Dr.

/ Abdelhady Ghanem

Electrical Measurements
ELE243
Prepared by Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem
Presented by Dr./ Mohamed Elgohary

Lec. №: (2)
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Chapter (2)

Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems

 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Evaluation of Instrument

There are some basic measurement techniques and devices that are useful and
will continue to be widely used also. There is always a need for improvement
and development of new equipment to solve measurement problems.

A knowledge of the performance characteristics of an instrument is essential

for selecting the most suitable instrument for specific measuring jobs. It
consists of two basic characteristics—static and dynamic.

The major problem encountered with any measuring instrument is the error.
Therefore, it is obviously necessary to select the appropriate measuring
instrument and measurement method which minimizes error. To avoid errors
in any experimental work, careful planning, execution and evaluation of the
experiment are essential.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Static Characteristics
1- Desirable Static Characteristics

➢ Accuracy: The degree of exactness (closeness) of a measurement compared to the

expected (desired) value.

➢ Precision: A measure of the consistency or repeatability of measurements, i.e.

successive reading do not differ. (Precision is the consistency of the instrument
output for a given value of input).

Poor accuracy Good accuracy High precision High accuracy

with poor precision with poor precision with poor accuracy with high precision
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Static Characteristics
1- Desirable Static Characteristics

➢ Resolution: The smallest change in a measured variable to which an instrument

will respond.

➢ Sensitivity: The ratio of the change in output (response) of the instrument to a

change in output
change of input or measured variable. sensetivity =
change in input

➢ Scale readability: the closeness to which the scale can be read is known as scale
readability and it depends on factors such as: number of graduations, spacing
between the graduations, size of the pointer and discriminating power of the
observer.

➢ Reproducibility: It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be

repeatedly measured. Perfect reproducibility means that the instrument has
no drift and no hysteresis.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Static Characteristics
1- Desirable Static Characteristics

➢ Linearity: Means that the outputs of the measurement system are in a linear
relation to the inputs. The percentage of non-linearity existing in the instrument
is given by:

Maximum deviation of the output from the true curve

%non − linearity =
full scal reading

Span

Full-scale
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Static Characteristics
1- Undesirable Static Characteristics

➢ Drift: It is the measure of deviation in the instrument output for a particular

period. No drift means that with a given input tire measured values do not
vary with time. The factors which contribute towards the drift are: (i) wear and
tear (ii) mechanical vibration (iii) stress developed in the instrument
components (iv) variation in temperature (v) stray electric and magnetic fields
and (vi) thermal emf.
o Drift may be classified into three categories:

i. Zero drift.
ii. Span drift or Sensitivity drift.
iii. Zonal drift
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Static Characteristics
1- Undesirable Static Characteristics

Zero drift:
If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or due to
undue warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in. This can be prevented
by zero setting.

10

Shift (high)

Nominal
Output

Shift (low)

8
0 1 Input
2 3 4 5
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Static Characteristics
1- Undesirable Static Characteristics

Span drift or Sensitivity drift: Zonal drift:

If there is proportional change in In case the drift occurs only
the indication all along the over a portion of span of an
upward scale, the drift is called instrument, it is called zonal
span drift or sensitivity drift drift.

10 10
Span drift Zonal drift
(high)

Nominal Nominal

Output
Output

Span drift
(low)
8 8
0 1 Input
2 3 4 5 0 1 Input
2 3 4 5
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Static Characteristics
1- Undesirable Static Characteristics
➢ Dead zone: A region in the input where there is no output
Threshold: The minimum value of input quantity required to change the
output reading from zero. It is defined as the minimum value below
which there exists no output signal or smallest measurable input.

25

➢ Hysteresis: It is the phenomenon which shows 20

different characteristics during loading and
15

Output
unloading. It occurs in the instrument due to
mechanical friction, motion in bearing, magnetic 10

and thermal effects. 5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Input
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Static Characteristics
1- Undesirable Static Characteristics

➢ Noise: Random fluctuation in a signal, which does not convey any information or an
error or undesired random disturbance in the useful signal. The common sources of
noise are stray electrical and magnetic fields, mechanical shocks and vibrations.

➢ Loading Effect: it occurs due to both electrical and mechanical elements, and it is the
alteration caused in the voltage, current etc. when the measurement is made.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Static Characteristics
1- Undesirable Static Characteristics

➢ Static error or absolute static error: It is the difference between the expected
value of the variable and the measured value of the variable, as given by:
𝑒 = 𝑌𝑛 − 𝑋𝑛
o The relative static error: it is defined as the ratio of the absolute static error to the
true (expected) value of the quantity under measurement and is given by
𝑒 𝑌𝑛 − 𝑋𝑛
% Error = × 100 = × 100
𝑌𝑛 𝑌𝑛
o Static correction: It is the difference between the measured value and true value of
the quantity, as given by
𝑌𝑛 − 𝑋𝑛
𝑆𝐶 = −𝑒 = 𝑋𝑛 − 𝑌𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦 = 𝐴 = 1 −
𝑌𝑛
𝑋𝑛 − 𝑋ത𝑛
%𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦 = 𝑎 = 100% − % Error=A × 100 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑃 = 1 −
𝑋ത𝑛
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Dynamic Characteristics

➢ Speed of Response: It is defined as the rapidity with which an instrument

responds to changes in input quantity or the quantity to be measured.

➢ Response Time or Settling Time: It is the time required by the instrument to

settle to its final steady state value after the input quantity is applied.

➢ Lag: The delay existing in the dynamic response of the instrument when a change in
input quantity is applied. Therefore, in the high-speed measurement systems, the
time lag should be minimum. The two different types of lag are:
❑ Retardation type: In this type of measuring lag, the output is obtained
immediately after a change in measured quantity has occurred.
❑ Time delay: In this type of measuring lag, the output is obtained after a dead
zone.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Dynamic Characteristics
➢ Fidelity: It is the capability of the instrument to reproduce the output in the
same form as the input.

➢ Dynamic Error: The difference between the true value of the time varying
quantity, which is changing with time and the output value indicated by the
instrument, if no static error is assumed. Generally, the total dynamic error of the
instrument is given by the combination of its fidelity and the time lag between
input and output of the system.

➢ Time Constant: It is defined as the time taken to reach 63.2 % of the final output
value. If the system has less time constant, it indicates that the final output value
will be attained earlier.
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Solved Examples
Example:
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Solved Examples
Example:

Solution:
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Solved Examples
Example:

Solution:
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Solved Examples
Example:
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Solved Examples

Example:
 Dr./ Abdelhady Ghanem

Solved Examples

Example: