica which rapidly blunt edged tools. It turns fairly well and takes a good
finish.
Dungun is moderately durable when exposed to the weather or in contact with the
ground; a life of 3 years in contact with the ground under tropical conditions is probably
as much as can be expected. The wood is not susceptible to powder-post beetles, and
is reported to be resistant to marine borers, but not always to termites. Dungun is
probably difficult to impregnate with preservative because gum-like deposits are
present.
The bark of H. littoralis contains 12-15% tannin on dry weight basis. The ichthyotoxic
activity of the roots of H. littoralis is due to the presence of heritol, heritianin and
heritonin. These compounds have potential as natural pesticides as well.

Description
 Medium-sized to large monoecious trees, up to 50 m tall, with usually tall and
straight bole (but often stunted and low-branched in H. littoralis), branchless up to
20 m, and up to 100(-135) cm in diameter; trunk with well-developed, but usually
thin, buttresses; bark greyish to reddish-brown outside, shallowly fissured and scaly
or spotted, inner bark generally pink to red, laminated; twigs usually slender and
terete, usually with prominently raised leaf scars, often with clustered or stellate
hairs, and scaly.
 Leaves alternate, principally compound with palmately arranged leaflets, but also
unifoliolate, and then seemingly simple; petiole swollen at both ends; leaflets entire,
usually finely scaly beneath.
 Inflorescence axillary, paniculate, pubescent at the base, scaly or stellate-hairy
towards tip.
 Flowers unisexual, very small, with 4-5(-6)-lobed calyx and lacking corolla; male
flowers much more numerous than female ones, having an androgynophore bearing
8-10 sessile anthers and with or without minute sterile ovaries; female flowers
slightly larger than male ones, having 4-5(-6) sessile small ovaries with short styles,
alternating with small groups of sterile anthers.
 Fruit an ellipsoid to globose (often oblique) nut with woody wall, provided with a
ridge often apically enlarging into a wing (i.e. a samara).
 Seed with a fairly thin testa, lacking albumen.
 Seedling (of H. littoralis) with hypogeal germination; first 2 leaves opposite or
subopposite, often scale-shaped, subsequent leaves arranged spirally.

Wood anatomy
Macroscopic characters
Mengkulang:

 Heartwood brown to various shades of red-brown, sometimes with dark streaks,

distinctly or indistinctly demarcated from the lighter sapwood (pale brown-yellow to
reddish). Grain straight to shallowly interlocked.
 Texture moderately coarse to coarse; fiddleback and ray figure present; wood more
or less lustrous.
 Growth rings usually indistinct; vessels visible to the naked eye, and sometimes with
reddish, yellow or white contents; parenchyma and rays usually not distinct without
a lens (except larger rays in some species); faint to distinct ripple marks usually
present.
Dungun differs especially in the darker colour of the heartwood (dark brown, usually with
a chocolate or even purple tinge), the often strongly interlocked grain, and the finer
texture without ray figure.
Microscopic characters
Mengkulang and dungun:

 Growth rings, if present, marked by marginal parenchyma bands and/or slight

differences of vessel frequency, spacing of tangential parenchyma lines, and/or fibre
wall thickness on either side of the ring boundary.
 Vessels diffuse, 2-8(-25)/mm2, solitary and in radial multiples of 2-5(-8), sometimes
with narrow vessels in long radial tails or more rarely in clusters, round to oval,
average tangential diameter 120-260μm; perforations simple; intervessel pits
alternate, round to polygonal, 4-6(-8)μm; vessel-ray and vessel-parenchyma pits
similar but half-bordered; helical thickenings absent, but vessel walls sometimes
with fine spiral grooves intergrading with coalescent apertures; dark-staining gum-
like deposits present in heartwood; tyloses absent.
 Fibres (800-)850-1500(-2100)μm long, non-septate, mostly medium thick-walled,
but ranging from very thin-walled to thick-walled, variable within and between
species (see also large wood density ranges), with simple to minutely bordered pits
mainly confined to the radial walls.
 Parenchyma scarce, vasicentric (rarely tending to aliform), diffuse-in-aggregates or
in fine discontinuous lines, and occasionally in marginal bands, in 2-4(-5)-celled
strands. Rays 4-8/mm, of 2 distinct sizes, 1(-2)-seriate and 3-5(-9)-seriate, broad
rays up to 2 mm high in some species, but tallest rays less than 1 mm in several
others, heterocellular with one row of upright marginal cells to homocellular (mostly
Kribs type heterogeneous III); sheath cells usually present.
 Prismatic crystals often present in chambered axial parenchyma cells, less
frequently also in non-chambered axial parenchyma and upright or procumbent ray
cells; ray and parenchyma cells often with reddish-brown deposits.
 Silica inclusions recorded in axial and ray parenchyma.
 Traumatic gum ducts in concentric bands occasionally present.
 Axial parenchyma strands, vessel elements and part of the rays weakly to distinctly
storied, or all elements non-storied.
Species studied: H. aurea, H. borneensis, H. elata, H. javanica, H. littoralis, H.
novoguineensis, H. simplicifolia, H. sumatrana, H. sylvatica.

Growth and development

The fruits are either dispersed by water (mangrove species) or by wind (inland forest
species). The fruit of H. littoralis floats in water with the ridge upwards, and is
impermeable to water. When washed up on a beach, the base of the fruit weakens,
allowing moisture to penetrate. The thick, hard radicle opens the hard fruit wall and the
primary root penetrates deeply into the soil. Fruits of other Heritiera species with large
wings (e.g. H. javanica, H. simplicifolia) are wind-dispersed.
In H. littoralis the growth of the branches is rhythmic and the shoots are distinctly
articulate. H. simplicifolia flowers at the beginning of the rainy season, but not every
year. H. littoralis usually flowers at intervals throughout the year.
Other botanical information
Kostermans has united the
genera Argyrodendron and Tarrietia with Heritiera. According to several
botanists, Heritiera in the sense of Kostermans is too heterogeneous in several aspects,
and in their view Tarrietia s.s., including Argyrodendron, is distinct from Heritiera s.s.
Identifying and collecting Heritiera species often gives much trouble. Leaves may vary
enormously within species; in trees up to 20 m tall they are often still completely
different from those of mature trees. For instance, in young trees of H. simplicifolia the
leaves may be palmately compound, whereas in old trees they are always simple. Many
species are rare to very rare, plants are not easy to collect because of their habit (large
trees with hard wood), they have very small flowers, and fruiting is often scanty.
The wood of Heritiera utilis (Sprague) Sprague and H. densiflora (Pellegr.) Kosterm. is
exported from Africa. H. fomes Buch.-Ham. is extensively cut in India and Burma for its
timber.

Ecology
H. littoralis grows in mangrove swamps on rocky and sandy coasts, often in drier sites
and in the transition zone from mangrove to freshwater swamp. It is typically a tree of
the banks of tidal rivers. Sometimes H. littoralis may make up 40% of the total stand,
e.g. in Sarawak. It is often accompanied by Bruguiera parviflora (Roxb.) Wight & Arn. ex
Griffith, Xylocarpus granatum Koenig, and Excoecaria agallocha L. Like H. littoralis, H.
globosa grows behind the tidal zone of the mangrove belt, whereas some other species,
e.g. H. novoguineensis, apparently prefer sites inundated by fresh water. Other species
are found in inland forests, usually scattered and at low and medium altitudes (up to 600
m) in mixed dipterocarp forest. The different wood types may partially be determined by
ecological conditions: mengkulang comes from inland forest species, dungun generally
from mangrove swamp species.

Propagation and planting

H. javanica and H. simplicifolia can be propagated by sowing seeds in a nursery or by
stump cuttings. Seedlings are transplanted into the field when 30-50 cm high. Spacing is
3 m × 4 m. The survival rate of planted stump cuttings is about 60%.

Silviculture and management

Natural regeneration techniques as used in regular management of mixed dipterocarp
forest may be successful, but pure stands are probably not a good management target.
Moreover, natural regeneration is usually scanty, especially in the inland forest species.
In Africa H. utilis is artificially regenerated by strip planting.

Diseases and pests

Moth larvae and beetles of the families Curculionidae and Scolytidae may damage
seeds of H. littoralis. High percentages of H. littoralis seeds may show evidence of
borers. Research in Australia showed that very few seeds contain an intact embryo.
There may be a significant amount of pre-dispersal predation by insects on developing
seeds of H. littoralis. Moreover, crabs may damage seedlings.
Harvesting
An occasional defect of the log is said to be its brittle heart, up to a core of 15 cm.

Genetic resources
Many Heritiera species are apparently rare, and the more common species usually
occur scattered in the forest, e.g. H. simplicifolia less than 1 tree/ha. As this makes
these species liable to genetic erosion and possible extinction, steps should be taken to
conserve and grow them.

Prospects
Mengkulang is a valuable timber, but the scattered appearance of the species in natural
forests hampers its commercialization and endangers its survival if cut without
management precautions. Research on silvicultural aspects, in particular growth rates
and methods of vegetative propagation, is urgently needed.
Dungun is less valuable, but it is used extensively locally. In many places its habitat, i.e.
mangrove forest, is threatened by uncontrolled exploitation, and needs integral
protection.