STEM

General
Physics II
QUARTER 4
LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEET

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 General
Physics II
QUARTER 4
Development Team of the Module

Authors: Marc Vener C. Del Carmen

Ian Benedict L. Lavapie
Enos C. Tantiangco
Winbert James Teves
Adelma S. Topacio

Reviewer: Adelma S. Topacio

Management Team:
Gemma G. Cortez, Ed.D., CID - Chief

Leylanie V. Adao, EPS - LR

Antonio P. Faustino Jr., EPS - Science

SDO Dasmariñas City
Schools Division Superintendent: Celedonio B. Balderas, Jr.
Asst. Schools Division Superintendent: Bernadette T. Luna

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 Week 1
What I need to know?

MODULE 1: Electromagnetic Induction

The first module for the last quarter of the school year is very much connected to the
previous topics we’ve covered so I hope you haven’t forgotten what you learned from
Quarter 3 because you will surely use them for this module.
Here are the most essential learning competencies that you will be able to manifest
after going through the entire learning experience provided in this lesson:
1. Identify the factors that affect the magnitude of the induced emf and the
magnitude and direction of the induced current (Faraday’s Law)
2. Compare and contrast electrostatic electric field and non-electrostatic/induced
electric field
3. Calculate the induced emf in a closed loop due to time-varying magnetic flux
using Faraday’s Law
4. Describe the direction of the induced electric field, magnetic field, and current on
a conducting/nonconducting loop using Lenz’s Law
5. Compare and contrast alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC)
6. Characterize the properties (stored energy and time-dependence of charges,
currents, and voltages) of an LC circuit.

What is new?
From Module 6 of Quarter 2, you learned that it was Oersted who discovered that an
electric field is able to produce a magnetic field. He noticed that the needle of a compass
would deflect whenever a current flow on a nearby wire. Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry
discovered the phenomenon that is now called electromagnetic induction. Before we dive
further into the topic, let’s refresh for a little bit.

Learning Task 1: Recall Time

True or False. Write true if the statement is correct. If the statement is wrong, write false
and correct discuss why it is wrong.
1. There are FIVE (5) different magnetic types.
2. For a current-carrying wire, the magnetic field produced is parallel to the wire.
3. When using the right-hand rule, the thumb is pointing towards the direction of the
charge.
4. The right-hand rule is applicable to all charges.
5. The curve inside a magnet is completed from North to South.

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 What is it?

Faraday’s Law
It was 1831 when Michael Faraday experimented with coils and found out that when
a magnet is moved within the vicinity of a coil, an emf (electromotive force) will be induced in
the coil. The name electromotive force however, can be misleading because emf is not a
force but a potential difference. What happens is that as the magnetic field suddenly
changes around the coil, it induces an emf causing the needle of the galvanometer
(ammeter) to deflect. The same effect happens when the coil is moved and the magnet is
stationary. The sudden change in magnetic field strength is due to the increase or decrease
of magnetic flux within the vicinity of the coil. The number of magnetic field lines of force in
an area of loop is called magnetic flux. Magnetic flux is described as,

where phi is magnetic flux, B is magnetic field strength in tesla, and A is the cross-sectional
area of the loop in m2, and theta is the angle between B, and a direction perpendicular to the
plane of the loop (red line). From the figure, if the angle between the field lines (green) and
the imaginary line piercing the plane of the cross-sectional area of the loop (red line) is zero,
the magnetic flux is at maximum)

Figure 1. Magnetic flux is at maximum when the magnetic field B is cutting the cross-sectional face of
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the loop in 90 degrees, or when they are perpendicular with one another.

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 Figure 2. The movement of the magnet (a-d) shows that an emf is induced in the coil.
Electromagnetic induction happens only when there is relative movement between the
coil or the magnet and a current will not be induced (e) when no movement happens.
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The greater the speed, the greater the induced emf will be.

He made another experiment that showed that when current flows in a coil through a
switch, it will induce a short-lived current on a nearby coil. But no current will be recorded
when the first circuit remained connected. Once the switch is turned off, a current will then
again be induced but of the opposite direction from before.

Figure 3. (a) When the switch is closed, a current will flow on the first circuit and will induce a surge of
current on the second circuit as observed from the ammeter. (b) When the switch remained open, no
current was induced (ammeter needle did not move). (c) When the switch is opened and the current
cut-off from the circuit, a surge of current is induced on the second circuit but of the opposite direction
iii
as shown in the ammeter.

From his experiments, he was able to deduce that the emf being observed is due to
the changing magnetic field around the circuit, and that when a conductor cuts a magnetic
field, an emf is induced. From his first experiment, he was able to observe the effect of the
magnet by moving it, changing its poles, and varying the movement speed of the motion.
From the experiment two, he was able to further prove that the changing magnetic field of

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the current carrying wire is what’s inducing emf on the second circuit and not any other
factor. He eventually was able to interpret all his observations and relate magnetic fields that
vary with time in terms of the law named after him; the Faraday’s Law.
From his experiments, Faraday’s Law makes use only of a couple of factors. First,
emf is directly proportional to the change in flux. Second, emf is greatest when the change in
flux happened only in a short period of time; thus, the magnitude of the emf induced is
inversely proportional to change in time. Lastly, if the coil has N number of turns, the
magnitude will be increased by N times. In equation,

where epsilon ( ) is the emf in volts, N is the number of loops of the coil, phi ( is
magnetic flux in weber, t is time in seconds, B is magnetic field strength in tesla. (1 Tesla =
1Wb/m^2), l is length in meters, and v is velocity in m/s. The negative sign is a result of the
Lenz’s Law. The direction of the induced emf is always opposite the magnetic field it
produces.

Example 1: A 500 mm long straight wire is Solution:

moved with a speed of 2.5 m/s through a
0.500 T magnetic field. What emf is induced
in the

Example 2: A metal rod is 50 m long and is Solution:

moving parallel to a magnetic field with a
speed of 5 m/s. If the field intensity is 1.2 T,
find the potential difference between the
ends of the rod.

Example 3: The magnetic flux in a coil with

10 turns changes from 45 Wb to 15 Wb
every 0.35 s. What is the average emf in the
loop?

Example 4: A circular loop with a radius of

40 cm is perpendicular to a magnetic field
whose intensity decreases by 0.2 T in 1 ms.
What is the average emf produced in the
loop?

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Lenz’s Law
Lenz’s Law states that the direction of the induced emf drives current around a wire
loop to always oppose the change in magnetic flux that causes the emf. This is how it obeys
the Law of Conservation of Energy. From Faraday’s magnet and coil experiment, we know
that an emf and current is induced in the coil whenever a magnet is moved near its vicinity.
The current induced will then create another magnetic field and if the magnetic field of the
magnet and the induced current is parallel with one another, they will add up and increase
the total magnetic flux of the system. The increase in magnetic flux increases the magnetic
field strength and will further increase the induced current. The increased current on the coil
will add more to the magnetic field around it, and the cycle of increase will continue. The
endless positive feedback loop breaks the law of conservation of energy because we
basically created an endless energy source.
If you still remember Newton’s third law of motion, the Law of Interaction, the same
law can be related in this scenario as well. ―For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction‖. If the induced current creates a magnetic field that is equal but opposite to the
magnetic field that created it, then only it can resist the magnetic field in the area.

Figure 3. The figure shows what happens when a current is induced in a coil using an external
magnetic field source. (1-4) When a magnetic field is introduced to the coil, the current induced on the
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coil will create a magnetic field that opposes its creator.

The direction of the induced emf can be

determined using Fleming’s right-hand rule. Just like
the hand rule that we used from last quarter’s topic, this
hand rule will make use of the thumb, fore finger, and
middle finger of the right hand. The thumb is pointing
towards the movement of the conductor in the magnetic
field. The fore finger is pointing in the direction of the
magnetic field. The middle finger will point in the
direction of the induced emf or the flow of current.
What we’ve been tackling in this module is what
we call non-electrostatic electric fields. As the
v
name suggests, it is an electric field that is not made Figure 4. Fleming’s right-hand rule.
of any form static electric charge. A non-electrostatic

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 electric field is based on electromagnetic induction, or it is induced. An electric field that is
formed from a static electric charge is what we call an electrostatic electric field. The
striking difference between the two kinds of fields is that we cannot associate electric
potential with points in such an electric field and that the work done by the electric force in
such a field is not zero over a closed loop.

Learning Task 2: Solve it!

1. A 25.0 m metal rod moves at a speed of 5 m/s perpendicular to a magnetic field of
intensity 1.4 T. Find the resulting potential difference at the ends of the rods.

2. A square loop with 5 cm sides is perpendicular to a uniform field 150 mT in intensity.

If a third of this flux remains every 0.010 s, what is the average emf induced?

Electric Generator, AC and DC

An electrical generator is a device used to create a
current. Technically it is not ―creating‖ current, but instead
converting mechanical work into electrical energy. They do it
through electromagnetic induction. Faraday was the first to
make a working electromagnetic generator called the ―Faraday
disk‖ that started it all. It uses a copper disk that rotates
between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. However, it
produces only a small amount of current, and very inefficient to

be of much use. It was only later then that scientist will

realize that winding a coil will create greater emf and will be Figure 5. Faraday disk, the first
electromagnetic generator
much more efficient.
We basically have two types of currents, we have AC or alternating current and DC
or direct current. The alternating current, as the name suggests, characterizes a current
that goes from positive maximum to a negative maximum in a span of time. The current
alternates as it flows, thus creating a positive and negative maximum. Here’s how AC is
created using one loop of conductor:

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 Figure 6. The figures (positions 1-5) show the movement of the ring in a magnetic field as it cuts
the field lines and how it induces emf on the right. A complete cycle is represented by a sine wave,
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as shown.

At position 5, the loop will have completed a whole rotation and return back to its
initial position where no emf is induced in the loop. When the magnitudes of the recorded
induced emf is recorded in a plane, a sine wave will be illustrated. This further proves that
alternating current will in fact a positive and negative maximum. AC is widely commercialized
now. It is the type of current that powers our televisions, computers, washing machines, and
any other appliance that need a socket. In the Philippines, the standard is 220 V, 60 Hz for
all sockets, just like most European, Asian, and African countries. So, before plugging that
appliance you received from your parents or relatives abroad, make sure that it is designed
to receive 220 V and 60 Hz of electricity.
On the other hand, we have
direct current which only has one
maximum value, either negative
maximum or positive maximum. Direct
current is created the same way
alternating current is made. It uses the
same principle and the same parts, with
one additional part, the split rings. The
split rings are used so that for every
half rotation, the contact with the brush
changes, allowing only one direction of
current flow. In today’s application, DC
is mostly used for small scale purposes; Figure 7. How DC is made is the same way AC is
from digital watches, tv remotes, cars, and made, with the split ring as an additional part.
vii

even our electronic devices like

cellphones and laptops.

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 viii
Figure 8. Comparing an AC generator with a DC generator.

For a short history backtrack, AC is created years after DC was invented and
commercialized. It was Thomas Edison who invented the first practical lightbulb in the late
1870s. He was the pioneer in the commercialization of DC in the United States of America.
Arc lightings for streets, homes, and factories make use of the power provided by DC.
However, DC is not easily converted from lower to higher voltages or vice versa. Another
problem with DC is that it can only travel for a specific distance. But since only DC is
available during that time, the people have no other option. It was December 1880 when a
large-scale arc-lighting system was implemented across the United States including a 3.2
km installation in the length of Broadway, New York City, which used 3500 volts. This is a
very large amount of voltage and current. The problem with these systems was that it relies
heavily on maintenance because some parts need to be replaced regularly. Its safest
application is outdoors because it can easily cause fire or cause harm by electrocution. Its
implementation for house and factory use means that the voltage needs to be lowered down,
and the process of doing so was costly. Transmission loss also ate up a huge portion of the
current.
In the same decade, a Serbian engineer applied to work for Thomas Edison’s
transmission company. His name was Nikola Tesla. He helped with the development of
Edison’s DC generators, and at the same time tried to pitch in his own idea; an AC motor.
Tesla quit after 6 months of working for Edison. He received patents for his AC technology,
and by 1888, he was able to sell these patents to George Westinghouse, who owns a
transmission company that is the rival of Edison’s. AC proved to be useful, being able to be
transmitted to very long distances with very minimal loss. This means that it is much more
efficient than Edison’s DC. This posed a threat to Edison’s company and legacy. In an
attempt to try to discredit the reliability and safety of AC, Edison reasoned that it is more
dangerous because it uses higher voltages. As he wrote in 1886, ― Westinghouse will kill a
customer within six months after he puts in a system of any size.‖ By 1887, in another
attempt to deter the people from liking AC systems, Edison proposed to try and use AC as a
form of capital-punishment for the city. Come 6th of August 1890, William Kemmler, who was
convicted for murdering his common-law wife was sentenced to death using the electric
chair. He was zapped for 17-seconds with 1,300 volts of AC, but didn’t die. After visible
struggles from Kemmler, he was then again zapper, now with 2,000 volts. Four minutes
later, his body caught fire, after that he was then declared to be dead. This, however, was
not enough to keep Westinghouse from selling his works to the public. Tesla’s AC motor was

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also sold to Westinghouse, and ultimately, he was hired by Westinghouse to work for him.
By 1893, Westinghouse won the bid to light up the Chicago World’s Fair, roving that AC is
more superior than DC in terms of capabilities and efficiency.

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Figure 9. 1893 Chicago World’s Fair

Alternating Current Direct Current

Distance Safe to transfer over longer city Greater voltage loss over long
distance distances
Frequency 50 Hz or 60 Hz depending on the Zero
country
Direction Reverses direction while flowing in Flows in one direction only
the circuit
Current Current of magnitude varying with Current of constant magnitude
time

Types Sinusoidal, trapezoidal, triangular, Pure and pulsating

square

Table 1. Brief comparison of AC and DC

Inductors and LC Circuit

You’ve learned about capacitors from Quarter 2 and how
they store energy in the electric fields that they create. The
energy stored in a capacitor is in the form of electrostatic
potential energy. As the capacitor is being charged, the electric
field builds up. When it is disconnected from the battery or
source, its energy remains in the field in the space between its
plates. Figure 10. A regular inductor
x

Another electronic component used to store energy is an inductor. Unlike a

capacitor, an inductor stores energy in a magnetic field. By coiling a wire instead of using a
straight one, a stronger magnetic field is created. Some are just plain coils with no support,
others wrap the wire around a solid core material of some type. The core takes many shapes

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too. Some are straight and barrel-like, others may take the shape of a square or a circle, and
a different configuration will result in a different variation of the inductor. As the electric
current produces a concentrated magnetic field around the coil, this field flux equates to a
storage of energy representing the kinetic motion of the electrons through the coil. The more
current in the coil, the stronger the magnetic field will be, and the more energy the inductor
will store. Because inductors store the kinetic energy of moving electrons in the form of a
magnetic field, they behave quite differently than resistors (which simply dissipate energy in
the form of heat) in a circuit. Energy storage in an inductor is a function of the amount of
current through it. An inductor’s ability to store energy as a function of current results in a
tendency to try to maintain current at a constant level. In other words, inductors tend to
resist changes in current. When current through an inductor is increased or decreased, the
inductor ―resists‖ the change by producing a voltage between its leads in opposing polarity to
the change. To store more energy in an inductor, the current through it must be increased.
This means that its magnetic field must increase in strength, and that change in field
strength produces the corresponding voltage according to the principle of electromagnetic
self-induction. Conversely, to release energy from an inductor, the current through it must be
decreased. This means that the inductor’s magnetic field must decrease in strength, and that
change in field strength self-induces a voltage drop of just the opposite polarity.
Now, when connected together, and inductor
and a capacitor is now called an LC circuit or tank
circuit. These circuits are used for producing signals
at a particular frequency or accepting a signal from a
more composite signal at a particular frequency. LC
circuits are basic electronics components in various
electronic devices, especially in radio equipment used
in circuits like tuners, filters, frequency mixers, and
oscillators. Technically, what it does is it shifts the
energy stored in the capacitor and store it in the Figure 11. An LC circuit consists of
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magnetic field of the inductor. This happens both ways, an inductor (L) and a capacitor (C)
that is way it is used as an oscillator. Consider the
figure below.

Figure 12. (a-d) The process of passing the energy from the electric field of the capacitor to the
xii
magnetic field of the inductor, and vice versa.

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 A good analogy of an LC circuit is a spring-mass system. A spring is a device that
stores energy. In a vibrating spring-mass system, the energy is shared between the elastic
potential energy of the spring and the kinetic energy of the vibrating mass. At any
intermediate point during a vibration, sone of the energy is kinetic and some is potential
elastic, but the total amount of energy remains constant. With an oscillating LC circuit, the
energy is shared between the amount stored in the electric field of the capacitor

( )

and the amount stored in the magnetic field of the inductor

To abide with the law of conservation of energy, it can be written as

( )

Example 1: An 8 H inductor has a current of Solution:

3A flowing through it. How much energy is
stored in the magnetic field of the inductor?

Example 2: A 30 mF capacitor is able to Solution:

store 155 J in its electric field. How many
coulombs of charges is stored between its ( )
plates.

( )

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 What is more?
Learning Task 3. Solve more!
1. The wing span of a metal airplane is 36 m. If the airplane is flying at 400 km/h,
determine the emf. induced between its wing tips. Assume the vertical component of
the Earth’s magnetic field is 40μT.
2. At what velocity must a conductor 75 mm long cut a magnetic field of flux density 0.6 T
if an emf of 9V is to be induced in it? Assume the conductor, the field, and the
direction of the motion are mutually perpendicular.
3. A flux of passing through a 150-turn coil is reversed in 40 ms. Find the
average emf induced.

Learning Task 4. Venn Diagram

Using a Venn Diagram, list down the differences and similarities of AC and DC.

What I have learned?

Congratulations! You’ve now finished Module 1 of Quarter 4. I hope you learned new
things from this module, and that you continue on learning even more in the next ones!
Self-reflection on Learning: Put a check on the appropriate column in order for you to
evaluate the extent of your learning. Be honest.

Concepts Very To a certain Not at

I can now Much extent (2) all (1)
(3)
1. compute for the emf induced using Faraday’s Law
2. differentiate between AC and DC
3. identify the direction of the induced emf using Lenz’s
Law
4. differentiate an electrostatic electric field from a non-
electrostatic electric field
5. compute for the stored energy in an LC system

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Use this as guide to interpret your total scores in the self-assessment:
Total Score Interpretation
You perceive that you now have advanced proficiency in
14-15
the learning competencies for this lesson.

12-13 You perceive that you are now proficient.

10 -11 You perceive that you are now approaching proficiency.

8 -9 You are still in the developing level of proficiency.

Below 8 You need to go over the lesson

Week 2
What I need to know?

MODULE 2: REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF LIGHT

The following Most Essential Learning Competencies are covered in this module:
1. Explain image formation as an application of reflection, refraction, and paraxial
approximation.
2. Relate properties of mirrors and lenses (radii of curvature, focal length, index of
refraction [for lenses]) to image and object distance and sizes
3. Determine graphically and mathematically the type (virtual/real), magnification,
location, and orientation of image of a point and extended object produced by a plane
or spherical mirror
4. Determine graphically and mathematically the type (virtual/real), magnification,
location/ apparent depth, and orientation of image of a point and extended object
produced by a lens or series of lenses
5. Apply the principles of geometric optics to discuss image formation by the eye, and
correction of common vision defects

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 What is new?
It’s Recall Time! Determine whether the given happening shows reflection or refraction of
light rays.
__________1. Light bending as it passes from one medium to another.
__________2. Light bouncing off a mirror
__________3. Separating white light using a prism
__________ 4. Light bounces off the smooth surface of an object.
__________ 5. Light bending as it passes through a raindrop
Recall further that light always follows the law of reflection, whether the reflection
occurs off a curved surface or off a flat surface. The following diagram illustrates the law of
reflection.

I – incident ray
R – reflected ray
N- normal line
Θi – angle of incidence
Θr – angle of reflection

Note that: Θi = Θr
Figure 1- Law of Reflection
Source: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/refln/u13l1c.cfm

Refraction, on the other hand, is the bending of a wave when it enters a medium
where its speed is different. The refraction of light when it passes from a fast medium to a
slow medium bends the light ray toward the normal to the boundary between the two media.
The amount of bending depends on the indices of refraction of the two media. Refraction is
responsible for image formation for lenses and the eye.

Figure 2 – Refraction of Light

Source: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/

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 Plane Mirror Image Formation

To view an image in the mirror, you must sight along a line at the image. • When you
do, light from the object will reflect off the mirror according to the law of reflection and travel
along the line of sight to your eye. The image is located at the one location in space where it
seems to every observer that the light is coming from.

Figure 3 – Line of Sight

Source: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics

An image is formed because (1) Light emanates from an object in a variety of

directions, (2) The light that reaches the mirror reflects off the mirror according to the law of
reflection, (3) Each ray can be extended backwards behind the mirror where they intersect at
a point, (4) Any person positioned along the line of a reflected ray can sight along the line
and view the image.

Figure 4 –Image Formation in Plane Mirror

Source: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics

An image is a replica, representation, or likeness of an object that is located at the one

location in space where it seems to every observer as though light is coming from. Each
observer looks along a different line of sight at the same image location. For plane mirrors,
that image location is behind the mirror.

Figure 5- Image Location

Source: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics

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Curved Mirror Anatomy

Center of Curvature (C): the center of the sphere from which the mirror is cut. Radius of
Curvature (R): the radius of the sphere from which the mirror is cut. Principal Axis:
imaginary line that extends from the surface of the mirror through the center of the sphere
from which the mirror is cut.
Focal Point (F): midpoint between the center of curvature (C) and the mirror.
Focal length (f): distance from the mirror to the focal point.

Remember the five “geometric” terms: Two points - focal point (F) and center of
curvature (C). Two distances - focal length (f) and radius of curvature (R). One line -
principal axis.

Figure 6 – Parts of a Curved Mirror

Source: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics

Rules of Reflection in Curved Mirrors

Rule Illustration

Light traveling parallel to the principal

axis (PA) reflects and passes through F.

Light passing through F reflects and

travels parallel to the PA.

Source: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics

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 What is it?
Reflection and Curved Mirrors
In optics, image refers to the collection of focus points of light rays coming from an
object. A real image is the collection of focus points actually made by converging rays. A
virtual image is made by extensions of diverging rays.
The image of an object in a plane mirror is upright, has the same size as the object,
and is the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror. Is this the
same with the image of an object in a curved mirror? Explore the answer to this question
through ray diagramming. The method for drawing ray diagrams for concave mirror is
described below.
Step 1 - Pick a point on the top of the object and draw two incident rays traveling towards the
mirror

Draw one ray so that it passes exactly

through the focal point on the way to the
mirror. Draw the second ray such that it
travels exactly parallel to the principal axis.
Place arrowheads upon the rays to indicate
their direction of travel.
Source: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics

Step 2-Once these incident rays strike the mirror, reflect them according to the two rules of
reflection for concave mirrors.

The ray that passes through the focal point

on the way to the mirror will reflect and
travel parallel to the principal axis. Use a
straight edge to accurately draw its path.
The ray that traveled parallel to the principal
axis on the way to the mirror will reflect and
travel through the focal point. Place
arrowheads upon the rays to indicate their Source: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics

direction of travel. Extend the rays past their

point of intersection.
3. Step 3 - Mark the image of the top of the object

The image point of the top of the object is the

point where the two reflected rays intersect.
If your were to draw a third pair of incident
and reflected rays, then the third reflected
ray would also pass through this point. This
is merely the point where all light from the
top of the object would intersect upon
reflecting off the mirror Source: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics

19
Step 4- Repeat the process for the bottom of the object.

After completing the first three steps, only

the image location of the top extreme of the
object has been found. Thus, the process
must be repeated for the point on the bottom
of the object. If the bottom of the object lies
upon the principal axis (as it does in this
example), then the image of this point will
also lie upon the principal axis and be the
same distance from the mirror as the image
of the top of the object. At this point the
entire image can be filled in.

Source: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics

The ray diagram above illustrates that when the object is located at a
position beyond the center of curvature, the image is located at a position between the
center of curvature and the focal point. Furthermore, the image is inverted, reduced in
size (smaller than the object), and real.
Ray diagrams are constructed in order to determine the general location, size,
orientation, and type of image formed by concave mirrors. Below is a summary of the
location (L), orientation (O), relative size (S), and the type (T) of the image formed when an
object is placed at different positions in front of a concave mirror.
Table 1- Image Characteristics for Concave Mirrors

Object Location Diagram Image Image Relative Type of

Location Orientation Size of Image
Image

Case 1: Between inverted reduced real

center of the
The object is curvature ©
located beyond the and focal
center of curvature point (F)
(C)

Case 2: At the inverted Same real

center of the size
The object is curvature
located at the (C)
center of curvature
(C)
Case 3: Beyond the inverted larger real
center of the
The object is curvature(C)
located between
the center of
curvature (C) and
the focal point (F)

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Case 4:
The object is
located at the focal
No image formed
point (F)

Case 5: Somewhere Upright/erect larger virtual

on the
The object is opposite
located in front side of the
of the focal point (F) mirror
Source: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics

Trial Exercise – Using a ruler or any straight edge and a scale of your choice and
applying the steps in ray diagramming, complete the ray diagramming for Cases 2 to 5
in order to prove the correctness of the image characteristics of the objects in the
specified positions as indicated in Table 1.

Now look on formation of image in a convex mirror. Start with familiarizing ourselves with
the revised rules of reflection as follows: Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal
axis on the way to a convex mirror will reflect in such a manner that its extension will pass
through the focal point.
 Any incident ray traveling towards a convex mirror such that its extension passes
through the focal point will reflect and travel parallel to the principal axis.
 Any incident ray traveling towards a convex mirror such that its extension passes
through the focal point will reflect and travel parallel to the principal axis.

The diagram shows an object placed in front of a convex

mirror. Light rays originating at the object location are
shown approaching and subsequently reflecting from the
mirror surface. Each observer must sight along the line of
a reflected ray to view the image of the object. Each ray is
extended backwards to a point of intersection - this point of
intersection of all extended reflected rays is the image
location of the object.

Source: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/refln/u13l4a.cfm#diagram

The method of drawing ray diagrams for convex mirrors is described below

Step 1- Pick a point on the top of the object

and draw two incident rays traveling towards
the mirror.

21
Step 2- Once these incident rays strike the
mirror, reflect them according to the two
rules of reflection for convex mirrors

Step 3 - 3. Locate and mark the image of the

top of the object.

Step 4-Repeat the process for the bottom of

the object.

Source: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/refln/u13l4b.cfm

Learning Task 1 – Time for Simple Inquiry

Big Question: Can convex mirrors ever produce real images? Inverted images?
Magnified images?
Directions: In order to seek answers to the big question, construct ray diagrams for an object
positioned in different spots in front of a convex mirror applying the different steps presented
above. Be sure to use a straight edge (or ruler) and choose an appropriate scale in
constructing the diagrams.

Mirror Equation and the Magnification Equation

The mirror equation expresses the quantitative relationship between the object
distance (do), the image distance (di), and the focal length (f). The equation is stated as
follows:

The magnification equation relates the ratio of the image distance and object
distance to the ratio of the image height (hi) and object height (ho). The magnification
equation is stated as follows:

22
The sign conventions for the given quantities in the mirror equation and magnification
equations are as follows:
 f is + if the mirror is a concave mirror
 f is - if the mirror is a convex mirror
 di is + if the image is a real image and located on the object's side of the mirror.
 di is - if the image is a virtual image and located behind the mirror.
 hi is + if the image is an upright image (and therefore, also virtual)
 hi is - if the image an inverted image (and therefore, also real)

Example Problem No. 1 - A 4.00-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 45.7 cm from a
concave mirror having a focal length of 15.2 cm. Determine the image distance and the
image size.
Known Information:

Unknown Quantities:

Solution:

From the calculations in this problem it can be concluded that if a 4.00-cm tall object
is placed 45.7 cm from a concave mirror having a focal length of 15.2 cm, then the
image will be inverted, 1.99-cm tall and located 22.8 cm from the mirror.
Example Problem No. 2 - A 4.0-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 35.5 cm from a
convex mirror having a focal length of -12.2 cm. Determine the image distance and the
image size.
Known Information:

Unknown Quantities;

23
Solution:

From the calculations in this problem it can be concluded that if a 4.0-cm tall object is
placed 35.5 cm from a convex mirror having a focal length of -12.2 cm, then the image
will be upright, 1.02-cm tall and located 9.08 cm behind the mirror.

Refraction and Lenses

Refraction Rules for Converging Lens

 Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis of a converging lens will refract
through the lens and travel through the focal point on the opposite side of the lens.
 Any incident ray traveling through the focal point on the way to the lens will refract
through the lens and travel parallel to the principal axis.
 An incident ray that passes through the center of the lens will in effect continue in the
same direction that it had when it entered the lens.

Source: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/refrn/Lesson-5/Refraction-by-Lenses

Refraction Rules for Diverging Lens

 Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis of a diverging lens will refract
through the lens and travel in line with the focal point (i.e., in a direction such that its
extension will pass through the focal point).
 Any incident ray traveling towards the focal point on the way to the lens will refract
through the lens and travel parallel to the principal axis.
 An incident ray that passes through the center of the lens will in effect continue in the
same direction that it had when it entered the lens.

Source: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/refrn/Lesson-5/Refraction-by-Lenses

24
Learning Task 2 – Applying the rules of refraction for converging and diverging lens, draw
a ray diagram for the following given situations and describe the characteristics of the
images formed in terms of location (L), orientation (O), size(S), and type(T).
A. Converging Lens
1. The object is located at 2F 2. The object is located between 2F and F

3. The object is located at F 4. The object is in front of F

B. Diverging Lens
5. The object is beyond 2F 6. The object is 2F and F

The Anatomy of the Human Eye, Image Formation

and Detection
Each part of the eye plays a distinct part in enabling humans
to see. The ultimate goal of such an anatomy is to allow humans to
focus images on the back of the retina.
The four parts of the eye which are most instrumental in the task of
producing images that are discernible by the brain are the
cornea(thin outer membrane), a lens attached to ciliary muscles, and a retina(inner surface
equipped with nerve cells).. In order to facilitate the ability to see, each part must enable the
eye to refract light so that it produces a focused image on the retina.
The lens of the eye is not where all the refraction of incoming light rays takes place. Most of
the refraction occurs at the cornea. The cornea has an index of refraction of 1.38. The index
of refraction of the cornea is significantly greater than the index of refraction of the
surrounding air. This difference in optical density between the air the corneal material
combined with the fact that the cornea has the shape of a converging lens is what explains
the ability of the cornea to do most of the refracting of incoming light rays. The crystalline

25
lens is able to alter its shape due to the action of the ciliary muscles. This serves to induce
small alterations in the amount of corneal bulge as well as to fine-tune some of the additional
refraction that occurs as light passes through the lens material. The bulging shape of the
cornea causes it to refract light in a manner to similar to a double convex lens.

Source: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/refrn/u14l6b.cfm

For now we will assume that the cornea-lens system has a focal length of 1.80
cm (0.0180 m). We will attempt to determine the image size and image location of a 6-
foot tall man (ho=1.83 m) who is standing a distance of approximately 10 feet away
(do= 3.05 meters).
Using the lens equation: For the image height, the magnification
Equation is needed

It can be concluded that if a 1.83-m tall person is standing 3.05 m from your cornea-
lens system having a focal length of 1.8 cm, then the image will be inverted, 1.09-cm tall (the
negative values for image height indicate that the image is an inverted image) and located
1.81 cm from the "lens".

Correction of Vision Defects

Farsightedness or hyperopia is
the inability of the eye to focus on nearby
objects. The farsighted eye has no difficulty
viewing distant objects. But the ability to
view nearby objects requires a different lens
shape - a shape that the farsighted eye is
unable to assume.

26
 The farsighted eye is assisted by the
use of a converging lens. This converging
lens will refract light before it enters the eye
and subsequently decreases the image
distance. By beginning the refraction process
prior to light reaching the eye, the image of
nearby objects is once again focused upon
the retinal surface.
Nearsightedness or myopia is the
inability of the eye to focus on distant
objects. The nearsighted eye has no difficulty
viewing nearby objects. Nearsightedness will
result if the light from distant objects is
refracted more than is necessary.

The cure for the nearsighted eye is to

equip it with a diverging lens. Since the
nature of the problem of nearsightedness is
that the light is focused in front of the retina,
a diverging lens will serve to diverge light
before it reaches the eye. This light will then
be converged by the cornea and lens to
produce an image on the retina.
Source: https://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/refrn/u14l6b.cfm

What is more?
It is now time for you to establish mastery on the learning competencies and skills
covered in this lesson. You can do this by working on the following learning task.

Learning Task 3- Practice makes perfect. Read each item carefully and answer as
required.
1. The diagram below shows two light rays emanating from the top of the object and
incident towards the mirror. Describe how the reflected rays for these light rays can
be drawn without actually using a protractor and the law of reflection.

2. A 2.80-cm diameter coin is placed a distance of 25.0 cm from a convex mirror that
has a focal length of -12.0 cm. Determine the image distance and the diameter of
the image.
3. A magnified, inverted image is located a distance of 32.0 cm from a double convex
lens with a focal length of 12.0 cm. Determine the object distance and tell whether
the image is real or virtual.
27
4. Briefly discuss how near sightedness is corrected using a lens. Support your
discussion by constructing a ray diagram .
 What I have learned?
Congratulations for having gone through the first 3 phases of the lessons reflection and
refraction of light. It is now time for recollecting your understanding of the lessons discussed,
gauging the extent of your understanding though self-reflection of what you have learned.
Put a check mark (/) under the following heading that speaks of the extent on your learning.
Concepts Very Much To a certain extent Not at all
(3) (2) (1)
I can now
1. Explain image formation as an application
of reflection, refraction, and paraxial
approximation.

2.Relate properties of mirrors and lenses

(radii of curvature, focal length, index of
refraction [for lenses]) to image and object
distance and sizes

3.Determine graphically and mathematically

the type (virtual/real), magnification, location,
and orientation of image of a point and
extended object produced by a plane or
spherical mirror
4.Determine graphically and mathematically
the type (virtual/real), magnification, location/
apparent depth, and orientation of image of a
point and extended object produced by a
lens or series of lenses

5.Apply the principles of geometric optics to

discuss image formation by the eye, and
correction of common vision defects

Note: Get the sum of the corresponding points of your responses. Compare this with the
following marks for the description of your assessment of the extent of your learning.
14-15 – You perceive that you now have advanced proficiency in the learning competencies
for this lesson.
12-13 You perceive that you are now proficient.
10 -11 You perceive that you are now approaching proficiency.
8 -9 You are still in the developing level of proficiency.
Scores below 8 requires you to go over the lesson

28
 Week 3
What I need to know?

MODULE 3: LIGHT – WAVE NATURE

Interference and Diffraction

Most of us have observed water waves either in the ocean,
lakes or even puddles. When you throw two rocks in a puddle, the
waves formed will eventually interfere with one another. When waves
interfere with one another, they either add to one another to interfere
constructively or delete each other to interfere destructively.
After studying this module, you must be able to learn about
the wave nature of light and the phenomena called interference and
diffraction. Specifically, you must be able to:
1. Determine the conditions (superpositions. Path and phase difference, polarization,
amplitude) for interference to occur emphasizing the properties of a laser as a
monochromatic and coherent light source.
2. Relate the geometry of the two-slit experiment set up (slit separation, and screen-to-
slit distance) and properties of light (wavelength) to the properties of the interference
pattern (width, location, and intensity)
3. Relate the geometry of the diffraction experiment setup (slit size, and screen-to-slit
distance) and properties of light (wavelength) to the properties of the diffraction
pattern (width, location, and intensity of fringes)

29
 What is new?
Electromagnetic Waves

Light waves and radio waves are examples of electromagnetic waves, meaning that
they fall on the same electromagnetic spectrum as infrared waves (the radiated heat you feel
from a stove), ultraviolet waves (the radiation that causes sunburns), and microwaves (the
radiation that’s used to cook food in a microwave).
They all have a wavelength that determines the distance over which
their amplitude changes. Radio waves can have wavelengths as
wide as your arms or even longer, while visible light waves have
wavelengths as small as a thousandth of the width of a human hair.
Light is a transverse electromagnetic wave. Diffraction, and
interference are phenomena observed with all waves.
Diffraction is the tendency of a wave emitted from a finite source or passing through
a finite aperture to spread out as it propagates. Diffraction results from the interference of an
infinite number of waves emitted by a continuous distribution of source points. According
to Huygens' principle every point on a wave front of light can be considered to be a
secondary source of spherical wavelets. These wavelets propagate outward with the
characteristic speed of the wave. The wavelets emitted by all points on the wave front
interfere with each other to produce the traveling wave. Huygens' principle also holds for
electromagnetic waves. When studying the propagation of light, we can replace any wave
front by a collection of sources distributed uniformly over the wave front, radiating in phase.
The phenomenon of interference of light was demonstrated by Thomas Young, an
English physician, in 1801. He arranged two very narrow slits close together and illuminated
them from a single slit with a monochromatic light, a light of a single wavelength.
Interference effects in light waves are not easy to observe due to their short wavelengths. To
be able to observe this phenomenon in the light waves, the following conditions must be
met:

30
 a. The light sources must be coherent.
b. The sources must be monochromatic or of single wavelength.
c. The principle of superposition must apply.

Learning Task #1: Diffraction – Light Can Bend Around Edges

Light bends when it passes around an edge or through a slit. This bending is called
diffraction. You can easily demonstrate diffraction using a candle or a small bright
flashlight bulb and a slit made with two pencils. The diffraction pattern—the pattern of
dark and light created when light bends around an edge or edges—shows that light has
wavelike properties.
Directions: Prepare 2 pencils, a piece of transparent tape and a candle with matches.

Assemble:
1. Wrap one layer of tape around the top of one of the pencils, just below the eraser.
2. Light the candle and place the light on a stable surface at least one arm’s length
away from you.
3. Hold up the two pencils, side by side, with the erasers at the top. The tape
wrapped around one pencil should keep the pencils slightly apart, forming a thin
slit between them, just below the tape. Hold both pencils close to one eye (about 1
inch [2.5 cm] away) and look at the light source through the slit between the
pencils. Squeeze the pencils together, making the slit smaller.

Guide Questions:
1. Is there a line of light in the slit? Is it perpendicular or horizontal?
2. While looking through the slit, rotate the pencils until they are horizontal. What
happened to the line of light?
3. What do you think causes these blobs of light? Explain your answer in 3-5
sentences.

What is more?
Wave Interference
When two waves come close to one another, their
effects add together. If the crests, or highest parts of
the waves, line up perfectly, then the crest of the
combined wave will be the sum of the heights of the
two original crests. Likewise, if the lowest parts of the
waves (the troughs) line up just right, then the
combined trough will be the depth of the two original
troughs combined. This is known as constructive
interference, in which two waves (of the same
wavelength) interact in such a way that they are aligned, Figure 1. Constructive Interference
leading to a new wave that is bigger than the original wave.
As shown in Fig 1.

31
However, if two waves are not perfectly aligned, then when
the crest of one wave comes along, it will be dragged down
by the trough of the other wave. The resulting, combined
wave will have crests that are shorter than the crests of either
original wave, and troughs that are shallower than either of
the incoming waves. This is known as destructive
interference. As shown in Fig 2.

Figure 2. Destructive Interference

In fact, if the two waves (with the same amplitude) are shifted by exactly half a wavelength
when they merge together, then the crest of one wave will match up perfectly with the trough
of the other wave, and they will cancel each other out. The resulting combined wave will
have no crests or troughs at all, and will instead just look like a flat line, or no wave at all!
Double Slit Interference
Say you have a laser pointer. A laser is basically
just a bunch of light waves that all have the same
wavelength and are all lined up with one another.
Suppose you place a card in front of the laser beam
with two slits in it, such that waves can only pass
through two spots. You then measure the amount of
light that hits the wall on the other side of the room
at various points. As shown in Figure 3.

For the experiment to work, the slits have to be tiny Figure 3. Double Slit Interference
compared to the distance from the card to the wall, but
they have to be larger than a single wavelength of the light. That means that if we choose a
spot on the wall, two light waves will be hitting it; one from the top slit and one from the
bottom slit. As they get close to the wall, and close to one another, they will start to interfere.
We know that the two waves were exactly the same when they got to the card, but they
won’t necessarily be the same when they reach the wall. Let’s choose a spot on the wall to
measure the two waves, say above the top slit. As shown in Figure 4.
The light coming from the bottom slit has to come much further than the light from the top
slit, so more wavelengths will be needed to travel the longer distance. If we choose a
different point on the wall, then we’ll get a different
number of wavelengths again for each path that the
light takes from its slit to the wall. The key is to
compare the number of wavelengths it takes for each
light wave to travel from the slit to the wall. For
constructive interference, the difference in wavelengths
will be an integer number of whole wavelengths. For
destructive interference it will be an integer number of
whole wavelengths plus a half wavelength.
Think of the point exactly between the two slits. The
Figure 4. Interference on top of slits.
light waves will be traveling the same distance, so they
will be traveling the same number of wavelengths. That

32
 means that there will always be constructive
interference at that spot, so we will always see a
bright spot on the wall in the middle. As shown in
Figure 5.
As you move away from the center point, the two
waves’ pathlengths (or total distance travelled from
the laser to the wall) will get more and more
different, until we hit a point where they are the
same plus a half wavelength. At that point, one of
the waves will hit the wall with a crest when the
other hits with a trough, so they will effectively
Figure 5. Interference at the middle of the slits. cancel one another out, resulting in a dark spot
there.

Figure 6. Interference at the bottom of the slits. Top.

As we keep moving away from the Diffraction pattern. Bottom.
center, the pathlengths will keep getting
different, until we get to the point where they are
the same plus a whole wavelength, so we’ll get
constructive interference again, because the
two waves will meet at the same spot in their
wavelength cycle. This will result in another
bright spot on the wall.
This pattern will keep alternating so that we get
a pattern of light spots and dark spots, both
above and below our center bright spot.
If your slits are further apart, the light waves will
be coming from spots that are further apart.
That means that their path lengths will be more
different from one another, giving bright spots
that are closer together.
Figure 7. Diffraction pattern of wide and narrow slits.

Single Slit Diffraction

You might think that if there is only one slit, there wouldn’t be any wave interference, but let’s
say we punched out the whole area between the slits in our card. It’s
still a small slit, but it’s much bigger than our slits from the double slit Figure 8. Single slit diffraction
experiment. We can pretend to divide our slit into pieces, and compare
the path lengths of the light coming from these pieces to one another to discover what sort of
interference pattern we will get when they interact.

33
Let’s start in the middle of the wall, like we did for the
double slit case.
Let’s choose the points at the two edges of the slit.
They are an equal distance from the center of the slit,
so their path lengths to the center point on the wall will
be the same. We know that that means they will
interfere constructively with one another.
If we choose two points that are further in, but still the
same distance from the middle of the slit, they will also
have equal path lengths to the center point on the wall.
They will also interfere constructively with one another.
So, we can see that there is a lot of constructive
interference going on at that center point, in fact, there
will be a major bright spot there because of it.
If we want to find a spot on the wall that is dark, we have
to find where there is the most destructive interference.
Instead of taking points symmetrically across the slit,
let’s take two points, one at the top edge and one just
below the center line, and compare them.
Because all of these pairs are the same distance apart
across the slit, if we measure the path length from each pair to the same spot on the wall,
each pair will have the same difference in path length. (Remember, the pairs won’t have the
same absolute path length, just the same difference in path length, which is what we’re
interested in anyway.) If we find the point on the wall where one pair has a half wavelength
difference in path length, then we’ve found the point where all the pairs will. There will be a
lot of destructive interference at that point from all of the different pairs, so we’ll see an
overall dark spot there.
Just like for the dark spot, if we find a spot where these pairings have a difference in path
length of a full wavelength, we’ll get another bright spot.

If we compare single-slit diffraction to the double-slit interference pattern, the spots

are much larger and more spread out. In particular, the center bright spot is much larger than
it would be for double slits with the same width. We can view diffraction as light spreading
out when it comes up to a hole or other barrier, and trying to get around that barrier. In the
process of spreading out, it interferes with itself to create the pattern of light and dark spots
that we call a diffraction pattern.

Double Slit Interference with Diffraction

When we talked about double slit interference, we pretended that only one light wave could
go through each slit at a time. If instead we realize that there are a few light waves travelling
through each of the two slits at once, then we can see that there will be a diffraction pattern

34
for each individual slit (in addition to the two-slit Figure 9. Double interference with diffraction.
interference pattern). Since the two slits are
close together, and their diffraction patterns are
wide, their individual diffraction patterns are
similar and we can combine the two diffraction
patterns to get the same ―single-slit‖ diffraction
pattern that we got for one slit. This pattern will
hold our double-slit interference pattern back,
limiting how bright the bright spots can be at any
given point on the wall.
If we have a bright spot in the diffraction pattern,
then our interference bright spots can be as
bright as we want. But, if we have a diffraction
dark spot, then the bright spots in our
interference pattern cannot be any brighter than the diffraction dark spot, and will disappear
altogether.
The interference pattern will come from the light from the two slits interacting, and the
diffraction pattern will come from the light from each individual slit interacting with itself.
Figure 10 shows how to determine the path length
difference for waves traveling from two slits to a
common point on a screen. If the screen is a large
distance away compared with the distance between the
slits, then the angle θ between the path and a line from
the slits to the screen (see the figure) is nearly the same
for each path. The difference between the paths is
shown in the figure; simple trigonometry shows it to be d
sin θ, where d is the distance between the slits. To
obtain constructive interference for a double slit, the
path length difference must be an integral multiple of the
Figure 10. The paths from each slit to a wavelength, or d sin
common point on the screen differ by an
amount dsinƟ, assuming the distance to θ = mλ, for m = 0, 1, −1, 2, −2, . . . (constructive).
the screen is much greater than the
distance between slits (not to scale here). Similarly, to obtain destructive interference for a double slit,
the path length difference must be a half-integral multiple of
the wavelength, or

dsinθ=(m+ )λ, for m=0,1,−1,2,−2,… (destructive)

where λ is the wavelength of the light, d is the distance between slits, and θ is the angle from
the original direction of the beam as discussed above. We call m the order of the
interference. For example, m = 4 is fourth-order interference.
The equations for double slit interference imply that a series of bright and dark lines are
formed. For vertical slits, the light spreads out horizontally on either side of the incident
beam into a pattern called interference fringes, illustrated in Figure 11. The intensity of the
bright fringes falls off on either side, being brightest at the center. The closer the slits are, the
more is the spreading of the bright fringes. We can see this by examining the equation
d sin θ = mλ, for m = 0, 1, −1, 2, −2...

35
For fixed λ and m, the smaller d is, the larger θ must be, since sinθ=

This is consistent with our contention that wave effects are most noticeable when the object
the wave encounters (here, slits a distance d apart) is small. Small d gives large θ, hence a
large effect.

Figure 11. The interference pattern for a double slit has an

intensity that falls off with angle. The photograph shows
multiple bright and dark lines, or fringes, formed by light passing
through a double slit.

Learning Task #2: Conceptual Questions

Direction: Answer the questions below in five to seven sentences. Your answer will be graded
using the rubric below.
Criteria 1 3 5

The idea is The idea presented The idea presented

incomprehensible follows a sequence follows a sequence
because there is no with logical with logical and
Organization sequence of information. interesting manner.
information.

Content The student was The student was Student

unable to grasp only able to answer demonstrates full
information and rudimentary knowledge with
cannot answer the questions and fails explanation and
question. to elaborate. elaboration.

Delivery The student was The student was The student was
unable to explain the able to present the able to present the
concept clearly. The concept but lacks concept clearly. The
reader might not motive to explain answer was intact
understand the further information and direct to the
given answer which makes point which makes it
meaningfully. answer dull in meaningful to the
nature. reader.

1. Young’s double slit experiment breaks a single light beam into two sources. Would the
same pattern be obtained for two independent sources of light, such as the headlights
of a distant car? Explain.
2. Suppose you use the same double slit to perform Young’s double slit experiment in air
and then repeat the experiment in water. Do the angles to the same parts of the
interference pattern get larger or smaller? Does the color of the light change? Explain.
3. Is it possible to create a situation in which there is only destructive interference?
Explain. What are the applications of this kind of interference?

36
 What I have learned?
Now that we are almost done with the module, let us first summarize the key
concepts that we have learned.
1. The observation of light that exhibits interference and diffraction shows strong
evidence of the wave theory of light.
2. Young’s double-slit experiment clearly demonstrates the phenomenon of interference
of light.
3. Diffraction refers to the bending of light around objects as it passes and spreads out
after passing through narrow slits.
4. Light passing through very narrow slits will produce a pattern with a very bright
central maximum and fainter lines at either side.
5. Light reflected from the front and rear surfaces of a thin film of transparent materials
can interfere constructively and destructively.
6. This-film interference has many applications such as in lens coating, determinations
of thickness of very thin films, and formation of Newton’s rings.

Learning Task #3: Think and Explain.

Direction: Using your acquired knowledge, answer the following questions in three to five
sentences.

1. Give one reason why you cannot use two separate light sources for Young’s
double-slit experiment. Expound your answer.
2. Explain how the two slits in a double-slit experiment are able to produce a
coherent light source.
3. Enumerate three applications or use of thin-film interference.
4. Describe two proofs that support the wave nature of light.
5. Why is light sometimes described as rays and sometimes as waves?

37
 Week 4
What I need to know?

MODULE 4: Modern Physics

This chapter highlights two emerging theories in physics: principle of relativity and
quantum theory. By the end of the chapter, you must be able to:
1. State the postulates of Special Relativity and their consequences
2. Apply the time dilation, length contraction and relativistic velocity addition to worded
problems
3. Calculate kinetic energy, rest energy, momentum, and speed of objects moving with
speeds comparable to the speed of light
4. Explain the photoelectric effect using the idea of light quanta or photons
5. Explain qualitatively the properties of atomic emission and absorption spectra using
the concept of energy levels.

I What is new?

Albert Einstein proposed the special theory of relativity in 1905. It describes how
time, space, and physical phenomena appear in different reference frames moving at
constant velocity concerning each other. This theory proposed drastic revisions in the
Newtonian concepts of space and time. It led to a profound change in the way we perceive
space and time.
Let us imagine this scenario! There are two passengers holding flashlights: one
standing on train station platform and the other siting on the train with constant velocity. after
If they switch on their flashlights, will they have the same opinion about speed of light? Both
passengers will say that the speed of the light from the flashlight is .However,
they will have different interpretation on speed of light with respect to one another. The
passenger on the platform might say that the speed of light is while the
passenger on the train might say that the speed of light is . That is
absurd! Einstein said that there is nothing that can travel faster then the speed of light.

38
 What is it?

THEORY OF RELATIVITIY
Let’s study the two postulates that make up Einstein's special theory of relativity.
Both postulates describe what is seen by an observer in an inertial frame of reference
(reference frame in which a body at rest remains at rest and a body in motion moves at a
constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by an outside force).

First Postulate Special Relativity Second Postulate Special Relativity

“The laws of physics are the same in “The speed of light in vacuum is the
all inertial frames of reference.” same in all inertial frames of
reference and is independent of the
 If the laws differed, that difference could motion of the source.”
distinguish one inertial frame from the
others or make one frame more ―correct‖  Observers must obtain the same result,
than another. even though one is moving with respect
 It denies the existence of a special or to the other and it is impossible for an
preferred inertial frame. inertial observer to travel at the speed of
light
 The speed of light has the same definite
speed for any observer, regardless of the
relative motion of the source
Let us visualize this using Einstein’s thought experiment!
Elio is sitting on a train that is moving at speed comparable to the speed of light. Win
is standing on the train station platform, watching the train pass when two lightning bolts
flashed. Win witnessed that the bolts hit the front and the end of the train at the same time.
On the other hand, Elio observed differently. Because the train moved to the right and was
moving away from the reference of occurrence, he said that the lightning hit the front end
before the tail end. So, who is telling the truth?

39
  The two observers reach conflicting conclusions about whether the two events at
well-separated locations were simultaneous. Both frames of reference are valid, and
both conclusions are valid.
 Whether two events at separate locations are simultaneous depends on the motion
of the observer relative to the locations of the events.
 Simultaneity is not absolute. This principle states that events that are simultaneous
in one inertial frame of reference are not simultaneous in another inertial frame of
reference.
These innocent-sounding propositions have far-reaching implications. Here are three:
1. Events that are simultaneous for one observer may not be simultaneous for another.
2. When two observers moving relative to each other measure a time interval or a
length, they may not get the same results.
3. For the conservation principles for momentum and energy to be valid in all inertial
systems, Newton’s second law and the equations for momentum and kinetic energy
have to be revised.
The simultaneity analysis shows that Einstein’s postulates imply a strong effect: Time
intervals have different values when measured in different inertial frames.
TIME DILATION and PROPER TIME
Let’s use the previous scenario; Elio, a train passenger, measures the time it takes
for a pulse of light to travel a distance perpendicular to the direction of the train’s motion
bounce off a mirror in the ceiling, and return. How does the elapsed time he measures in the
train as compared with the elapsed time that an observer measures by observing what is
happening in the train?

The proper time interval between two Time dilation is the lengthening of the time
events is the time interval measured by an interval between two events for an observer
observer for whom both events occur at the in an inertial frame that is moving with
same location respect to the rest frame of the events (in
which the events occur at the same location).

The train is moving at a constant velocity v.

If the height from the floor to the Wins, a passenger at the platform, will
mirror (in the ceiling) is D and the speed of observe differently: the pulse of light is
the light c is known, then he can compute for moving angled to the direction of the train.
the time the pulse of light will need to travel But the velocity of the pulse of light is
towards the mirror and going back. If the constant so the time measured by the
passenger is not moving with respect to the observer will be different.
train, then he is stationary when he
measured the time. We use the term proper
time to describe the time interval between
two events that occur at the same point.

40
Figure 2. Proper time and time dilation illustration
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
The Hypersonic Technology Vehicle 2 (HTV-2) is an experimental rocket vehicle
capable of traveling at 21,000 km/h (5830 m/s). If an electronic clock in the HTV-2 measures
a time interval of exactly 1-s duration, what would observers on Earth measure the time
interval to be?

Given: = 1 second Solution: ⁄ ⁄

= 5830 m/s; c =
= 1.000000000189s
PROPER LENGTH and LENGTH CONTRACTION
. Proper length is the distance between two points measured by an observer who is
at rest relative to both points.
If both passengers measure
the length of anything moving
relative to their inertial frame,
they will find out that the
length to be smaller than the
proper length that would be
measured if the object were
stationary.
To relate distances measured
by the two passengers, length
of the contraction is given by the equation:

Length of contraction is the decrease in the measured length of an object from its proper
length when measured in a reference frame that is moving with respect to the object. There
may be a disagreement in the two train passengers on which of the two lengths (train or
platform) was reduced. However, they will agree on how much the reduction of length is.

41
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
A relativistic javelin length 2.50m moves with a speed of 0.60c. How would Earth judge
measure the length of the javelin?
Given: = 1 second Solution: ( ) √
= 0.6c

RELATIVISTIC QUANTITIES
The postulates in the special theory of relativity are applied in the given scenarios above. We
can gain further insight into how relativity postulates change how we view the Newtonian
concepts of time and space. We can further examine these transformation equations which
give us the space and time coordinates of events in one inertial reference frame in terms of
those in another.
The common denominator in every equation is the Lorentz factor.

Table 1. Equations related to theory of special relativity

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
An electron moves with a speed of 0.600c. What is its total energy?

Given: = 9.11 x kg
= 0.6c

Formula: ⁄

Solution: ⁄

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LEARNING TASK 1: Special Relativity Worded Problems
Direction: Answer the following problems. Showing your solution is REQUIRED.
1. An airplane flies from San Francisco to New York (about 4800 km, or 4.80 * 106 m)
at a steady speed of 300 m/s (about 670 mi/h). How much time does the trip take, as
measured by an observer on the ground? By an observer in the plane?
2. A spaceship flies past earth at a speed of 0.990c. A crew member on board the
spaceship measures its length, obtaining the value 400 m. What length do observers
measure on earth?
3. A child’s heartbeat is about 80 beats a minute. To a doctor travelling at a speed of
0.85c, what is the child’s heartbeat?
4. Calculate the rest energy of a 1.00-g mass.
5. How fast must a rocket travel relative to the earth so that time in the rocket ―slows
down‖ to half its rate as measured by earth-based observers? Do present-day jet
planes approach such speeds?

QUANTUM MECHANICS

Quantum mechanics is a powerful framework for understanding the motions and

interactions of particles at small scales, such as atoms and molecules. The ideas behind
quantum mechanics often appear quite strange. In many ways, our everyday experience
with the macroscopic physical world does not prepare us.
Blackbody Experiment
All bodies emit electromagnetic radiation over a range of wavelengths. A good
absorber of radiation (any object that absorbs radiation) is also a good emitter. A perfect
absorber absorbs all
electromagnetic radiation incident
on it; such an object is called a
blackbody. The blackbody
radiation problem was solved in
1900 by Max Planck. Planck
treated the electromagnetic waves
between the walls inside the
cavity classically and assumed
that the radiation is in equilibrium
with the cavity walls.

Blackbody experiment illustration

Planck’s hypothesis of discrete energy values, which he called quanta, assumes that
the oscillators inside the cavity walls have quantized energies. He assumed that the energy
of an oscillator (E) can have only discrete, or quantized, values:

43
 E is the energy of the blackbody, n is the quantum number or state, f is the frequency
of radiation and h is the Planck’s constant equivalent to ., photon, since his
approach involved light.

Photoelectric Effect
To validated Planck’s experiment, a model was developed by Albert Einstein, who
proposed that light sometimes behaved as particles of electromagnetic energy called
photons. The photoelectric effect is a
phenomenon in which electrons are ejected
from the surface of a metal when light is
incident on it. These ejected electrons are
called photoelectrons. The emission of
photoelectrons and the kinetic energy of the
ejected photoelectrons is dependent on the
frequency of the light that is incident on the
metal’s surface. The process through which
photoelectrons are ejected from the surface
of the metal due to the action of light is commonly referred to as photoemission. The
photoelectric effect occurs because the electrons at the surface of the metal tend to absorb
energy from the incident light and use it to overcome the attractive forces that bind them to
the metallic nuclei.

Based on the illustration:

1. The photoelectric effect does not occur when the red light strikes the metallic surface
because the frequency of red light is lower than the threshold frequency of the metal.
2. The photoelectric effect occurs when green light strikes the metallic surface and
photoelectrons are emitted.
3. The photoelectric effect also occurs when blue light strikes the metallic surface. However,
the kinetic energies of the emitted photoelectrons are much higher for blue light than for
green light. This is because blue light has a greater frequency than green light.

Characteristics of Photoelectric Effect

 The threshold frequency varies with material, it is different for different materials.
 The photoelectric current is directly proportional to the light intensity.
 The kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the light frequency.
 The stopping potential is directly proportional to the frequency and the process is
instantaneous.
Using Planck’s equation and Einstein’s experiment, the photoelectric effect equation is
formed. It is given as:

The expression is the work function, the minimum energy required to remove an electron
from a metal plate. Work function is dependent on the type of metal plate used. The energy
of the incident light is the same as the work function. is the kinetic energy of the
dislodged electrons.

44
Sample Problem 4:
Ultraviolet light of frequency Hz is incident on a copper plate whose work
function is 5.00 eV. What is the kinetic energy possessed by the photoelectrons? How fast
are the photoelectrons moving from the plate to the collector?

Given:
f= √
= 5.00 eV

Solution: √

( )

= 6.21 eV

LEARNING TASK 2: Photoelectric Effect Word Problem

Direction: Answer the following problems. Showing your solution is REQUIRED.
1. While conducting a photoelectric-effect experiment with light of a certain frequency,
you find that a reverse potential difference of 1.25 V is required to reduce the current
to zero. Find:
(a) the maximum kinetic energy; and
(b) the maximum speed of the emitted photoelectrons.
2. A 430-nm violet light is incident on a calcium photoelectrode with a work function of
2.71 eV. Find:
(a) the energy of the incident photons; and
(b) the maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons.
3. What voltage must be applied to emit X-ray of wavelength 0.500nm?

EMISSION SPECTRA
Every element has its own characteristic pattern of electron energy levels and
therefore emits light with its own characteristic pattern of frequencies, its emission spectrum,
when excited. This pattern can be seen when light is passed through a prism-or, better,
when it is first passed through a thin slit and then focused through a prism onto a viewing
screen behind. Such an arrangement of slit, focusing lenses, and prism (or diffraction
grating) is called a spectroscope, one of the most useful instruments of modern science.
Spectroscopy: investigation and measurement of spectra produced when matter interacts
with or emits electromagnetic radiation

 Each component color is focused on a definite position, according to its frequency,

and forms an image of the slit on the screen, photographic film, or appropriate
detector.
 The different-colored images of the slit are called spectral lines. Some typical
spectral patterns labeled by wavelengths are shown in the image below.

45
  It is customary to refer to colors in terms of their wavelengths rather than their
frequencies. A given frequency corresponds to a definite wavelength.
Color in Solids
Another related phenomenon is color in solids. Whether it is the intense multihued
colors of a stained-glass window, the bright colors of flowers or paint, or the deep
luminescent red of a ruby, most of the colors we perceive in our lives come from solids
rather than free atoms. The basic principles are the same, but the details are different for
solids.

 An excited atom in a gas has little choice but to give up its energy by emitting a photon.
 Its only other option, which is rare for gas atoms, is to collide with another atom and
transfer its energy into the kinetic energy of recoil. But the atoms in a solid are always in
intimate contact with each other.
 Although an excited atom in a solid has the option of emitting a photon, it is often more
likely that the energy will be converted, via interactions with neighboring atoms, to the
thermal energy of the solid.
 A process in which an atom is de-excited without radiating is called a nonradiative
transition.
This is what happens in pigments, such as those in paints, plants, and dyes. Pigment
molecules absorb certain wavelengths of light but not other wavelengths. The energy level
structure of a molecule is complex, so the absorption consists of ―bands‖ of wavelengths
rather than discrete spectral lines. But instead of re-radiating the energy by photon emission,
as a free atom would, the pigment molecules undergo nonradiative transitions and convert
the energy into increased thermal energy. That is why darker objects get hotter in the sun
than lighter objects. When light falls on an object, it can be either absorbed or reflected. If all
wavelengths are reflected, the object is perceived as white. Any wavelengths absorbed by
the pigments are removed from the reflected light. A pigment with blue-absorbing properties
converts the energy of blue-wavelength photons into thermal energy, but photons of other
wavelengths are reflected without change. A blue-absorbing pigment reflects the red and
yellow wavelengths, causing the object to be perceived as the color orange!

What is more?

LEARNING TASK 3: Comic Strip

Direction: Using a comic-strip template, create a comic that will illustrate the concepts you
learned on this module. Use another sheet of paper for your output.
Guidelines:
 Create your own creative way of illustrating the topics using a comic (Use a story or
introduce analogy or explanation of theory of relativity, quantum mechanics and
emission spectra)
 Address literary elements such as plot, setting, theme, conflict, and characterization.
 Use dialogue bubbles to express what the characters are saying or feeling.
 You can do it in black and white or colored format with a minimum of 6 frames.
 Digital output is also an option (Microsoft Office, Canva etc.)
 You will be graded using the rubric below:

46
 10 7 5
The comic presented an The comic lacks
Mastery of the The comic presented
exceptional presentation of application of learning in
topic learnings in the topic
knowledge and learnings the topic

The graphics are

somewhat meaningful,
The graphics are meaningful, colorful, and The graphics are scarce
colorful, and appropriate. Time appropriate. Some time throughout the piece and
Graphics and effort went into their not much time or effort
and effort went into
creation their creation. was put forth.

They have included 5

They have included at least 6 They have included 4
Format frames to their comic strip.
frames to their comic
frames to comic strip.
strip.

Comic is easy to read,

Comic is easy to read, and all Comic is hard to read
Clarity and and most elements are
elements are so clearly with few illustrations and
Neatness clearly written, labeled
written, labeled and illustrated. labels
and illustrated.

No spelling or
No spelling or grammatical One to 4 spelling or
Spelling & grammatical mistakes
mistakes on comic strip with grammatical errors on
Grammar on a comic strip with
lots of text. the comic strip.
little text.

Sample comic-strip template (You may use a different format depending on your
preference):

47
 What I have learned?
Now that we cover the basic concepts of Special Theory of Relativity and Quantum
Mechanics, do a self-evaluation on your learning of this module.

Learning Task #4: Self-reflection on Learning

Direction: Put a check on the appropriate column in order for you to evaluate the extent of
your learning. Be honest.

Concepts Very To a certain Not at

I can now Much extent all
(3) (2) (1)
1. state the postulates of Special Relativity and their
consequences
2. apply the time dilation, length contraction and
relativistic velocity addition to worded problems

3. calculate kinetic energy, rest energy, momentum,

and speed of objects moving with speeds
comparable to the speed of light

4. explain the photoelectric effect using the idea of

light quanta or photons

5. Explain qualitatively the properties of atomic

emission and absorption spectra using the
concept of energy levels

Note: Get the sum of the corresponding points of your responses. Compare this with
the following marks for the description of your assessment of the extent of your
learning.
14 – 15: You perceived that you now have advanced proficiency in the learning
competencies for this lesson
12 – 13: You perceived that you are now proficient in the learning competencies for
this lesson
10 – 11: You perceived that you already approaching proficiency.
8 – 9: You perceived that you are still in the developing level of proficiency.
8 below: You need to work over the lesson.

48
 Week 5
What I need to know?

MODULE 5: Nuclear Physics

Nowadays, radioactivity is used in many aspects of our live, much more that what we are
aware of. We also know that there are risks that come with it. With sufficient amount of
knowledge about it, we can enjoy the use of radiation in our lives.
After studying this module, you must have the basic understanding of radioactivity and
nuclear energy. Specifically, you must also be able to:
1. Define radiation and radioactivity
2. Classify different types of radiation
3. Calculate radioisotope activity using the concept of half-life

I What is new?
We will start by familiarizing you with common terms and ideas that are involve in the
bigger concept of nuclear energy. Three groups of ideas with three terms each will be
presented below.
First Set of Terms

Radiation
Radiation is the emission (releases) and propagation (movement) of energy in the form of
waves, rays, or particles. In physics, radiation is used as a term in two different phenomena,
electromagnetic radiation, and nuclear radiation.
Electromagnetic Radiation (EM Waves) Nuclear Radiation
An energy-carrying wave emitted by a Energy released from the nucleus of an
vibrating charge (often electrons) that is atom. This can naturally happen if the atom
composed of oscillating electric and magnetic is unstable or can be artificially induced thru
fields behaving with both wave-like and nuclear fission or nuclear fusion.
particle-like properties. For this module, we will discuss radiation
Examples of EM radiation include radio pertaining to nuclear radiation. The
waves and microwaves, as well as infrared, description above will be further explained
ultraviolet, gamma, and x-rays. on the next parts.

49
Electromagnetic energy has different variety
depending on the frequency of the wave. Nuclea
r radiation can travel as electromagnetic
radiation (EM waves) or particulate radiation
(subatomic particle with high energy)

Second Set of Terms

Strong Nuclear Force Isotopes

It is one of the four fundamental forces Atoms of an element that have a different
(gravitational, electromagnetic, strong number of neutrons in the nucleus are called
nuclear, and weak nuclear). The isotopes of each other.
electromagnetic force is force between
charges (opposite attracts, same repels).
The protons in the nucleus being all
positive, repels one another. The strong
nuclear force holds the nucleus together.

Radioactivity
Isotopes can either be stable or unstable. When an isotope is stable, there is balance
between electromagnetic force and strong nuclear force in the nucleus. An isotope is
unstable if there is no balance of forces in the nucleus. The ratio of number of protons and
neutrons affects the stability of a nucleus.
Unstable isotope tends to release some particles or energy (nuclear radiation) to attain
stability. This process of emission of energy from the nucleus is called radioactivity. An
unstable isotope is also labelled as radioactive.

50
 Number of Number of
Carbon Isotopes Stability
Proton Neutron
Carbon – 12 6 6 Stable
Carbon – 13 6 7 Stable
Carbon – 13 6 8 Unstable (Radioactive)

Third Set of Terms

Ions
Naturally, atoms have no charges because the number of electrons and protons are
equal. Though, atoms can either lose or gain electrons the charges unbalance.
Ions are charged atoms in which the number of protons and electrons in an atom is
unequal. Cations are positively charged atoms because it lost one or more electrons.
Anions are negatively charged atoms because it gained one or more electrons.
As mentioned in the review, the number of electrons dictates the reactivity (ability to
create bonds) of an atom or molecule. This will be further discussed in Science 9 Quarter
2.
Non – Ionizing Radiation Ionizing Radiation
 Radiation with longer wavelength and  Radiation with shorter wavelength
lower energy. and higher energy
 Atoms or molecules hit by non-  Atoms or molecules hit by ionizing
ionizing radiation will vibrate faster. radiation become ions. The high
 Cannot ionize matter because its energy ionizing radiation or able to
energy not enough to knock-off the knock away the electrons of atoms
electrons of an atom. or molecules.
 As the number of electrons of
atoms or molecules changes, their
reactivity changes as well.
 Ionized atoms or molecules will
create chemical changes by
breaking chemical bonds due to
reactivity.
 This effect can cause damage to
living tissues, making ionizing
radiation dangerous to our body.

51
 Learning Task -1: Terms Related to Radioactivity and Nuclear Energy
True or False
1. Light is a radiation.
2. Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion are natural cause of nuclear radiation.
3. Nuclear radiation can travel as electromagnetic radiation.
4. Strong nuclear force makes protons repel each other.
5. Hydrogen atoms have one proton, and can either have zero, one, or two neutrons.
6. Stability of the nucleus depends on the ratio of number of protons and neutrons.
7. A stable nucleus is considered radioactive.
8. Ionizing radiation has lower energy than non-ionizing radiation.
9. Ionizing radiation can damage a human body.
10. Cellophanes release non-ionizing radiation.

What is it?
We will focus now on the different applications of radiation, both ionizing and non – ionizing.
To begin with, will have quick emphasis on how nuclear radiation occurs.

Stable and Unstable Atoms

Stable and Unstable Atoms

An atom is stable if the forces among the
particles that make up the nucleus are balanced.
An atom is unstable (radioactive) if these forces
are unbalanced.

 The instability of a nucleus may result from an excess of either neutrons or protons.
 An unstable nucleus will continually vibrate and contort to reach stability by any or
combination of the following:
 Ejecting neutrons or protons.
 Converting proton to neutron by ejecting a positron or converting neutron to
proton by ejecting a beta particle.
 Releasing of additional energy by photon (i.e., gamma ray) emission.

Radioactivity
An unstable atom will undergo a process of spontaneous nuclear transformations called
radioactivity. Radioactivity is accompanied by emission of radiation, which can be
electromagnetic radiation (EM waves) or particulate radiation (subatomic particle with high
energy). There are many types of radiation, but we will discuss the three most common only
in this module.

52
Alpha Decay
When a radioactive isotope emits an alpha particle, it loses two protons and two neutrons.
As a result, the atomic number (Z) decreases by two and the atomic mass number (A)
decreases by four. Physicists describe this form of decay as shown below, where P
represents the original nucleus or parent nucleus, and D represents the resulting nucleus or
daughter nucleus.

Only very large nuclei emit alpha particles. One such

reaction would be the alpha emission from radium-223 ( ). To determine the identity of
the daughter nucleus, write as much as you know about the reaction.

Then look up the identity of an element with an atomic number of 86, and you will find that it
is radon. The final equation becomes:

During this reaction, one element is converted into a

different element. Such a change is called transmutation. Alpha decay occurs in heavy
nuclides with Z ≥ 83, with the exception of .

Learning Task - 2: Alpha Decay

Write the nuclear reaction for the alpha decay of the following nuclei:

1) 𝑅𝑛 2) 𝑃𝑜 3) 𝐵𝑖

Alpha particles do not penetrate materials very well. A thick sheet of paper or about 5
cm of air can stop an alpha particle. In stopping, it severely affects the atoms and molecules
that are in its way. With the alpha particle’s positive charge, relatively large mass, and very
high speed (possibly close to 2×107 m/s), it gives some of the electrons in the atoms enough
energy to break free, leaving a charged ion behind. For this reason, alpha particles are
classified as ionizing radiation. These ions can disrupt biological molecules. Because of its
low penetrating ability, alpha radiation is not usually harmful, unless the radioactive material
is inhaled or ingested.
Beta Decay
When a radioactive isotope emits a beta particle, it appears to lose an electron from within
the nucleus. However, electrons as such do not exist in the nucleus — a transformation of a
nucleon had to take place to create the electron. In fact, in the process, a neutron becomes
a proton, so the total nucleon number (A) remains the same, but the atomic number (Z)
increases by one. Beta decay occurs when a nucleus has too many neutrons.

You can write the general reaction for beta decay as follows, where represents the beta
particle, which is a high-energy electron. The superscript zero does not mean zero mass,
because an electron has mass. The zero means that there are no nucleons.

53
Many common elements such as carbon have isotopes that are beta emitters.

When you look up the identity of an element with an atomic number of 7, you will find that it
is nitrogen. The final equation becomes:

When physicists were doing some of the original research on beta decay, they made some
very puzzling observations. Linear momentum of the beta particle and daughter nucleus was
not conserved. As well, they determined the spin of each particle and observed that angular
momentum was not conserved. To add to the puzzle, the physicists calculated the mass
defect and discovered that mass-energy was not conserved.
Some physicists were ready to accept that these subatomic particles did not follow the
conservation laws. However, Wolfgang Pauli (1900–1958) proposed an explanation for
these apparent violations of the fundamental laws of physics. He proposed the existence of
an as yet unknown, undiscovered particle that would account for all of the missing
momentum and energy. It was more than 25 years before this elusive particle, the neutrino
(νe), was discovered.
In reality, the particle that is emitted with a beta particle is an antineutrino, a form of
antimatter. The antineutrino has a very small or zero rest mass and so can travel at or near
the speed of light. It accounts for all the ―missing pieces‖ of beta decay. The correct reaction
for beta decay should be written as follows. The bar above the symbol νe for the neutrino
indicates that it is an antiparticle.

Beta particles penetrate matter to a far greater extent than do alpha particles, mainly due to
their much smaller mass, size, and charge. They can penetrate about 0.1 mm of lead or
about 10 m of air. Although they can penetrate better than alpha particles, they are only
about 5% to 10% as biologically destructive. Like alpha particles, they do their damage by
ionizing atoms and molecules, and so are classified as ionizing radiation.

Learning Task - 3: Beta Decay

Write the nuclear reaction for the following beta decay:

1) 𝑉 2) 𝐶𝑎 3) 𝑇

Gamma Decay
When a nucleus decays by alpha or beta emission, the daughter nucleus is often left in an
excited state. The nucleus then emits a gamma ray to drop down to its ground state. This
process can be compared to an electron in an atom that is in a high-energy level. When it
drops to its ground state, it emits a photon. However, a gamma ray photon has much more

54
energy than a photon emitted by an atom. The decay process can be expressed as follows,
where the star indicates that the nucleus is in an excited state.
The following is an example of gamma decay:

Gamma radiation is the most penetrating of all. It can pass through about 10 cm of lead or
about 2 km of air. The penetrating ability of gamma radiation is due to two factors. First, it
carries no electric charge and therefore does not tend to disrupt electrons as it passes by.
Second, its photon energy is far beyond any electron energy level in the atoms.
Consequently, it cannot be absorbed through electron jumps between energy levels.
However, when gamma radiation is absorbed, it
frees an electron from an atom, leaving behind
a positive ion and producing an electron with
the same range of kinetic energy as a beta
particle — often called ―secondary electron
emission.‖ For this reason, gamma radiation is
found to be just as biologically damaging as
beta radiation. As in the case of alpha and beta
radiation, gamma is classified as ionizing
radiation.

Image 1: In a magnetic field, alpha rays bend one way,

beta rays bend the other way, and gamma rays do not
bend at all. The combined beam comes from a
radioactive source placed at the bottom of a hole
drilled in a lead block.

Image 2: Alpha particles are the least penetrating and

can be stopped by a few sheets of paper. Beta
particles will readily pass-through paper, but not
through a sheet of aluminum. Gamma rays penetrate
several centimeters into solid lead.

Half – Life
The radioactive decay rate of an element is measured in terms of a characteristic time, the
half-life. This is the time it takes for half of an original quantity of a radioactive isotope to
decay. Radium-226, for example, has a half-life of 1620 years. This means that half of any
given specimen of radium-226 will be converted into other elements by the end of 1620
years. In the following 1620 years, half of the remaining radium will decay, leaving only one-
fourth the original amount of radium (after 20 half-lives, the initial quantity radium-226 will be
diminished by a factor of about one million). Cobalt-60, a standard source for radiotherapy,
has a half-life of 5.27 years. The isotopes of some elements have a half-life of less than a
millionth of a second, while uranium-238, for example, has a half-life of 4.5 billion years.
Every isotope of every radioactive element has its own characteristic half-life.
The half-life of an element can be calculated at any given moment by measuring the rate of
decay of a known quantity. This is easily done using a radiation detector. In general, the
shorter the half-life of a substance, the faster it disintegrates and the greater its decay rate.

55
 Image 3: Every 1620 years, the amount
of radium decreases by half.

What is more?
I hope you are enjoying this module. If you still have confusions when you reach this part, I
suggest you ask me or your classmates for clarifications, otherwise, proceed in the activity.

Learning task 4 – Answer as required.

A. Types of Radiation
Copy and fill the table below:
Type Classification Illustration Charge Mass Penetration Ionization
(electromagnetic (Draw and (+2, +1, (heavy, Ability Ability
radiation or label the 0, -1, - light, (high, (high,
particulate parts) 2) zero) average, average,
radiation) low) low)
Alpha
Beta
Gamma

B. Conceptual Questions
1. What is meant by radioactive half-life?
2. If a sample of a radioactive isotope has a half-life of 1 day, how much remains at the
end of the second day? At the end of the third day?

56
 What have I learned?

Congratulations! You are now on the last part of the last module of general physics 2. I
admire you for reaching this far. I hope you have learned a lot in this module, in this subject,
and in this schoolyear. You have been through a difficult situation, but you pursue your
studies despite all the challenges. Continue giving your best in anything that you do. Always
improve yourself and always find time to help others.

Self-Assessment
Put a check mark (/) under the following heading that speaks of the extent on your learning.

Concepts Very Much To a certain Not at all

(3) extent (1)
I can now (2)
Define radiation and radioactivity
Classify different types of radiation
Calculate radioisotope activity using the
concept of half-life

Use this as guide to interpret your total scores in the self-assessment:

Total Score Interpretation

You perceive that you now have advanced proficiency
8–9
of the learning competency in this module.
You perceive that you now have proficiency of the
6–7
learning competency in this module.
You perceive that you still need to develop your
3–4
proficiency of the learning competency in this module.

57
 Key to Correction
Week 1 Lesson

Learning Task 1: True or False

1. False. There are only 4 types: paramagnetic, diamagnetic, ferromangtic, and ferrimagnetic
2. False. The magnetic field is in CONCENTRIC CIRCLES around the wire.
3. False. The thumb is pointing towards the direction of the electric force.
4. False. The right-hand rule is applicable only to POSITIVE charges.
5. False. The curve inside a magnet is completed from SOUTH to NORTH.

Learning Task 2: Solve It!

1. A 25.0 m metal rod moves at a speed of 5 m/s Solution:

perpendicular to a magnetic field of intensity
1.4 T. Find the resulting potential difference at
the ends of the rods.

2. A square loop with 5 cm sides is Solution:

perpendicular to a uniform field 150 mT in
intensity. If a third of this flux remains every
0.010 s, what is the average emf induced?

Week 2 Lesson

Learning Task 1 – Unlike concave mirrors, convex mirrors always produce images that are:
located behind the convex mirror, a virtual image, an upright image, reduced in size (i.e., smaller
than the object).

Learning Task 2
A. Converging Lens
Object Diagram Image Image Relative Type of
Location Location Orientation Size of Image
Image

1. The object is at 2F on the inverted Same size real

located at 2F other side of
the lens

58
2. The object is Beyond the 2F inverted enlarged real
located point on the
between 2F other side of
and F the lens

3. The object is
located at F

No image is formed

4. The object is Somewhere Erect enlarged virtual

in front of F on the same
side of the or upright
lens as the
object

A. Diverging Lens B.
Object Diagram Image Image Relative Size Type of
Location Location Orientation of Image Image

5. The object on the object Erect or reduced Virtual

is beyond 2F side of the upright
lens

6. The object on the object Erect or reduced virtual

is 2F and F side of the upright
lens

Week 4

Learning Task - 1
1. , Learning Task - 2
2. 56.4 m 1. a) 1.25 eV b) 𝑥 m/s
3. 42 beats/min 2. a) 2.88eV b) 0.17eV
4. J. 3. 24,800V
5.

Week 5

10. True True 5.

9. True False 4.
8. False True 3.
7. False False 2.
6. True True 1.
Learning Task 1

59
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