656-Climate Change in Early Urban Centers

1. During the third millennium B.C.E., the first urban centers in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran,

Central Asia, and South Asia flourished and grew in complexity and wealth in a wet and cool

climate. This smooth development was sharply, if not universally, interrupted beginning around

2200 B.C.E. Both archaeological and written records agree that across Afro-Eurasia, most of

the urban, rural, and pastoral societies underwent radical change. Those watered by major

rivers were destabilized, while the settled communities on the highland plateaus virtually

disappeared.

2. After a brief hiatus, some recovered, completely reorganized, and used new technologies to

manage agriculture and water. The causes of this radical change have been the focus of much

interest. After four decades of research by climate specialists working together with

archaeologists, a consensus has emerged that climate change toward a warmer and drier

environment contributed to this disruption. Whether this was caused solely by human activity,

in particular agriculture on a large scale, or was also related to cosmic causes such as the

rotation of Earth's axis away from the Sun, is still a hotly debated topic. It was likely a

combination of factors.

3. The urban centers dependent on the three major river systems in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and

the Indus Valley all experienced disruption. In Egypt, the hieroglyphic inscriptions tell us

that the Nile no longer flooded over its banks to replenish the fields with fresh soil and with

water for crops. Social and political chaos followed for more than a century. In southern

Mesopotamia, rivers changed course, disrupting settlement patterns and taking fields out of
cultivation. Other fields were poisoned by salts brought on through overcultivation and

irrigation without fallow periods (periods when nothing is planted). Fierce competition for

water and land put pressure on the central authority. To the east and west, pastoralists faced

with shrinking pasture for their flocks, pressed in on the river valleys, disrupting the already

challenged social and political structure of the densely urban centers.

4. In northern Mesopotamia, the responses to the challenges of dryness were more varied.

Some centers were able to weather the crisis by changing strategies of food production and

distribution. Some fell victim to internal warfare, while others, on the rainfall margin, were

abandoned. When the region was settled again, society was differently organized. The

population did not drastically decrease, but rather it distributed across the landscape more

evenly in smaller settlements that required less water and food. It appears that a similar solution

was found by communities to the east on the Iranian plateau, where the inhabitants of the huge

urban center of Shahr i Sokhta abruptly left the city and settled in small communities across the

oasis landscape.

5. The solutions found by people living in the cities of the Indus Valley also varied. Some

cities, like Harappa, saw their population decrease rapidly. It seems that the bed of the river

shifted, threatening the settlement and its hinterland. Another city, Mohenjo Daro, on the other

hand, continued to be occupied for another several centuries, although the large civic structures

fell out of use, replaced by more modest structures. And to the south, on the Gujarat Peninsula,

the population and the number of settlements increased. They abandoned wheat as a crop,

instead cultivating a kind of drought-enduring millet that originated in West Africa. Apparently

conditions there became even more hospitable, allowing farming and fishing communities to

flourish well into the second millennium B.C.E.

6. The evidence for this widespread phenomenon of climate change at the end of the third

millennium B.C.E. is complex and contradictory. This is not surprising because every culture

and each community naturally had an individual response to environmental and other

challenges. Those with perennial sources of freshwater were less threatened than those in

marginal zones, where only a slight decrease in rainfall can mean failed crops and herds.

Likewise, certain types of social and political institutions were resilient and introduced

innovations that allowed them to adapt, while others were too rigid or shortsighted to find local

solutions. A feature of human culture is its remarkable ability to adapt rapidly. When faced

with challenges, resilience, creativity, and ingenuity lead to cultural innovation and change.

1. According to paragraph 1, the claim that Afro-Eurasian societies underwent radical

change during the third millennium B.C.E.

A. conflicts with the claim that they grew in complexity and wealth.

B. has been challenged by discoveries in the archaeological record.

C. is supported by more than one kind of evidence.

D. has not been widely accepted but remains the focus of much interest.

2. According to paragraph 2, experts have not yet agreed on whether the disruption in
early urban centers was affected by

A. Climate change.

B. a warmer and drier environment.

C. human activity.

D. cosmic causes.
3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the
highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in
important ways or leave out essential information.

A. Pastoralists moved their flocks into the river valleys in search of pasture, putting additional
pressure on urban centers.

B. To the east and west of the river valleys, pastoralists faced shrinking pasture land due to
disruption from urban centers.

C. The urban centers in river valleys were disrupted by challenges to their shrinking pasture
land by newly arrived pastoral groups.

D. After they moved into the river valleys, pastoralists reorganized the social and political
structure of urban areas there.

4. According to paragraph 4, people both in northern Mesopotamia and on the Iranian

plateau responded to the challenges of dryness by

A. moving from the rainfall margins to the cities.

B. taking resources from smaller communities.

C. reorganizing their communities into smaller settlements.

D. creating urban centers of food production and distribution.

5. Paragraph 5 suggests which of the following about the city of Mohenjo Daro during
the period in which the climate changed?

A. It did not experience a rapid decrease in population.

B. It was unable to receive many of the people who had left other cities.

C. Its crop production benefited from the shift in the riverbed.

D. Some of its inhabitants moved to the Gujarat Peninsula.

6. Which of the following best describes the relationship of paragraph 6 to paragraph
5?

A. Paragraph 6 provides evidence for the claim that people of the Indus Valley found varying
solutions to the crisis, as described in paragraph 5.

B. Paragraph 6 challenges the claim made in paragraph 5 that conditions in parts of the Indus
Valley were more hospitable than in other parts.

C. Paragraph 6 explains why regions responded differently to the crisis, while paragraph 5
offers specific examples of such differences.

D. Paragraph 6 identifies reasons why the communities listed in paragraph 5 could have
responded more effectively to the crisis.

7. The word "contradictory" in the passage is closest in meaning to

A. difficult to interpret

B. debatable

C. conflicting

D. incomplete

8. The word "ingenuity" in the passage is closest in meaning to

A. determination

B. efficiency

C. patience

D. cleverness
9. Look at the four squares that indicate where the following sentence could be
added to the passage

Changes in the rivers' behavior had significant effects on agriculture.

Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square sentence to the passage.

10.
Beginning around 2200 B.C.E., early urban centers across Afro-Eurasia underwent radical
change.

A. According to archaeological and written records, complex and wealthy urban centers
experienced more significant change than rural and pastoral societies.
B. Changes in major river systems created disruption in food production and availability of
land for pasture and crop cultivation, resulting in fierce competition for water and land.
C. Areas that experienced internal warfare were slower to reorganize and resettle than
areas that experienced only a disruption in food production and distribution.
D. Archaeologists and climate specialists agree that environmental disruptions led to
radical changes in agricultural methods, which in turn destabilized the affected
communities.
E. Communities responded differently to changes in climate, some abandoning
settlements, others changing settlement patterns, and others producing and
distributing food in new ways.
F. Settlements faced a range of challenges due to climate change and each found
solutions according to its own circumstances, but the results demonstrated the ability
of human culture to adapt.
Answers:

1. C

Explanation:

Paragraph 1 states: “Both archaeological and written records agree that across Afro-Eurasia,
most of the urban, rural, and pastoral societies underwent radical change.”

This shows that the claim is supported by more than one kind of evidence—specifically,
archaeological and written records. This directly supports option C.

Why not the other options?

A: is incorrect because the passage does not suggest a conflict between growth in
complexity/wealth and radical change—it describes a smooth development that was later
interrupted.

B: is incorrect because the archaeological record supports the claim, rather than challenging
it.

D: is incorrect because the passage does not indicate that the claim is "not widely accepted";
instead, it presents the change as a fact agreed upon by multiple sources.

2. D

Explanation:

Paragraph 2 states: "Whether this was caused solely by human activity, in particular
agriculture on a large scale, or was also related to cosmic causes such as the rotation of
Earth's axis away from the Sun, is still a hotly debated topic."

This means that while human activity (C) is part of the debate, the cosmic causes (D) are
explicitly mentioned as still being uncertain.

Why not the other options?

A: is incorrect because the paragraph explicitly states that a consensus has emerged that
climate change contributed to the disruption.

B: is incorrect because the paragraph specifies that the climate change was toward a warmer
and drier environment, and experts agree this was a contributing factor.

C: is incorrect because the debate mentioned is whether human activity was the sole cause or
if it was combined with other factors. The paragraph implies human activity was a likely
contributing factor.
3. A

The highlighted sentence in the passage is: "To the east and west, pastoralists faced with
shrinking pasture for their flocks, pressed in on the river valleys, disrupting the already
challenged social and political structure of the densely urban centers."

Key points:

1. Pastoralists moved into river valleys due to shrinking pasture.

2. This movement disrupted urban centers that were already struggling.

Why A is correct:

- It accurately captures the cause (shrinking pasture forcing pastoralists to move) and
the effect (pressure on urban centers).
- It maintains the original meaning without distortion.

Why not the other options?

B: incorrectly suggests that urban centers caused the shrinking pasture, rather than
climate/dryness.

C: wrongly implies that urban centers had pasture land (they didn’t—pastoralists did).

D: incorrectly states that pastoralists reorganized urban structures (the passage says they
disrupted them, not reorganized).

Thus, A is the only choice that fully and accurately reflects the original sentence.

4. C

Explanation:

Paragraph 4 states:

- In northern Mesopotamia, society redistributed into smaller settlements that required

less water and food.
- Similarly, on the Iranian plateau, inhabitants of the large urban center Shahr i Sokhta
abandoned the city and settled in smaller communities across the oasis landscape.

Why A is correct:

It directly matches the passage’s description of people shifting from large urban centers to
smaller, more sustainable settlements.
Why not the other options?

A: is incorrect because people moved away from cities (not toward them) and abandoned
rainfall margins.

B: is incorrect because the passage mentions no exploitation of smaller communities—

instead, people formed them.

D: is incorrect because while some areas adapted food strategies, the key response was
decentralization, not creating new urban centers.

5. A

Explanation:

Paragraph 5 states:

- Harappa saw its population decrease rapidly due to a shifting riverbed.

- On the other hand, Mohenjo Daro "continued to be occupied for another several
centuries," though its large civic structures were replaced by more modest ones.

Why not the other options?

B: is incorrect because the passage never mentions migration into Mohenjo Daro from other
cities.

C: is incorrect because the riverbed shift is mentioned only in relation to Harappa, not
Mohenjo Daro.

D: is incorrect because while Gujarat’s population increased, the passage does not link this
migration to Mohenjo Daro’s inhabitants.
6. C

Explanation:

- Paragraph 5 provides specific examples of how different cities in the Indus Valley
(Harappa, Mohenjo Daro, and settlements in Gujarat) responded to climate change.
- Paragraph 6 then generalizes why responses varied, explaining that factors like
freshwater availability, social resilience, and adaptability influenced outcomes.
- It accurately captures the relationship: Paragraph 5 = examples, Paragraph 6 =
explanation of why responses differed.

Why not the other options?

A: is incorrect because Paragraph 6 does not provide new evidence—it analyzes the broader
reasons behind the variations already described in Paragraph 5.

B: is incorrect because Paragraph 6 does not challenge any claims from Paragraph 5; it
complements them with analysis.

D: is incorrect because Paragraph 6 does not criticize the responses in Paragraph 5—it
explains them neutrally.

7. C

8. D
9. A

Placement Explanation:

- Logical Placement: The inserted sentence serves as a topic sentence that introduces
the key idea—how river changes impacted agriculture—before providing specific
examples.
- Coherence: It connects well with both the preceding sentence (general disruption) and
the following details (specific agricultural effects in Egypt and Mesopotamia).
- TOEFL Criteria: The addition maintains flow and clarity, ensuring the paragraph remains
focused on cause-and-effect relationships.

Why D is incorrect?
Context of the last square:

1. Preceding text: Discusses Mesopotamia's rivers changing course, disrupting

settlements and fields
2. Target insertion point:
3. Following text: "Other fields were poisoned by salts..." (a specific agricultural effect)

10. B,D,E

TOEFL Strategy: To determine the "best" option according to the TOEFL test, we need to
consider what the TOEFL Reading section typically assesses. The questions often test your
ability to:

- Understand the main ideas of the passage.

- Identify supporting details.
- Make inferences.
- Understand vocabulary in context.
- Recognize the author's purpose.
- Follow the logical flow of information.
- Summarize key information.

1. Prioritize options that distill unique points without overlap.

2. Allow for implied causality (as in D) if the logic fits the passage.
Considering these aspects, let's analyze the two sets of options:

Option Set 1: B, E, F

B: directly addresses a major cause and effect of the radical change, focusing on the
disruption of essential resources (food and land) due to altered river systems. This is a
significant detail supported by paragraph 3.

E: highlights the diverse responses of different communities to the climate changes, showing
the widespread impact and varied adaptations. This aligns with the information in paragraphs
4 and 5.

F: provides a broader conclusion, linking the changes to climate change and emphasizing the
human capacity for adaptation. This reflects the overall message of the passage, particularly
paragraph 6.

Option Set 2: B, D, E

B: (same as above) focuses on a key mechanism of disruption in major river valley civilizations.

D: explains the likely environmental cause of the radical changes and its impact on agriculture,
leading to community destabilization. This is a crucial point supported by paragraph 2.

E: (same as above) illustrates the varied ways communities responded to the challenges.

Which is "best" according to TOEFL?

Both sets of options provide accurate information derived from the passage and address the
initial statement about radical change. However, Option Set 2 (B, D, E) might be considered
slightly better because it covers a more comprehensive range of aspects related to the radical
change:

B: explains how the change manifested in a significant region.

D: explains the likely cause of the widespread change.

E: explains the different ways communities experienced and reacted to the change.

TOEFL reading comprehension questions often require you to understand not just what
happened, but also why it happened and what the consequences were. Option set 2 touches
upon these different facets more directly than option set 1, which focuses more on the
manifestations and a concluding thought.
Therefore, while both are valid responses, B, D, and E likely represent the "best" option for
capturing the key aspects of the radical change as presented in the reading passage, aligning with
the typical assessment goals of the TOEFL Reading section.

Why F is slightly less strong:

F: is reflective and summarizing in tone — better suited to a conclusion than to immediate

support after the topic sentence.

D: is more directly linked to the paragraph’s theme of radical change and its causes, which is
what the sentence is introducing.

Another Explanation:

A discusses differences between urban and rural societies, which is relevant but somewhat
broad.

B: directly links major river system disruptions to food and land availability, explaining one of
the primary causes of change.

C: compares internal warfare and food disruption impacts but is more about the pace of
change than the cause.

D: emphasizes environmental disruptions and their effects on agriculture and communities,

providing a comprehensive explanation.

E: talks about varied community responses but assumes changes have already occurred.

F: discusses adaptation strategies, which is more about responses than causes.