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 The descending branch, c, has at its base a small tank e, which forms a water seal. The syphon is completed by a tube f,
which is attached to the intake branch of the syphon and which ends at a level of 2 to 7 cm. above the previously mentioned
surface dd.
As soon as the water surface in the supply basin tends to rise above the plane dd, a filament of water, in falling over the
weir b, pours down the descending branch c, and when the water has risen from 2 to 7 cm. above the crest of the weir, the
thickness of the falling stream has become such that it is able, by lapping, with a wave-like course, the wall gg, to extract
the air that has become enclosed in the syphon, and which cannot be replaced because the space in which the stream acts is
closed at its base by the water in the tank e; and at the top also the aeration tube is closed by the rise in the water surface
of the supply basin. From this point the syphon action quickly becomes fully established and begins to give its full discharge.
The discharge that is given is equal to that of an orifice in a thin partition if certain limitations are allowed for between the
fall used in the syphon and the height of the arch, that is, the distance from the crest of the weir to the inside roof of the
syphon.
The discharge is given by the formula

Q = μA√2gh.

Q = discharge of syphon in cubic metres per sec.

μ = a coefficient of reduction of discharge which varies between wide limits.
A = the minimum cross-sectional area of the syphon in square metres.
g = value of acceleration due to gravity.
h = the fall, or the difference of level in metres between the water surfaces in the supply basin A and in the small tank e.
As soon as the supply basin surface falls, the opening of the aeration tube becomes uncovered and air is drawn into the
syphon. But until the surface has fallen some centimetres the supply of air is not sufficient to cause the syphon action to
stop completely, and thus the escape varies gradually from the maximum discharge to zero as the water surface falls a few
centimetres till it reaches its original level.
In certain cases it is possible to do without the aeration tube, especially when the fall used in the syphon is not great and
when it is possible to arrange matters so that the velocity of the water flowing past in front of the syphon is small.
The syphon with a width of 3 metres escapes 8 cubic metres per sec. of water.

APPENDIX G.

GAUGES.
(See Chap. III., Arts. 2 and 3; also see Hydraulics, Chap. VIII., Art. 5, and Appendix H.)

1. The gauge should be placed on that bank and facing in that direction which enables it to be most
conveniently read by the gauge reader and by officials passing the place.
2. The gauge should be of enamelled iron secured by copper screws to a post of squared and
seasoned wood which is either driven beforehand[64] into the channel or spiked to a masonry work.
Even in the deepest channel a long enough post can be arranged for. A masonry pillar is not necessary.
The post may be rectangular in cross-section, with upstream and downstream edges cut sharp. This
prevents, or greatly reduces, the heaping up of water at the upstream side and the formation of a
hollow downstream. If the “Ward” gauge of two vertical planks is used, the planks should meet at an
acute angle, not a right angle, and not be wider than 7 inches each.
[64] Driving after the gauge is attached may loosen or break the screws.

3. The top of the gauge should be slightly above the highest probable water-level. The post should
extend up to the top of the gauge.
4. If ever the graded bed of the channel is altered the zero of the gauge should be altered. There
may be some risk of confusion at first, but it can be avoided by exercising due care and making notes.
The levels of the old and new zeros should be recorded.
5. A gauge at a distance from the bank is objectionable. It collects jungle, cannot be properly read,
and is liable to be damaged by floating logs or boats. A gauge should be as near as possible to one
bank or the other. If the bank is vertical, the gauge should be quite close to it. If, owing to silt deposit,
the gauge is dry at low supply, the deposit can be removed by the gauge reader.
6. Every regulator should be given a name, generally that of a neighbouring village and not that of a
channel, and the gauge book headings should be drawn up in an intelligent and systematic manner.
Each main channel should be entered in order, and each regulator on the channel—together with the
head gauges of all channels which take off there—should be entered, commencing from upstream. A
specimen is given on page 109. Thus the head gauge of any branch appears in the register of the main
channel from which it takes off, other gauges on the branch appearing in the register for the branch.
And similarly as regards a distributary which has gauges other than the head gauge.
7. Each gauge reader should be supplied with a register, each page having, besides the counterfoil, as
many detachable slips—marked off by perforations—as there are officials—usually the Subdivisional
Officer, zilladar and suboverseer—to whom daily gauge reports are to be sent. The titles and addresses
of these officials are printed on the backs of the respective slips. The slips and counterfoil have printed
on them a form—similar to part of the specimen shown on page 109—showing the names of all the
gauges read by that particular gauge reader, so that he has merely to fill in the date and readings, tear
off the slips and despatch them. The posting of the register in the subdivision is facilitated if each gauge
has a number and if the corresponding numbers are printed—besides the names—on the gauge slips. If
the gauge reader does not know English, the headings of the slips are printed in the vernacular. If the
gauge readings are telegraphed, there may be only one slip—besides the counterfoil—which is sent to
the telegraph signaller.

APPENDIX H.

[65]
GIBB’S MODULE.
(See p. 164.)

[65] This description has been supplied by Glenfield & Kennedy, Kilmarnock. The modules can, it is
understood, be obtained from them.

The attributes of a perfect module are many and varied, but in Gibb’s module they have all been
successfully embodied in what is probably the simplest piece of apparatus of its kind ever devised. The
following summary of the characteristics of Gibb’s module is, therefore, equivalent to an enumeration of
the attributes of a perfect module:—
Gibb’s module
Cannot be tampered with,
Cannot get out of order,
since it has no moving parts, and because of its
Silt or other solid matter in the water cannot -
extreme simplicity.
affect its action,
Requires no attention,
It is accurate,
-being designed on scientific hydraulic principles.
Works with very small loss of head,
It is portable, and can be erected at any desired site very simply and easily.
It is strong and durable.
The range of variation of both up- and downstream water-levels through which the discharge
remains constant is more than sufficient to meet all the requirements of irrigation canals.
The sufficiency of the delivery can be ascertained at a glance.
The water can be drawn from any desired depth in the parent channel.
When desired, means are provided whereby the supply can be closed or opened at will.
Means are provided, if desired, for a sudden increase of discharge when the upstream water-level
exceeds a certain limit, so that surplus water, which might endanger the safety of the canal, is
allowed to escape into the branch whenever the danger limit is reached. The upstream water-
level at which escapement begins can be fixed in accordance with the requirements of each site,
and the action of the escape notch is independent of the opening and closing of the module.
No designing or calculations are required. These have already been worked out. Known the
discharge required, the module is supplied complete and ready for setting in position in the
canal bank.
 Hydraulic Principle.
The entire absence of moving parts is the chief feature of Gibb’s module; the water simply regulates
itself by using up all the excess of energy over and above that required to discharge the correct supply
of water. The way in which this takes place will be understood from the following analogy:—
We all know that when we stir tea in a cup so as to make it spin, the liquid rises at the rim of the cup
and curves down into a depression in the middle, and the greater the spin the more marked this effect
is. It is, we know, the centrifugal force produced by the spin that makes the tea remain high at the rim
of the cup. If, while the tea is thus spinning, a teaspoon is held so that it dips slightly below the surface
of the liquid near the rim, it will obstruct the flow of the outer portion of the liquid, which will fall in
towards the depression in the middle. The reason for this, of course, is that the centrifugal force is
absorbed when we interrupt any part of the spin with the teaspoon; hence the liquid must fall, and we
know that when liquid falls it uses up “head” or energy.
In Gibb’s module a similar action is made to take place in a steel chamber, semicircular or spiral in
plan, through which the water flows in a semicircular path instead of circulating round and round as in
the teacup. The surface of the stream, however, assumes the same form as it does in a cup, because it
flows under the same conditions. Across the chamber are fixed a number of vertical steel diaphragm
plates which take the place of the teaspoon in the above analogy. The lower edges of these plates are
of such a shape, and they are fixed at such a height from the bottom of the chamber, as to allow a
stream of just the correct required discharge of water to flow under them without interference. But if,
owing to an increase of head caused by a rise in the upstream water-level, the water tends to rise
higher at the circumference of the chamber, then the water at the surface of the stream strikes against
the diaphragm plates, and its centrifugal force being absorbed, it will fall in towards the centre just as
happened in the teacup when the spoon was used in place of these plates. In this way the excess head
that caused the additional rise of water at the circumference is used up by the fall back towards the
centre. The full capacity of the semicircle or spiral for using up excess head or energy in this way is
made available by the use of a sufficient number of diaphragm plates fixed at suitable intervals. When
the range of head to be dealt with is not large, then a semicircular chamber is sufficient; but for large
ranges of head the chamber is made of spiral form so as to lead the water round a complete revolution
or more, as may be necessary.
Structural Details.
Fig. 29 shows the general form and structure of the type of module suitable for irrigation. Fig. 30 is
from a photograph.
The working chamber or shell A is constructed of mild steel plating securely riveted to a framework of
angle steel, and the semicircular form of the shell with the rigid diaphragm plates B B riveted to the
walls makes a very strong structure, and ensures durability.
The “leading-in” bend C is of cast iron strongly bolted to the steel shell, and is so designed as to
deliver the water into the module chamber in a completely established vortex condition.
The socket D on this “leading-in” bend is made so as to allow of considerable latitude in the vertical
alignment of the straight leading-in pipe, so that the water can be drawn from any desired depth in the
parent channel, and the proportion of silt drawn off is thus brought under control.
 Fig. 29.—Details of Gibb’s Patent Module.
Large illustrations: End Elevation (top) (153 kB)
Plan (middle) (114 kB)
Front Elevation (bottom) (229 kB)

Grooves E E and a shutter F, as illustrated, for closing off the flow through the module, are provided,
if required, but all modules are not fitted in this way, because many irrigation authorities consider it
undesirable to provide the consumers with unrestricted facilities for closing off their supplies without
previously giving notice of such an action.
 Fig. 30.—The Completed Module (Open Type for Low Heads).

An escape notch H is provided in the position indicated when desired. It may, however, be found
difficult to determine beforehand the upstream water-level at which it is necessary to allow this escape
of surplus supply, so that it is generally more satisfactory to cut the escape notch after the modules
have been installed and actual experience has indicated a suitable level for the notch crest.
In the standard type of module for irrigation purposes the top of the module chamber is completely
open, as shown, and this is the type generally recommended, as it is found that consumers have
greater confidence in an apparatus which hides nothing from them. To meet the needs of special cases,
however, a second type is also made in which the chamber is completely closed and considerably
reduced in height, being thus specially suitable for sites where space is confined.
Pipes I, of diameter suitable for all sizes of modules, are also supplied. These may either be welded
steel or cast iron, as desired. An 18-feet length of pipe is usually found sufficient to bring the supply
through the canal bank to the module.
All modules supplied are treated with anti-corrosive paint, which ensures the protection of the metal.

APPENDIX K.

[66]
KENNEDY’S GAUGE OUTLET.
(See p. 168.)

[66] See Punjab Irrigation Branch Paper No. 12, “Results of Tests of Kennedy’s Gauge Outlet.”

Fig. 31 shows a bell-mouthed orifice discharging into an air-space. The jet springs across the air-
space and traverses a gradually diverging tube. Let a, A be the sectional areas of the stream at the air-
space and the downstream end of the tube respectively, and let V, v, and Pₐ, P₁ be the corresponding
velocities and pressures. Let resistances be neglected. Since the pressure in the air-space is Pₐ,

V = √2gh₀

or the discharge through the tube depends only on h₀ and not on h₁.

Fig. 31.

By Bernouilli’s theorem,

V² + Pₐ = v² + P₁
2g W 2g W

or

P₁ - Pₐ = V² - v² .
W 2g

This quantity (since v is small) is not much less than h₀ or V² . In other words, the water levels of
2g
two cisterns with an air-space between them differ only a little, or h₁ is small.
The above case (two cisterns and air-space) is mentioned in Hydraulics, Chap. V. The principle is
simply that the velocity head at the air-space is reconverted into pressure head by passing the stream
through a gradually diverging tube. In the absence of such a tube the velocity head would be wasted by
causing eddies in the downstream cistern.
If the downstream cistern is a watercourse whose water-level is considerably lower than that of the
upstream cistern or distributary, V is obviously unaffected. Also P₁ is obviously reduced. Therefore, by
Bernouilli, v is increased, or the stream does not fill the expanded tube and there are eddies in the
tube. The water-level in the watercourse may even be lower than the end of the tube. The discharge is
unaffected.
In practice there are, of course, resistances, but this fact does not affect the general conclusions
stated above. The minimum working head (difference between the two water-levels) which gives a
constant discharge is greater than would be the case in the absence of resistances. This “minimum
working head for modularity” has been found to be ·21 foot, ·42 foot, and ·61 foot, the corresponding
values of the “depression,” h₀, being respectively 1 foot, 2 feet, and 3 feet. When the working head is
less than the above, the discharge is less and it depends on the working head. The depression should,
according to Kennedy, be about 1·75 feet, but it may be more.
The chief difficulty in using the gauge outlet as a module is that the air vent can be stopped up. This
converts the apparatus into a compound diverging tube (Hydraulics, Chap. III., Art. 17). The discharge
is, of course, increased, and it becomes dependent at all times on the working head. Another difficulty
is that any rise or fall in the water-level of the distributary (and such rises and falls may occur owing to
silting or scour, however carefully the discharge may be regulated) alters the discharge somewhat,
though not to the same degree as in an ordinary outlet with a working head of, say, ·5 foot. In short,
Kennedy’s gauge outlet, or “semi-module” as it is sometimes called, can modify but not do away with
the variations of the discharges of outlets.
 INDEX.

Absorption, 16, 159.

Alignment, principles of, 4.
Alignment, centrality in, 5.
Alteration in line, 59.
Assiut Barrage, 11.
Assouan Dam, 11.
Banks, construction of, 138.
— protection of, 139, 175, 178.
— width and height of, 56.
Banks and Roads, 53.
Basin Irrigation, 11.
Berms, 53.
Bifurcations, 47.
Bifurcation, head needed at, 45.
Borrow pits, 55.
Branches of Canals, 3.
Breaches in Banks, 176.
Bricks used for canal work in India, 88.
Bridges, 8, 80, 87, 130.
— Skew, 29, 42.
Bushing of banks, 178.
Canal and branches, 20, 47.
Canal, bed width of, 51.
— supplied from reservoirs, 3, 13.
— inundation, 1, 45, 79, 127, 156.
— perennial, 1.
Capillarity, 16.
Cattle Gháts, 81, 173.
Cement for lining channels, 160.
Chainage, 93, 118.
Channels, alterations in, 97.
— enlargement of, 97, 139.
— gradients of, 50.
— side slopes of, 52.
Colonization Schemes, 64.
Command, 2.
Commanded area, 4.
Contour lines, 37.
— plan, 26, 36, 63.
— survey, 37.
Crops, failure of, 103, 142.
— kinds of, 101.
Culturable commanded area, 26, 113.
Curves and bends in channels, 8, 139.
“Delta,” 22, 110.
Deputy Collector, 96.
Designs and Estimates, 60.
Design of canals, 2, 26, 30, 47, 147, 156.
Discharge of canal during rabi, 52, 118.
Discharge observations, 107.
Discharges of Punjab rivers, 145, 157.
Discharge tables, 106.
— through an outlet, 61.
Distance marks, 93.
Distribution of water, 14, 118, 125.
Distributaries, 3, 20, 44, 46.
— best system of, 71.
Distributary, bed width of, 68.
— design of, 60.
— height and width of banks, 68.
— kharif, 156.
— longitudinal section of, 69.
— major and minor, 41.
— off-take of, 51.
— remodelling of, 128.
— side slopes of, 69.
— strip of land for, 69.
— with three fourths full supply, 45, 68, 166.
Divide Walls, 33, 169.
Divisions, canal, 96.
Drainage, 10.
Drainage Crossings, 8, 156.
Duty of water, 21, 25, 39, 148, 153, 154.
Duty, improvement of, 24, 102, 158.
Eastern Jumna Canal, 31.
Efflorescence called “Reh,” 15.
Egypt, irrigation in, 11.
Embankments, 9, 33, 156.
Escapes, 9, 100, 180.
Estimates for work, 59.
Evaporation, 16.
Executive Engineer, 96.
Extensions of canals, 127.
Extra land, 58.
Falling Shutters, 32.
Falls, 8, 81, 87.
— incomplete, 87, 130.
— notch, 86.
Field book, 101.
— map, 101.
— register, 101.
Final line, 59.
Flow and lift, 11.
Full supply duty, 64.
Full supply factor, 64.
Ganges Canal, 31.
Gauges, 10, 103, 104, 183.
Gauge reader, 96, 98, 105, 184.
Gauge reading, 105, 121.
— register, 105, 106, 108, 111.
Gibb’s module, 164, 186.
Guide banks, 35.
Head for distributary, 82, 83.
Headworks, 2, 30, 98, 99, 137.
Indents for water, 98, 108, 110.
Inundation canals, 1, 45, 79, 127, 156.
Irrigation boundaries, 33, 129.
— in various countries, 1.
— registers, 113.
— unauthorised, 101.
Kennedy’s gauge outlet, 168, 193.
— Rules for channel design, 48.
Kharif or Summer Crop, 23.
Kutter’s co-efficients, 51.
Lift irrigation, 11, 142.
Lime for making channels watertight, 162.
Longitudinal section, 69, 130.
Losses of water in channels, 16, 38, 159.
Low supplies, 118, 123.
Lower Chenab Canal, 25, 144.
Lower Egypt, 11.
Lower Jhelum Canal, 144.
Maintenance work, 138, 171, 174.
Marginal Embankments, 9.
Masonry works, 29, 80, 89.
— — large scale site plan, 89.
— — type designs, 89.
Mills, 8.
Minors, question of desirability of, 75.
Modules, 162, 186.
Navigation, 12.
Needles and horizontal planks, 85.
Oil for lining channels, 160.
Older Indian canals, 10, 68, 98.
Outlet, discharge of, 61.
— registers, 113.
Outlets, 15, 61, 66, 67.
— applications regarding, 140.
— design of, 76.
— on inundation canals, 79.
— on older canals, 68.
— positions of, 65.
— remodelling of, 131.
— register of, 113.
— size of, 114, 134.
— temporary, 78.
— variability of duty on, 66.
Parapets, width between, 77.
Patwari, 96, 101.
Percolation, 16.
Perennial Canals, 1.
Pitching, 90.
Plan, large scale, 59.
Postal system, 97.
Profile walls, 91, 94.
Project, sketch of, 26.
Proportion of land to be irrigated, 27, 156.
Puddle for lining channels, 160.
Punjab, projects for canals in, 144.
Punjab rivers, 145, 147.
Quarters for regulating staff, 88.
Rabi or winter crop, 23.
Railings, 88.
Rain, 9, 22, 100.
Ramps, 88.
Ratio of bed width to depth, 50.
Reduction in size of channel, 128.
Registers, irrigation, 113.
Regulation of supply, 103, 121, 127.
Regulators, 7, 80, 84, 184.
— permissible heading up, 85.
Remodellings of channels, 127.
— of outlets and watercourses, 131, 134.
Rest Houses, 95.
Reservoirs, 13.
Rules for designing canals, Kennedy’s, 48.
Scheme, cost of, 28, 59.
Sides, falling in of, 139.
Sidhnai canal minors, 41.
Silt, clearance of, 97, 138, 139.
— deposit, 15, 97.
— trapping at Headworks, 47.
Silting and scouring, 15, 48, 98, 139.
Sirhind Canal, 19, 144.
— — silting in the head reach of, 98.
Soil, water-logging of, 10, 24, 102.
Spoil Banks, 52, 57.
Subdivisions, canal, 95.
Subdivisional officer, 96.
Suboverseer, 96.
Superintending Engineer, 96.
Supply carried, 100.
— distribution of, 14, 118.
— mean and full, 27, 46, 122.
— regulation of, 103, 104, 106, 127.
Syphons, 7, 71, 87, 181.
Tailing of one channel into another, 40.
Telegraph, line of, 97.
Training of rivers, 33.
Trial lines, 58.
Trial pits, 58.
Triple canal project, 144.
Tunnels, 13.
Turns, or rotational periods of flow, 14, 118.
Type cross sections, 56.
Under-sluices, 32.
Upper Bari Doab Canal, 19, 144.
— Chenab Canal, 33, 144.
— Egypt, 11.
Upper Jhelum Canal, 50, 144.
Velocity, 12, 50.
Village lands, 62.
Watching banks, 175.
Water, payment for, 12, 100, 102, 142, 143.
Water level, fluctuation in, 100, 124.
Watercourse, limit of size of, 74.
Watercourses, 4, 20, 65.
— applications regarding, 140.
— for trees, 58.
— remodelling of, 131.
— with poor command, 67, 133, 166.
Waterings, 11, 24.
Water-logging of the soil, 10, 24, 102.
Wave, travel of, down a channel, 124.
Western America, canals in, 12.
— Jumna Canal, 31, 39.
Wing Walls, 89.
Works, arrangement of, 89.
— two or more close together, 89.
— urgent repairs of, 137.
Zilladar, 96.

Harvey & Healing, Printers, Manchester Street, Cheltenham.

 Transcriber’s Notes

The inconsistent use of periods after Roman

numerals has been retained; other inconsistencies
(spelling, hyphenation, formatting and lay-out)
have been retained as well, except when
mentioned below.
Depending on the hard- and software used and their
settings, not all elements may display as intended.
Some of the tables are best viewed in a wide
window.
Page 21: The equation does not agree with the
calculations given.
Page 66, Fig. 11: There are two illustrations labelled
Fig. 11, the hyperlinks point to the appropriate
illustration.

Changes made
Obvious typographical errors have been corrected
silently. Footnotes and illustrations have been
moved out of text paragraphs. Some tables have
been re-arranged or split; in several tables, the
data alignment has been standardised.
Page 18, table, Total of second column: 8·93
changed to 8·01
Page 39: Kutters changed to Kutter’s
Page 93: marked out changed to marked at
Page 69: 3 Depth of digging changed to 13. Depth
of digging
Page 109, first average ·1 changed to 4·1
Page 117: Net Areas Irrigated in Areas changed to
Net Areas Irrigated in Acres
Page 150: Cusecs. added as in similar tables
Index: Cattle Ghats changed to Cattle Gháts; Line
for making ... changed to Lime for making ...;
Lower Chenal Canal changed to Lower Chenab
Canal.
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